International auxiliary language
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[[WP:UNDO|Undid]] revision 225747385 by [[Special:Contributions/71.76.236.249|71.76.236.249]] ([[User talk:71.76.236.249|talk]])
An '''international auxiliary language''' (sometimes abbreviated as '''IAL''' or '''auxlang''') or interlanguage is a [[language]] meant for communication between people from different nations who do not share a common [[native language]]. An auxiliary language is primarily a second language.
Languages of dominant societies over the centuries have served as auxiliary languages, sometimes approaching the international level. [[French language|French]] and [[English language|English]] have been used as such in recent times in many parts of the world.<ref>Bodmer, Lancelot. ''The loom of language'' and Pei, Mario. ''One language for the world.''</ref> However, as these languages are associated with the very dominance - cultural, political, and economic - that made them popular, they are often met with strong resistance as well. For this reason, many have turned to the idea of promoting an artificial or [[constructed language]] as a possible solution.<ref>Bodmer, Lancelot. ''The loom of language'' and Pei, Mario. ''One language for the world.''</ref>
The term "auxiliary" implies that it is intended to be an additional language for the people of the world, rather than to replace their native languages. Often, the phrase is used to refer to planned or [[constructed language]]s proposed specifically to ease worldwide international communication, such as [[Esperanto]], [[Ido]], and [[Interlingua]]. However, it can also refer to the concept of such a language being determined by international consensus, including even a standardized natural language (e.g., [[International English]]), and has also been connected to the project of constructing a [[universal language]]. Some auxiliary language aficionados call these languages ''auxlangs''.
==History of auxiliary language==
The history of auxiliary language is controversial. [[Louis Couturat]] et al.<ref>L. Couturat, O. Jespersen, R. Lorenz, W.Ostwalkd and L.Pfaundler. ''International Language and Science: Considerations on the Introduction of an International Language into Science.''</ref> exemplified the controversy in the Preface to their book on International Language and Science:
<blockquote> The question of a so-called world-language, or better expressed, an international auxiliary language, was during the now past [[Volapük]] period, and is still in the present [[Esperanto]] movement, so much in the hands of Utopians, fanatics and enthusiasts, that it is difficult to form an unbiased opinion concerning it, although a good idea lies at its basis. (1910, p. v). </blockquote>
For Couturat et al, both Volapukists and Esperantists confounded the linguistic aspect of the question with many side issues, and for this reason discussions about the international auxiliary language has appeared unpractical. However as Pfaundler wrote in the same publication, the language was intimately connected to science, and not simply linguistics:
<blockquote>All who are occupied with the reading or writing of scientific literature have assuredly very often felt the want of a common scientific language, and regretted the great loss of time and trouble caused by the multiplicity of languages employed in scientific literature.</blockquote>
The history of the most notable constructed auxiliary languages can be summarized in table form:<ref>All but Kotava and LFN are referenced in Mario Pei's ''One language for the world'' (1958)</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Language name !! ISO !! Year of first <br /> publication !! Creator || Comments
|-
| [[Solresol]]|| ||1827||[[François Sudre]]||The famous "musical language"
|-
| [[Communicationssprache]]|| ||1839||[[Joseph Schipfer]]||Based on French vocabulary
|-
| [[Universalglot]]|| ||1868||[[Jean Pirro]]||Arguably the first fully developed IAL
|-
| [[Volapük]] || vo, vol || 1879–1880 || [[Johann Martin Schleyer]] || First to generate international interest in IALs
|-
| [[Alayun]]|| ||1884||[[Dr Leonis Skye]]||Designed to be completely different from other languages with a structure similar to English.
|-
| [[Esperanto]] || eo, epo || 1887 || [[L. L. Zamenhof]] || By far the most popular constructed language.
|-
| [[Spokil]]|| ||1887 or 1890||[[Adolph Nicolas]]||An a priori language by a former Volapük advocate
|-
| [[Mundolinco]]|| ||1888||[[J. Braakman]]||The first [[esperantido]]
|-
| [[Idiom Neutral]] || ||1902 || [[Waldemar Rosenberger]] || A naturalistic IAL by a former advocate of Volapük
|-
| [[Latino sine Flexione]] || ||1903 || [[Giuseppe Peano]] || "Latin without inflections," it replaced Idiom Neutral in 1908
|-
| [[Ido]] ||io, ido|| 1907 || [[Delegation for the Adoption of an International Auxiliary Language]] || The most successful offspring of Esperanto
|-
| [[Adjuvilo]]|| ||1908||[[Claudius Colas]]||An esperantido created to cause dissent among Idoists
|-
| [[Occidental language|Occidental]] (aka Interlingue)||ie, ile || 1922 || [[Edgar de Wahl]] || A sophisticated naturalistic IAL
|-
| [[Novial]]||nov || 1928 || [[Otto Jespersen]] ||Another sophisticated naturalistic IAL
|-
| [[Sona language|Sona]]|| ||1935||[[Kenneth Searight]]||Best known attempt at an unbiased vocabulary
|-
| [[Esperanto II]]|| ||1937||[[René de Saussure]]||Last of the [[esperantido]]s
|-
| [[Mondial (language)|Mondial]]|| ||1940s||[[Helge Heimer]]||A naturalistic European language
|-
| [[Glosa]]||igs || 1943 || [[Lancelot Hogben]], et al. || Originally called ''Interglossa,'' Glosa has a strong Greco-Latin vocabulary
|-
| [[Interlingua]]||ia, ina || 1951 || [[International Auxiliary Language Association]] || A large project to discover common European vocabulary
|-
| [[Lingua sistemfrater|Frater]] || ||1957 || [[Pham Xuan Thai]] ||Innovative blend of Greco-Latin roots and non-western grammar
|-
| [[Kotava]]||avk||1978||[[Staren Fetcey]]||A sophisticated a priori IAL
|-
| [[Lingua Franca Nova]]||lfn ||1998||[[C. George Boeree]] et al.||A Romance vocabulary with a creole-like grammar
|-
|}
==Classification==<!-- This section is linked from [[Interlingua]] -->
The following classification of auxiliary languages was developed by Pierre Janton in 1993: <ref>Pierre Janton, ''Esperanto: Language, Literature, and Community.'' Translated by Humphrey Tonkin et al. State University of New York Press, 1993. ISBN 0-7914-1254-7.</ref>
*[[A priori (languages)|''A priori'' languages]] are characterized by largely artificial [[morpheme]]s (not borrowed from natural languages), schematic [[derivation (linguistics)|derivation]], simple [[phonology]], [[grammar]] and [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]]. ''A priori languages'' are sometimes called [[philosophical language]]s, referring to their basis in philosophical ideas about thought and language. These include some of the earliest efforts at auxiliary language in the 17th century. A modern example of a fully developed ''a priori'' language is [[Kotava]]. Two more specific subcategories:
**[[Oligosynthetic language]]s have no more than a few hundred [[morpheme]]s. Most of their vocabulary is made of [[compound word]]s coined from these morphemes. [[Sona]] and [[Toki Pona]] are well known examples. Some - referred to as taxonomic languages - go so far as to associate meanings with specific phonemes. For example, [[Ro (language)|Ro]] and [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/arahauvarf.php Arahau] resemble the [[Dewey Decimal Classification]] System used in libraries.
**[[Logical language]]s, for example, [[Loglan]] and [[Lojban]], aim to eliminate ambiguity. Both these examples, it should be noted, derive their morphemes from a broad range of natural languages using statistical methods.
*''A posteriori'' languages are based on existing natural languages. Nearly all the auxiliary languages with fluent speakers are in this category. Most of the ''a posteriori'' auxiliary languages borrow their vocabulary primarily or solely from European languages, and base their grammar more or less on European models. (Aficionados sometimes refer to these European-based languages as "euroclones", although this term has negative connotations and is not used in the academic literature.) [[Interlingua]] was drawn originally from the [[International Scientific Vocabulary]], in turn based primarily on Greek and Latin roots. [[Glosa]] did likewise, with a stronger dependence of Greek roots. Although ''a posteriori'' languages have been based on most of the families of European languages, the most successful of these (notably [[Esperanto]] and [[Interlingua]]) have been based largely on Romance and/or Latin elements.
**Schematic (or "mixed") languages have some ''a priori'' qualities. Some have ethnic [[morpheme]]s in distorted form (e.g., [[Volapük]]) or both artificial and natural [[morpheme]]s (e.g., Perio). Partly schematic languages have partly schematic and partly naturalistic derivation (e.g. [[Esperanto]] and [[Ido]]). Natural [[morpheme]]s of languages in this group are seldom or never distorted, but compound and derived words are generally not recognizable at sight by people familiar with the source languages.
**Naturalistic languages resemble existing natural languages. For example, [[Occidental language|Occidental]], [[Interlingua]], and [[Lingua Franca Nova]] were developed so that not only the root words but their compounds and derivations will often be recognizable immediately by large numbers of people. Some naturalistic languages do have a limited number of artificial morphemes or invented grammatical devices (e.g. [[Novial]]).
**Simplified natural languages reduce the full extent of vocabulary and partially regularize the grammar of a natural language (e.g. [[Basic English]] and [[Special English]]).
==Methods of propagation==
As has been pointed out, the issue of an international language is not so much which, but how.<ref>Mario Pei, ''One language for the world'' (1958)</ref> Several approaches exist toward the eventual full expansion and consolidation of an international auxiliary language.
# Laissez-faire. This approach is taken in the belief that one language will eventually and inevitably "win out" as a world auxiliary language (e.g., International English) without any need for specific action.
# Institutional sponsorship and grass-roots promotion of language programs. This approach has taken various forms, depending on the language and language type, ranging from government promotion of a particular language to one-on-one encouragement to learn the language to instructional or marketing programs.
# National legislation. This approach seeks to have individual countries (or even localities) progressively endorse a given language as an official language (or to promote the concept of international legislation).
# International legislation. This approach involves promotion of the future holding of a binding international convention (perhaps to be under the auspices of such international organizations as the [[United Nations]] or [[Inter-Parliamentary Union]]) to formally agree upon an official international auxiliary language which would then be taught in all schools around the world, beginning at the primary level. This approach seeks to put international opinion and law behind the language and thus to expand or consolidate it as a full official world language. This approach could either give more credibility to a natural language already serving this purpose to a certain degree (e.g., if English were chosen) or to give a greatly enhanced chance for a constructed language to take root. For constructed languages particularly, this approach has been seen by various individuals in the IAL movement as holding the most promise of ensuring that promotion of studies in the language would not be met with skepticism at its practicality by its would-be learners.
==Pictorial language==
There have been a number of proposals for using pictures, [[ideograms]], diagrams, and other pictorial representations for international communications. Examples range from the original [[Characteristica Universalis]] proposed by the philosopher [[Leibniz]], to suggestions for the adoption of [[Chinese writing]], to recent inventions such as [[Blissymbol]].<ref>Charles Keisel Bliss, ''Semantography (Blissymbolics)''</ref>
Within the scientific community, there is already considerable agreement in the form of the [[schematics]] used to represent [[circuit diagram|electronic circuits]], [[chemical symbols]], [[mathematical symbols]],and the [[Energy Systems Language]] of [[systems ecology]]. We can also see the international efforts at regularizing symbols used to regulate traffic, to indicate resources for tourists, and in maps. Some symbols have become nearly universal through their consistent use in computers and on the internet.
==Sign language==
An international auxiliary sign language has been developed by [[deaf]] people who meet regularly at international forums such as sporting events or in political organisations. Previously referred to as [[Gestuno]]<ref>Rubino, F., Hayhurst, A., and Guejlman, J., ''Gestuno: International sign language of the deaf.''</ref> but now more commonly known simply as '[[International Sign|international sign]]', the language has continued to develop since the first signs were standardised in 1973, and it is now in widespread use. International sign is distinct in many ways from spoken IALs; many signs are [[Iconicity|iconic]] and signers tend to insert these signs into the grammar of their own sign language, with an emphasis on visually intuitive gestures and mime. A simple sign language called [[Plains Indian Sign Language]] was used by [[indigenous peoples of the Americas]].
[[Gestuno]] is not to be confused with the separate and unrelated sign language [[Signuno]], which is essentially a Signed Exact Esperanto. Signuno is not in any significant use, and is based on the Esperanto community rather than based on the international Deaf community.
==Criticism==
There has been considerable criticism of international auxiliary languages, both in terms of individual proposals and in more general terms.<ref>[http://www.rickharrison.com/language/farewell.html Farewell to auxiliary languages], a criticism of the auxiliary language movement by Richard K. Harrison</ref>
Although referred to as ''International'' languages, most of these languages are constructed on the basis of [[Western European]] languages. The response to this criticism has been that doing otherwise in no way makes the language easier for anyone, while drawing away from the sources of much international vocabulary, technical and popular.<ref>Alexander Gode, quoted by Mario Pei in ''One language for the world'' (1958).</ref>
==See also==
See '''[[List of constructed languages#Auxiliary languages|List of constructed languages]]''' for a list of constructed international auxiliary languages.
* [[Lingua franca]]
* [[Language planning]]
* [[Universal language]]
* [[World language]]
* ''[[Characteristica universalis]]''
==Sources==
===Notes===
<references/>
===Bibliography===
*Bliss, Charles Keisel. ''Semantography (Blissymbolics).'' Semantography Press: Sidney, 1965.
*Bodmer, Lancelot. ''The Loom of Language.'' N.Y.: Norton, 1944.
*Couturat, L., Jespersen, O., Lorenz, R., Ostwalkd, W., and Pfaundler, L. ''International Language and Science: Considerations on the Introduction of an International Language into Science.'' Constable and Company Limited, London, 1910.
*De Wahl, Edgar. ''Radicarium directiv del lingue international (Occidental) in 8 lingues.'' A.-S. "Ühisell" Trükk. Pikk Uul. 42, Tallinn, 1925.
*Eco, Umberto, [tra. James Fentress], ''The Search for the Perfect Language.'' Oxford: Blackwell, 1995.
*Gär, Joseph. ''Deutsch-Occidental Wörterbuch nach dem Kürschners "Sechs-Sprachen-Lexicon", mit kurzer Occidental-Grammatik''. Kosmoglott, Reval, Estland, 1925/1928.
*Gode, Alexander, et al. ''Interlingua-English: a dictionary of the international language.'' Storm Publishers, New York, 1951.
*Mainzer, Ludwig, Karlsruhe. ''Linguo international di la Delegitaro (Sistemo Ido), Vollständiges Lehrbuch der Internationalen Sprache (Reform-Esperanto).'' Otto Nemmich Verlag, Leipzig (Germany), 1909.
*Pei, Mario. ''One Language for the World.'' N.Y.: Devin-Adair, 1958.
*Pham Xuan Thai. ''Frater (Lingua sistemfrater). The simplest International Language Ever Constructed.'' TU-HAI Publishing-House, Saigon (Republic of Vietnam), 1957.
*Pigal, E. and the Hauptstelle der Occidental-Union in Mauern bei Wien. ''Occidental, Die Weltsprache, Einführung samt Lehrkursus, Lesestücken, Häufigkeitswörterverzeichnis u. a.,'' Franckh. Verlagshandlung, Stuttgart, 1930.
*Pirro, Jean. ''Versuch einer Universalischen Sprache.'' Guerin und Cie., Bar-Le-Duc (France), 1868.
*Rubino, F., Hayhurst, A., and Guejlman, J. ''Gestuno: International sign language of the deaf.'' Carlisle: British Deaf Association, 1975.
*Sudre, François. ''Langue musicale universelle inventée par François Sudre également inventeur de la téléphonie.'' G. Flaxland, Editeur, 4, place de la Madeleine, Paris (France), 1866.
==External links==
*[http://www.rickharrison.com/language/optimal.html Proposed Guidelines for the Design of an Optimal International Auxiliary Language] - An article written by Richard K. Harrison.
*[http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/5037/sapir.html The Function of an International Auxiliary Language] - An article written by linguist [[Edward Sapir]] discussing the need for prospects of an international language.
*[http://www.langmaker.com/db/Langmaker:Conlangs Conlang Directory] - A page of links to over 170 auxlangs.
*[http://www.rickharrison.com/language/farewell.html Farewell to auxiliary languages], a criticism of the auxiliary language movement by Richard K. Harrison.
*[http://www.geocities.com/auxilinguaproject/ The Auxilingua Project]
*[http://ial.wikia.com/wiki/Main_Page IAL Wiki] - a wiki for the Auxlang Community.
*[http://onetongue.com OneTongue.com] - A project for promoting a world auxiliary language.
*[http://www.geocities.com/Qwertie256/misc/which-ial.html Which International Auxiliary Language (IAL) should you learn?]
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[[Category:Constructed languages]]
[[Category:Communalism]]
[[Category:Globalization]]
[[Category:Human communication]]
[[Category:Utopian movements]]
[[an:Luenga ausiliar]]
[[be-x-old:Міжнародныя штучныя мовы]]
[[cs:Mezinárodní pomocný jazyk]]
[[es:Lengua auxiliar]]
[[eo:Internacia planlingvo]]
[[fr:Langue auxiliaire internationale]]
[[ko:국제어]]
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[[it:Lingua ausiliaria internazionale]]
[[sw:Lugha saidizi ya kimataifa]]
[[mt:Lingwa Awżiljari Internazzjonali]]
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[[ja:国際補助語]]
[[no:Internasjonalt hjelpespråk]]
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[[sv:Internationellt hjälpspråk]]
[[zh:国际辅助语]]