Iran 14653 226088976 2008-07-16T19:49:53Z BehnamFarid 1499805 Added a reference concerning transfer of the Cyrus Cylinder from British Museum to the National Museum of Iran in Tehran. {{pp-semi-indef}} {{Infobox Country |native_name = '''جمهوری اسلامی ايران'''<br />''Jomhūrī-ye Eslāmī-ye Īrān'' |conventional_long_name = Islamic Republic of Iran |common_name = Iran |image_flag = Flag of Iran.svg |image_coat = Coat of arms of Iran.svg |symbol_type = Emblem |image_map = LocationIran.png |official_religion = [[Shi'a Islam]] |national_motto = ''Esteqlāl, āzādī, jomhūrī-ye eslāmī''&nbsp;<sup>1</sup>{{spaces|2}}<small>{{fa icon}}<br />"Independence, freedom, Islamic Republic"</small> |national_anthem = ''[[Sorud-e Melli-e Iran|Sorūd-e Mellī-e Īrān]]''&nbsp;² |capital = [[Tehran]] |latd=35 |latm=41 |latNS=N |longd=51 |longm=25 |longEW=E |largest_city = capital |official_languages = [[Persian language|Persian]], constitutional status for regional languages such as [[Azeri language|Azeri]], [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]], and [[Mazandarani language|Mazandarani]], and [[Gilaki language|Gilaki]] <ref>[http://www.servat.unibe.ch/law/icl/ir00000_.html Iran Constitution] retrieved 25 Feb 2008</ref> |demonym = [[Demography of Iran|Iranian]] |government_type = [[Islamic republic|Islamic Republic]] |leader_title1 = [[Supreme Leader of Iran|Supreme Leader]] |leader_name1 = {{nowrap|[[Ayatollah]] [[Ali Khamenei]]}} |leader_title2 = [[President of Iran|President]] |leader_name2 = {{nowrap|[[Mahmoud Ahmadinejad]]}} |sovereignty_type = Unification<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica Encyclopedia Article: Media ancient region, Iran">http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/372125/Media Encyclopædia Britannica Encyclopedia Article: Media ancient region, Iran</ref> |established_event1 =[[Medes|Median]] [[Monarchy|kingdom]] |established_date1 = 625 BC<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica Encyclopedia Article: Media ancient region, Iran"/> |established_event2 = [[Safavid|Safavid dynasty<br />(reestablishment)]] |established_date2 = May 1508 |established_event3 = Islamic Republic declared |established_date3 = April 1, 1979 |area_km2 = 1,648,195 |area_sq_mi = 636,372 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |area_rank = 18th |area_magnitude = 1 E12 |percent_water = 0.7 <!-- |population_estimate = 71,208,001 |population_estimate_year = 2007 |population_estimate_rank = 18th --> |population_density_km2 = 42 |population_density_sq_mi = 109 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |population_density_rank = 163th <!--Wiki source--> |population_census = 70,472,846³ |population_census_year = 2007 (1385&nbsp;[[Iranian calendar|AP]]) |population_census_rank = 17th |GDP_PPP = $752,967 billion (2007)<ref name="cia">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ir.html |title="Iran" |author=CIA World Factbook |accessdate=2007-01-26}}</ref><br /> |GDP_PPP_rank = 18th<ref name="cia" /> |GDP_PPP_year = 2007 |GDP_PPP_per_capita = 10,624<ref name="cia" /> |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 71st |GDP_nominal = $278 billion<ref name="CIA">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ir.html |title = "Iran" |author=CIA World Factbook |accessdate=2008-03-04}}</ref> |GDP_nominal_rank = 29th |GDP_nominal_year = 2007 |GDP_nominal_per_capita = $4,119 <!--IMF figures--> |GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 82nd |Gini = 43.0 |Gini_year = 1998 |Gini_category = <font color="#ffcc00">medium</font> |HDI_year = 2007 |HDI = {{increase}} 0.759 |HDI_rank = 94th |HDI_category = <font color="#ffcc00">medium</font> |currency = [[Iranian rial]] (<big>ريال</big>) |currency_code = IRR |time_zone = [[Iran Standard Time|IRST]] |utc_offset = +3:30 |time_zone_DST = Iran Daylight Time (IRDT) |utc_offset_DST = +4:30 |cctld = [[.ir]] |calling_code = 98 |footnote1 = [http://www.bookrags.com/browse/Encyclopedia%20of%20Religious%20Practices/50 bookrags.com] |footnote2 = [http://www.iranchamber.com/geography/articles/flag_anthem.php iranchamber.com] |footnote3 = {{cite web |url=http://www.sci.org.ir/content/userfiles/_census85/census85/natayej/tables/J-1.html |title=تغییرات جمعیت کشور طی سال‌های ۱۳۳۵-۱۳۸۵ |author=Statistical Centre of Iran |accessdate=2007-05-16 |language=Persian}} |footnote4 = [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ir.html#Econ CIA Factbook] }} {{portal|Iran|Flag of Iran.svg|48}} '''Iran''' ({{PerB|<big>ايران</big>}}, /{{IPA|irɒn}}/↔{{Audio-IPA|Iran_alborz.ogg|[ʔiˈɾɒn]}}), officially the '''Islamic Republic of Iran''' ({{PerB|<big>جمهوری اسلامی ايران</big>}}, {{pronounced|dʒomhuːɾije eslɒːmije iːɾɒn}}), formerly known internationally as '''[[Persian Empire|Persia]]''' until 1935, is a country in [[Central Eurasia]], located on the northeastern shore of the [[Persian Gulf]]. The name Iran is a [[cognate]] of ''Aryan'', and means "Land of the [[Aryans]]".<ref name="hinduwebsite">[http://www.hinduwebsite.com/hinduism/concepts/arya.asp hinduwebsite.com, "The Concepts of Hinduism — Arya"], retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref><ref name="wiscper">[http://imp.lss.wisc.edu/~aoliai/languagepage/iranianlanguages.htm imp.lss.wisc.edu, "Iranian Languages", Political, Social, Scientific, Literary & Artistic (Monthly) Oct 2000, No. 171, Dr. Suzan Kaviri, pp. 26–7], retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref><ref name="about.com">[http://ancienthistory.about.com/od/persianempiremaps/qt/Iran.htm "Iran — The Ancient Name of Iran", N.S. Gill], retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref> The 18th largest country in the world in terms of area at 1,648,195 km², Iran has a population of over seventy million. It is a country of special [[geostrategy|geostrategic]] significance due to its central location in [[Eurasia]]. Iran is bordered on the north by [[Armenia]], [[Azerbaijan]] and [[Turkmenistan]]. Being a [[littoral]] state of the [[Caspian sea]], an internal sea and [[Condominium (international law)|condominium]], [[Kazakhstan]] and [[Russia]] are also Iran's direct neighbors to the north. On the east by [[Afghanistan]] and [[Pakistan]]; on the south by the [[Persian Gulf]] and the [[Gulf of Oman]]; and on the west by [[Turkey]] and [[Iraq]]. [[Tehran]] is the capital, largest city and the political, cultural, commercial, and industrial center of the nation. Iran is a [[regional power]],<ref name="parliament">[http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200607/cmselect/cmfaff/363/36310.htm parliament.uk, "Select Committee on Foreign Affairs, Eighth Report, Iran], retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref><ref name="petro-hunt">[http://www.petro-hunt.com/lectures/LectureOpen.htm IRAN @ 2000 and Beyond lecture series, opening address, W. Herbert Hunt, 18 May 2000], retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref> and occupies an important position in international energy security and world economy as a result of its large reserves of [[petroleum]] and [[natural gas]]. Iran is home to one of the world's oldest continuous major civilizations, with historical and urban settlements dating back to 4000 BC.<ref name="xinhuaciv">[http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-08/10/content_6508609.htm Xinhua, "New evidence: modern civilization began in Iran", 10 Aug 2007], retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref><ref name="iran-daily">[http://www.iran-daily.com/1385/2795/html/panorama.htm Iran Daily, "Panorama", 3 Mar 2007], retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref><ref name="iranian.ws">[http://www.iranian.ws/iran_news/publish/article_22427.shtml Iranian.ws, "Archaeologists: Modern civilization began in Iran based on new evidence", 12 Aug 2007], retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref> The [[Medes]] unified Iran into a kingdom in 625 BC<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica Encyclopedia Article: Media ancient region, Iran"/>. They were succeeded by three Iranian dynasties, the [[Achaemenids]], [[Parthians]] and [[Sassanids]], which governed Iran for more than 1000 years. After centuries of foreign occupation and short-lived native dynasties, Iran was once again reunified as an independent state in 1551 by the [[Safavid|Safavid dynasty]]—who promoted [[Shi'a Islam]]<ref name="savoryeiref"> R.M. Savory, ''Safavids'', [[Encyclopedia of Islam]], 2nd edition</ref> as the official [[religion]] of their empire, marking one of the most important turning points in the [[history of Islam]].<ref name="islamic1600"/> Iran had been a monarchy ruled by a [[Shah]], or emperor, almost without interruption from 1501 until the 1979 [[Iranian revolution]], when Iran officially became an [[Islamic Republic]] on [[1 April]], [[1979]].<ref name="britannica1">[http://www.britannica.com/ebi/article-202892 Iran Islamic Republic], Encyclopaedia Britannica retrieved 23 January 2008</ref><ref name = "Britannica"/> Iran is a founding member of the [[United Nations|UN]], [[Non-Aligned Movement|NAM]], [[Organisation of the Islamic Conference|OIC]], and [[Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries|OPEC]]. The [[Politics and Government of Iran|political system of Iran]], based on the 1979 [[Constitution of Islamic Republic of Iran|Constitution]], comprises several intricately connected governing bodies. The highest state authority is [[Supreme Leader of Iran|the Supreme Leader]]. [[Shi'a Islam]] is the official religion, and [[Persian language|Persian]] is the official language.<ref>{{cite web|title=قانون اساسی جمهوری اسلامی ایران|url=http://fa.wikisource.org/wiki/قانون_اساسی_جمهوری_اسلامی_ایران|language=Persian}} retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> ==Etymology== {{main|Etymology of Iran}} {{seealso|Iran naming dispute}} The term ''Iran'' (ایران) in modern Persian derives from the [[Proto-Iranian]] term ''Aryānām'' first attested in [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrianism's]] [[Avesta]] tradition.<ref name="Bailey_Arya">{{cite encyclopedia|last=Bailey|first=Harold Walter|authorlink=Harold Walter Bailey|title=Arya|page=681-683|year=1987|volume=2|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Iranica|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Iranica|location=New York|publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul|http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v2f7/v2f7a004.html}}</ref> ''Ariya-'' and ''Airiia-'' are also attested as an ethnic designator in [[Achaemenid]] inscriptions. The term ''Ērān'' from [[Middle Persian]] ''Ērān'', [[Pahlavi]] ''ʼyrʼn'', is found at the inscription that accompanies the investiture relief of [[Ardashir I]] at [[Naqsh-e Rustam]].<ref name="MacKenzie">{{cite encyclopedia|last=MacKenzie|first=David Niel|title=Ērān, Ērānšahr|year=1998|volume=8|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Iranica|publisher=Mazda|location=Cosa Mesa|url=http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v8f5/v8f545.html}}</ref> In this inscription, the king's appellation in Middle Persian contains the term ''ērān'' (Pahlavi: ''ʼryʼn''), while in the [[Parthian language]] inscription that accompanies it, Iran is mentioned as ''aryān''. In Ardashir's time ''ērān'' retained this meaning, denoting ''the people'' rather than ''the state''. Notwithstanding this inscriptional use of ''ērān'' to refer to the [[Iranian peoples]], the use of ''ērān'' to refer to the geographical empire is also attested in the early Sassanid period. An inscription of [[Shapur I]], Ardashir's son and immediate successor, apparently "includes in ''Ērān'' regions such as [[Armenia]] and the [[Caucasus]] which were not inhabited predominantly by Iranians."<ref name="Gignoux_Aneran">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Anērān|url=http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v2f1/v2f1a035.html}} retrieved 25 Feb 2008</ref> The [[Sassanids]] called Iran ''Erânshahr'' or ''Iranshahr'', ''[[Image:Eranshahr.svg|60px]]'' , "Dominion of the Aryans", (i.e. of [[Iranian peoples|Iranians]]). In [[Kartir|Kartir's]] inscriptions the high priest includes the same regions in his list of provinces of the antonymic ''Anērān''.<ref name="Gignoux_Aneran" /> Both ''ērān'' and ''aryān'' comes from the [[Proto-Iranian]] term ''Aryānām'', (Land) of the (Iranian) Aryas. The word and concept of [[Airyanem Vaejah]] is present in the name of the country Iran (Lit. Land of the Aryans) inasmuch as Iran (''Ērān'') is the modern Persian form of the word ''Aryānā''. In the outside world, the official name of Iran from 6th century BC until 1935 was '''[[Persia]]''' or similar foreign language translations (''La Perse'', ''Das Persien'', ''Perzie'', etc.). In that year [[Reza Shah]] asked the international community to call the country by the name "Iran". A few years later some Persian scholars protested to the government that changing the name had separated the country from its past, so in 1959 Mohammad Reza Shah announced that both terms could officially be used interchangeably. Now both terms are common, but "Iran" is used mostly in the modern political context and "Persia" in a cultural and historical context. Since the [[Iranian Revolution]] of 1979, the official name of the country has been the "Islamic Republic of Iran." ==Geography and climate== {{main|Geography of Iran}} {{see also|Agriculture in Iran|Wildlife of Iran}} [[Image:Iran BMNG.png|thumb|Satellite image of Iran]] [[Image:Lynx lynx poing.jpg|thumb|left|[[Eurasian Lynx]]]] [[Image:Damavand3.jpg|thumb|right|float|[[Mount Damavand]], Iran's highest point located in [[Mazanderan]].]] Iran is the [[List of countries and outlying territories by total area|eighteenth largest country]] in the world after [[Libya]] and before [[Mongolia]].<ref>[http://www.mongabay.com/igapo/world_statistics_by_area.htm World Statistics by Area] retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> Its area roughly equals that of the [[United Kingdom]], [[France]], [[Spain]], and [[Germany]] combined, or slightly less<!-- cf: this article claims area of Iran 1.6 million km2, Alaska article claims Alaska 1.7 million km2 --> than the state of [[Alaska]].<ref>[http://www.ngallery.org/middle_east/iran.html Welcome to Iran] retrieved 25 Feb 2008</ref><ref>[http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Asia-and-Oceania/Iran-LOCATION-SIZE-AND-EXTENT.html Iran-Location, size, and extent] retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> Its borders are with [[Azerbaijan]] (432&nbsp;km/268&nbsp;mi) and [[Armenia]] (35&nbsp;km/22&nbsp;mi) to the north-west; the [[Caspian Sea]] to the north; [[Turkmenistan]] (992&nbsp;km/616&nbsp;mi) to the north-east; [[Pakistan]] (909&nbsp;km/565&nbsp;mi) and [[Afghanistan]] (936&nbsp;km/582&nbsp;mi) to the east; [[Turkey]] (499&nbsp;km/310&nbsp;mi) and Iraq (1,458&nbsp;km/906&nbsp;mi) to the west; and finally the waters of the [[Persian Gulf]] and the [[Gulf of Oman]] to the south. Iran's area is 1,648,000&nbsp;km² (approximately 636,300&nbsp;[[square mile|sq&nbsp;mi]]).<ref name="cia"/> Iran consists of the [[Iranian Plateau]] with the exception of the coasts of the [[Caspian Sea]] and [[Khuzestan]]. It is one of the world's most mountainous countries, its landscape dominated by rugged [[mountain range]]s that separate various [[drainage basin|basins]] or [[plateau]]x from one another. The populous western part is the most mountainous, with ranges such as the [[Caucasus Mountains|Caucasus]], [[Zagros Mountains|Zagros]] and [[Alborz]] Mountains; the latter contains Iran's highest point, [[Mount Damavand]] at 5,604&nbsp;m (18,386&nbsp;ft), which is not only the country's highest peak but also the highest mountain on the Eurasian landmass west of the [[Hindu Kush]].<ref>[http://news.surfwax.com/geography/files/Hindu_Kush_Mountains.html SurfWax: News, Reviews and Articles On Hindu Kush<!-- Bot generated title -->] retrieved 25 Feb 2008</ref> The Northern part of Iran is covered under thick rain forests called [[Shomal]] or the [[Jungles of Iran]]. The eastern part consists mostly of [[desert]] basins like the saline [[Dasht-e Kavir]], Iran's largest desert, in the north-central portion of the country, and the [[Dasht-e Lut]], in the east, as well as some [[salt lake (geography)|salt lakes]]. This is because the mountain ranges are too high for rain clouds to reach these regions. The only large [[plain]]s are found along the coast of the [[Caspian Sea]] and at the northern end of the Persian Gulf, where Iran borders the mouth of the [[Shatt al-Arab]] (or the Arvand Rūd) river. Smaller, discontinuous plains are found along the remaining coast of the Persian Gulf, the [[Strait of Hormuz]] and the [[Sea of Oman]]. Iran's [[climate]] is mostly [[arid]] or [[semiarid]], to [[subtropical]] along the Caspian coast and the [[Jungles of Iran|northern forests]]. On the northern edge of the country (the Caspian coastal plain) temperatures nearly fall below freezing and it remains humid for the rest of the year. Summer temperatures rarely exceed 29 [[Celsius|°C]] (85 [[Fahrenheit|°F]]).<ref>[http://www.weneedtrees.com/iran/nature.asp Nature & Mountains of Iran] retrieved 25 Feb 2008</ref><ref name="simmons">[http://my.simmons.edu/lcis/zoom/2005/10/iran-_current_i.html Iran- Current Information] retrieved 25 feb 2008</ref> Annual precipitation is 680&nbsp;mm (27&nbsp;[[inch|in]]) in the eastern part of the plain and more than 1,700&nbsp;mm (67&nbsp;in) in the western part. To the west, settlements in the [[Zagros Mountains|Zagros]] basin experience lower temperatures, severe winters with below zero average daily temperatures and heavy snowfall. The eastern and central basins are arid, with less than 200&nbsp;mm (eight in) of rain, and have occasional deserts.<ref name="simmons" /> Average summer temperatures exceed 38 °C (100 °F). The coastal plains of the [[Persian Gulf]] and [[Gulf of Oman]] in southern Iran have mild winters, and very humid and hot summers. The annual precipitation ranges from 135 to 355&nbsp;mm (five to fourteen inches).<ref name="simmons"/> [[Wildlife of Iran|Iran's wildlife]] is composed of several animal species including bears, gazelles, wild pigs, wolves, jackals, panthers, Eurasian lynx, and foxes. Other domestic animals include, sheeps, goats, cattle, horses, water buffalo, donkeys, and camels. The pheasant, partridge, stork, eagles and falcon are also native to Iran. ===Provinces and Cities=== {{main|Provinces of Iran|Counties of Iran}} {{Seealso|List of Iran cities by population}} [[Image:Azadi1.jpg|thumb|upright|left|200px|After the revolution, Shahyad Tower was renamed [[Azadi Tower|Freedom Tower]]]] {{Provinces of Iran Labelled Map|float=right}} Iran is divided into thirty [[Provinces of Iran|provinces]] (''ostān''), each governed by an appointed governor (استاندار, ostāndār). The provinces are divided into counties (''[[Counties of Iran|shahrestān]]''), and subdivided into districts (''[[bakhsh]]'') and sub-districts (''dehestān''). Iran has one of the highest urban-growth rates in the world. From 1950 to 2002 the urban proportion of the population increased from 27% to 60%.<ref name="payvand2">{{cite web |url=http://www.payvand.com/news/03/nov/1135.html |title="Iran: Focus on reverse migration" |author=Payvand |accessdate=2006-04-17}}</ref> The United Nations predicts that by 2030 80% of the population will be urban.<ref name="sci.org.ir">[http://www.sci.org.ir/portal/faces/public/census85/census85.natayej/census85.abadipage "Islamic Azad University"], retrieved 28 Jan 2008</ref> Most internal migrants have settled near the cities of [[Tehran]], [[Isfahan]], [[Ahvaz]], and [[Qom]]. The listed populations are from the 2006/07 (1385 [[Iranian calendar|AP]]) census.<ref>[http://www.sci.org.ir/portal/faces/public/census85/census85.natayej/census85.abadipage Iranian National Portal of Statistics] retrieved 27 Feb 2008</ref> [[Tehran]], with population of 7,705,036, is the largest city in Iran and is the Capital city. [[Tehran]] is home to around 11% of Iran's population. Tehran, like many big cities, suffers from severe air pollution. It is the hub of the country's [[Communications in Iran|communication]] and [[transport in Iran|transport]] network. [[Mashhad]] with a population of 2.8 million is the second largest Iranian city and the centre of the province of [[Razavi Khorasan]]. Mashahd is one of the holiest [[Shi'a]] cities in the world as it is the site of the [[Imam Reza shrine]]. It is the centre of tourism in Iran and between 15 and 20 million pilgrims go to the [[Imam Reza]]'s shrine every year.<ref>[http://www.iran-daily.com/1383/2211/html/panorama.htm Religious Tourism Potentials Rich] retrieved 28 Feb 2008</ref><ref>[http://www.sacredsites.com/middle_east/iran/mashad.htm Mashhad, Iran] retrieved 28 Feb 2008</ref> Another major Iranian city is [[Isfahan]] (population 1,986,542). [[Isfahan]] is the capital of [[Isfahan Province]]. The [[Naghsh-e Jahan Square]] in Isfahan has been designated by [[UNESCO]] as a [[World Heritage Site]]. The city contains a wide variety of [[Islamic architecture|Islamic architectural]] sites ranging from the eleventh to the 19th century. The growth of suburb area around the city has turned Isfahan to the second most populous metropolitan area (3,430,353).<ref>http://www.sci.org.ir/content/userfiles/_census85/census85/natayej/township/Os10.xls retreved 27 Feb 2008</ref> The other major Iranian cities are [[Karaj]] (population 1,732,275), [[Tabriz]] (population 1,597,312) and [[Shiraz]] (population 1,227,331). Tabriz is situated north of the volcanic cone of [[Sahand]] south of the [[Eynali]] mountain. [[Tabriz]] is the largest city in north-western Iran and is the capital of [[East Azarbaijan Province]]. [[Karaj]] is located in [[Tehran province]] and is situated 20&nbsp;km west of [[Tehran]], at the foot of [[Alborz]] mountains, however the city is increasingly becoming an extension of the metropolitan [[Tehran]]. ==History== ===Early history (3200&nbsp;BC&ndash;625&nbsp;BC)=== {{main|History of Iran|Tappeh Sialk|Jiroft civilization|Elam|Mannaeans}} [[Image:Mappa di Eratostene.jpg|thumb|right|19th century reconstruction of a map of the world by [[Eratosthenes]], [[Circa|c.]]200 BC. The name Ariana (Aryânâ) was used to describe the region where the [[Iranian Plateau]] is found.]] Dozens of [[prehistory|pre-historic]] sites across the Iranian plateau point to the existence of ancient cultures and urban settlements in the [[fourth millennium BC]],<ref name="xinhuaciv">[http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-08/10/content_6508609.htm Xinhua, "New evidence: modern civilization began in Iran", 10 Aug 2007], retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref><ref name="iran-daily">[http://www.iran-daily.com/1385/2795/html/panorama.htm Iran Daily, "Panorama", 3 Mar 2007], retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref><ref name="iranian.ws">[http://www.iranian.ws/iran_news/publish/article_22427.shtml Iranian.ws, "Archaeologists: Modern civilization began in Iran based on new evidence", 12 Aug 2007], retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref> centuries before the earliest civilizations arose in nearby [[Mesopotamia]].<ref>http://oi.uchicago.edu/OI/MUS/VOL/NN_SUM94/NN_Sum94.html retrieved 2006-04-29</ref> [[Proto-Iranian]]s first emerged following the separation of [[Indo-Iranians]], and are traced to the [[Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex]].<ref name="Panshin"> [http://www.panshin.com/trogholm/wonder/indoeuropean/indoeuropean3.html "The Palaeolithic Indo-Europeans"] &mdash; Panshin.com (retrieved [[4 June]] [[2006]])</ref> [[Aryan]], ([[Ancient Iranian peoples|Proto-Iranian]]) tribes arrived in the [[Iranian plateau]] in the third and second [[millennium]]&nbsp;BC, probably in more than one wave of emigration, and settled as nomads. Further separation of Proto-Iranians into "Eastern" and "Western" groups occurred due to migration. By the first millennium BC, [[Medes]], [[Persian people|Persians]], [[Bactria]]ns and [[Parthia]]ns populated the western part, while [[Cimmerians]], [[Sarmatians]] and [[Alans]] populated the steppes north of the [[Black Sea]]. Other tribes began to settle on the eastern edge, as far as on the mountainous frontier of north-western [[Indian subcontinent]] and into the area which is now [[Balochistan (region)|Balochistan]]. Others, such as the [[Scythia]]n tribes spread as far west as the [[Balkans]] and as far east as [[Xinjiang]]. [[Avestan]] is an eastern Old Iranian language that was used to compose the sacred hymns and canon of the [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] [[Avesta]] in ''c.'' 1000 BC. ===Pre-Islamic Statehood (625&nbsp;BC&ndash;651 AD)=== [[Image:Cyrus cilinder.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The [[Cyrus Cylinder]] is considered the first recorded [[declaration of human rights]] in history.<ref>''Cyrus Cylinder to be returned to Iran'', Cultural Heritage News Agency, Tehran, June 25, 2008, [http://www.chnpress.com/news/?section=2&id=7423].</ref> ]] {{main|Median Empire|Achaemenid Empire|Seleucid Empire|Parthian Empire|Sassanid Empire}} {{seealso|Persian Empire|Roman-Persian Wars|Roman relations with the Parthians and Sassanids}} The [[Medes]] are credited with the unification<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica Encyclopedia Article: Media ancient region, Iran"/> of Iran as a nation and empire (625<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica Encyclopedia Article: Media ancient region, Iran"/>–559&nbsp; BC), the largest of its day, until [[Cyrus the Great]] established a unified empire of the Medes and [[Persian people|Persians]] leading to the [[Achaemenid Empire]] (559–330&nbsp; BC), and further unification between peoples and cultures. In [[522 BC]] [[Darius the Great]] was declared king. Under [[Cyrus the Great]] and [[Darius the Great]], the Persian Empire eventually became the largest and most powerful empire in human history up until that point.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/MESO/PERSIANS.HTM |title=The Persians|accessdate=2006-08-20}}</ref> The [[Achaemenid Empire]] ruled the [[Middle East]] (except the [[Arabian Peninsula]]), [[Egypt]] and parts of [[southeastern Europe]]. In 499 BC Athens lent support to a revolt in [[Miletus]] which resulted in the sacking of [[Sardis]]. This led to an Achaemenid campaign against Greece known as the [[Greco-Persian Wars]] which lasted the first half of the 5th century BC. During the [[Greco-Persian wars]] Persia made some major advantages and razed Athens in 480 BC, But after a string of Greek victories the Persians were forced to withdraw. Fighting ended with the [[peace of Callias]] in 449 BC. [[Image:Achaemenid Empire.jpg|thumb|left|249px|[[Achaemenid dynasty|Achaemenid empire]] at its greatest extent about 500 BC.]] The rules and ethics emanating from [[Zoroaster]]'s teachings were strictly followed by the Achaemenids who introduced and adopted policies based on [[human rights]], [[equality]] and banning of [[slavery]]. The empire was inclusive and tolerant of different languages, religions and cultures.<ref>http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/forgottenempire/control/index.html retrieved on 12 July 2008</ref> Zoroastrianism spread unimposed during the time of the Achaemenids and through contacts with the exiled [[Jewish]] people in [[Babylon]] freed by Cyrus, Zoroastrian concepts further propagated and influenced into other [[Abrahamic religions]]. The [[Golden Age of Athens]] marked by [[Aristotle]], [[Plato]] and [[Socrates]] also came about during the Achaemenid period.<ref name="vohuman">[http://www.vohuman.org/Article/Historical%20perspective%20on%20Zoroastrianism.htm vohuman.org, "Historical perspective on Zoroastrianism", Reproduced from Âtaš-è Dorün — The Fire Within, Jamshid Soroush Soroushian Memorial Volume II, 1st Books Library, Bloomington, IN, 2003], retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref> [[Image:Parthian Queen Bust.jpg|thumb|right|A bust from the [[National Museum of Iran]] of [[Queen Musa]]]] In 334 BC [[Alexander the Great]] invaded the Achaemenid Empire, defeating the last Achaemenid Emperor [[Darius III]] at the [[Battle of Issus]] in 333 BC. He left the annexed territory in 328&ndash;327. In each of the former Achaemenid territories he installed his own officers as caretakers, which led to friction and ultimately to the [[Partition of Babylon|partitioning of the former empire]] after Alexander's death. The [[Seleucid Empire]] succeeded Alexander the Great's rule of central Anatolia, the Levant, Mesopotamia, Persia, Turkmenistan and Pamir. [[Parthia]] was led by the Arsacid Dynasty, who reunited and ruled over the Iranian plateau, after defeating the [[Hellenic Greece|Greek]] [[Seleucid Empire]], beginning in the late 3rd century BC, and intermittently controlled [[Mesopotamia]] between ''ca.'' 150&nbsp; BC and 224&nbsp;AD. After the conquests of [[Medes|Media]], [[Assyria]], [[Babylonia]] and [[Elam]], the Parthians had to organize their empire. The former elites of these countries were [[Greeks|Greek]], and the new rulers had to adapt to their customs if they wanted their rule to last. As a result, the cities retained their ancient rights and civil administrations remained more or less undisturbed. Parthia was the arch-enemy of the [[Roman Empire]] in the east. By using a heavily-armed and armoured [[cataphract]] cavalry, and lightly armed but highly-mobile [[Horse archer|mounted archers]], the Parthians "held their own against Rome for almost 300 years".<ref>''Persians: Masters of Empire'', 1995, ISBN 0809491044, p.142–143,Time-life Books </ref> By the time of Roman emperor [[Augustus]], Rome and Parthia were settling some of their differences through diplomacy. Any Parthian invasion was confronted and usually defeated, but the threat itself was ultimately impossible to destroy. By this time, Parthia had acquired an assortment of ''golden eagles'', the cherished [[Aquila (Roman)|standards of Rome's legions]], captured from [[Mark Antony]], and [[Crassus]], who suffered a defeat at [[Carrhae]] in 53 BC.<ref>Cotterell, Arthur. ''From Aristotle to Zoroaster: An a to Z Companion to the Classical World.'' 1998. p.272, Free Press</ref> [[Image:Bas relief nagsh-e-rostam couronnement.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Sassanid relief of [[Ardashir I]]]] In 224 AD the Parthian Empire was loosely organized and the last king was defeated by [[Ardashir I]], one of the empire's vassals. [[Ardashir I]] then went on to create the Sassanid Empire. Soon he started reforming the country both economically and militarily. The Sassanids established an empire roughly within the frontiers achieved by the Achaemenids, with their capital at [[Ctesiphon]].<ref>Garthwaite, Gene R., ''The Persians'', p. 2, ISBN 1405156805, Wiley-Blackwell (2006) </ref> The Romans suffered repeated losses particularly by [[Ardashir I]], [[Shapur I]], and [[Shapur II]].<ref>Lorentz, John H. ''Historical Dictionary of Iran.''Asian Historical Dictionaries; No.16. 1995. ISBN 9780810829947, p.189</ref> During their reign, Sassanid battles with the [[Roman Empire]] caused such pessimism in [[Rome]] that the historian [[Cassius Dio]] wrote: {{Cquote |''Here was a source of great fear to us. So formidable does the Sassanid king seem to our eastern legions, that some are liable to go over to him, and others are unwilling to fight at all''.<ref>Arthur Cotterell, ''From Aristotle to Zoroaster: An a to Z Companion to the Classical World''. 1998. ISBN 0684855968, p.344–345, Free Press</ref>}} During Parthian, and later [[Sassanid]] era, trade on the [[Silk Road]] was a significant factor in the development of the great [[civilization]]s of [[China]], [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]], [[Mesopotamia]], [[Persia]], [[Indian subcontinent]], and [[Ancient Rome|Rome]], and helped to lay the foundations for the modern world. Parthian remains display classically Greek influences in some instances and retain their oriental mode in others, a clear expression of the cultural diversity that characterized Parthian art and life.<ref>''Persians: Masters of Empire'', 1995, ISBN 0809491044, p.134, Time-life Books</ref> The Parthians were [[Parthian style (Iranian architecture)|innovators of many architecture designs]] such as that of [[Ctesiphon]], which later influenced European [[Romanesque architecture]].<ref>''Persians: Masters of Empire'', 1995, ISBN 0809491044, p.138, Time-life Books</ref><ref>''"Even the architecture of the Christian church, with its hallowed chancel seems inspired by the designs of [[Mithra]]ic temples"''. [[Abbas Milani]]. ''Lost Wisdom''. 2004. Mage Publishers. p.13. ISBN 0934211906</ref> Under the Sassanids, Iran [[Iran-China relations|expanded relations with China]]. The [[Sassanid art|arts]], [[Sassanid music|music]], and [[Sassanid architecture|architecture]] greatly flourished, and centres such as the [[School of Nisibis]] and [[Academy of Gundishapur]] became world renowned centres of science and scholarship. ===Middle Ages (642&ndash;1501)=== {{main|Islamization in Iran|Abbasid Caliphate|Samanid dynasty|Khwarezmian Empire|Ilkhanate|Timurid Dynasty|Mongol Empire|Seljuk dynasty|Buyid Dynasty|Ghaznavid Empire}} [[Image:Iran circa 1000AD.png|thumb|right|250px|Map of Iranian Dynasties ''c.'' 1000]] Between 633 and 642, Caliphs of the newly founded [[Islamic Empire]] invaded the Sassanid Empire. By 642 [[Umar]], after a series of victories over the [[Sassanid Empire]] conquered the whole of the [[Persian empire]]. After the [[Islamic conquest of Persia]], Iran was annexed into the [[Umayyad|Arab Umayyad Caliphate]]. But the [[Islamization in Iran|Islamization of Iran]] was to yield deep transformations within the cultural, scientific, and political structure of Iran's society: The blossoming of [[Persian literature]], [[Iranian philosophy|philosophy]], [[Science and technology in Iran|medicine]] and [[Persian art|art]] became major elements of the newly-forming Muslim civilization, culturally, politically, and religiously. The Iranian contribution to this new [[Islamic civilization]] caused the [[Islamic Golden Age]].<ref>Caheb C., Cambridge History of Iran, ''Tribes, Cities and Social Organization'', vol. 4, p305–328</ref> [[Abu Muslim|Abu Moslem]], an Iranian general, expelled the [[Umayyad]]s from [[Damascus]] and helped the [[Abbasid]] caliphs to conquer [[Baghdad]]. The [[Abbasid]] caliphs frequently chose their "[[Vizier|wazirs]]" (viziers) among Iranians, and Iranian governors acquired a certain amount of local autonomy. Thus in 822, the governor of Khorasan, [[Tahir II of Khorasan|Tahir]], proclaimed his independence and founded a new Persian dynasty of [[Tahirid dynasty|Tahirids]]. And by the [[Samanid]] era, Iran's efforts to regain its independence had been well solidified.<ref>Bosworth C. E., Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 4, p.90</ref> [[Image:Jami Rose Garden.jpg|150px|left|thumb|Illustration from [[Jami|Jāmī's]] ''"Rose Garden of the Pious"'', dated 1553. The image blends [[Persian literature|Persian poetry]] and [[Persian miniature]] into one, as is the norm for many works of the Timurid era.]] Attempts of [[Arabization]] thus never succeeded in Iran, and movements such as the [[Shuubiyah]] became catalysts for Iranians to regain their independence in their relations with the Arab invaders. The cultural revival of the post-[[Abbasid]] period led to a resurfacing of Iranian national identity. The resulting cultural movement reached its peak during the 9th and 10th centuries. The most notable effect of the movement was the continuation of the [[Persian language]], the language of the [[Persians]] and the official language of Iran to the present day. [[Ferdowsi]], Iran's greatest epic poet, is regarded today as the most important figure in maintaining the Persian language. After an interval of silence Iran re-emerged as a separate, different and distinctive element within Islam. [[Iranian philosophy]] after the Islamic conquest, is characterized by different interactions with the Old [[Iranian philosophy]], the [[Greek philosophy]] and with the development of [[Islamic philosophy]]. The [[Illumination School]] and the [[Transcendent Philosophy]] are regarded as two of the main philosophical traditions of that era in Persia. The movement continued well into the 11th century, when [[Mahmud of Ghazni|Mahmud-a Ghaznavi]] founded a vast empire, with its capital at [[Isfahan]] and [[Ghazna]]. Their successors, the [[Seljuk dynasty|Seljuks]], asserted their domination from the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to [[Central Asia]]. As with their predecessors, the [[divan]] of the empire was in the hands of Iranian [[viziers]], who founded the [[Nizamiyya]]. During this period, [[List of Iranian scientists and scholars|hundreds of scholars and scientists]] vastly contributed to technology, science and medicine, later influencing the rise of European science during [[the Renaissance]].<ref>Kühnel E., in ''Zeittschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesell'', Vol. CVI (1956)</ref> In 1218, the eastern [[Khwarezmian Empire|Khwarazmid]] provinces of [[Transoxiana]] and [[Khorasan]] suffered a devastating [[invasion]] by [[Genghis Khan]]. During this period more than half of Iran's population were killed,<ref>The memoirs of [[Edward Teller]], ''[[Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory]] "Science and Technology Review"''. July/August 1998 p20. Link: [http://www.llnl.gov/str/pdfs/07_98.pdf]</ref> turning the streets of Persian cities like [[Neishabur]] into "rivers of blood", as the severed heads of men, women, and children were "neatly stacked into carefully constructed pyramids around which the carcasses of the city's dogs and cats were placed".<ref>[[Sandra Mackey|Mackey, S.]]. ''The Iranians: Persia, Islam, and the soul of a nation''. 1996. ISBN 0-525-94005-7. p.69.</ref> Between 1220 and 1260, the total population of Iran had dropped from 2,500,000 to 250,000 as a result of mass [[murder|extermination]] and [[famine]].<ref>[http://www.sfusd.k12.ca.us/schwww/sch618/Ibn_Battuta/Battuta's_Trip_Three.html Battuta's Travels: Part Three — Persia and Iraq] retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> In a letter to King [[Louis IX of France]], [[Hulagu Khan|Holaku]], one of the [[Genghis Khan]]'s grandsons, alone took responsibility for 200,000 deaths in his raids of Iran and the Caliphate.<ref>[[Sandra Mackey|Mackey, S.]]. ''The Iranians: Persia, Islam, and the soul of a nation''. 1996. ISBN 0-525-94005-7. p.70 </ref> He was followed by yet another conqueror, [[Timur|Tamerlane]], who established his capital in [[Samarkand]].<ref>[http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/oldwrld/armies/tamerlane.html Old World Contacts/Armies/Tamerlane] retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> The waves of devastation prevented many cities such as [[Neishabur]] from reaching their pre-invasion population levels until the 20th century, eight centuries later.<ref>Mackey, S. ''The Iranians: Persia, Islam, and the soul of a nation''. 1996. ISBN 0-525-94005-7. p.69.</ref> But both [[Hulagu Khan|Hulagu]], [[Timur]], and their successors soon came to adopt the ways and customs of that which they had conquered, choosing to surround themselves with a culture that was distinctively Persian.<ref>Bertold Spuler. ''The Muslim World. Vol. I The Age of the Caliphs.'' Leiden. E.J. Brill. 1960 ISBN 0-685-23328-6 p.29</ref> ===Early Modern Era (1501&ndash;1921)=== {{main|Safavid Dynasty|Qajar Dynasty|Afsharid Dynasty|Zand dynasty}}{{seealso|Russo-Persian Wars|Anglo-Persian War|Turko-Persian War|Iranian Constitutional Revolution}} [[Image:Sattar Khan.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Sattar Khan]] was a key figure in the [[Iranian Constitutional Revolution]].]] [[Image:Shah Ismail I.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Shah Ismail I]], the founder of the [[Safavid Dynasty]] (1501 to 1736)]] Iran's first encompassing [[Shi'a Islam]]ic state was established under the[[Safavid Dynasty]] (1501&ndash;1722) by [[Shah Ismail I]]. The Safavid Dynasty soon became a major political power and promoted the flow of bilateral state contacts. The Safavid peak was during the rule of [[Shah Abbas I|Shah Abbas The Great]].<ref name="islamic1600">[http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/empires/safavid/abbas.html "The Islamic World to 1600", The Applied History Research Group, The University of Calgary, 1998], retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref> The [[Safavid Dynasty]] frequently locked horns with the [[Ottoman Empire]], [[Uzbekistan|Uzbek]] tribes and the [[Portuguese Empire]]. The Safavids moved their capital from [[Tabriz]] to [[Qazvin]] and then to [[Isfahan]] where their patronage for the arts propelled Iran into one of its most aesthetically productive eras. Under their rule, the state became highly centralized, the first attempts to modernize the military were made, and even [[Isfahani style (Iranian architecture)|a distinct style of architecture developed]]. In 1722 Afghan rebels defeated [[Husayn (Safavid)|Shah Sultan Hossein]] and ended the Safavid Dynasty, but in 1735, [[Nader Shah]] successfully drove out the Afghan rebels from Isfahan and established the [[Afsharid Dynasty]]. He then staged an incursion into [[India]] in 1738 securing the [[Peacock throne]], [[Koh-i-Noor]], and [[Darya-ye Noor]] among other [[royal family|royal]] treasures. His rule did not last long however, and he was assassinated in 1747. The [[Mashhad]] based Afshar Dynasty was succeeded by the [[Zand dynasty]] in 1750, founded by [[Karim Khan]], who established his capital at [[Shiraz]]. His rule brought a period of relative peace and renewed prosperity. The Zand dynasty lasted three generations, until [[Mohammad Khan Qajar|Aga Muhammad Khan]] executed [[Lotf Ali Khan]], and founded his new capital in [[Tehran]], marking the dawn of the [[Qajar|Qajar Dynasty]] in 1794. The capable [[Qajar]] chancellor [[Amir Kabir]] established [[Dar ul-Funun|Iran's first modern college]] system, among other modernizing reforms. Iran suffered [[Russo-Persian Wars|several wars with Imperial Russia]] during the [[Qajar]] era, resulting in Iran losing almost half of its territories to [[Imperial Russia]] and the [[British Empire]], via the treaties of [[Treaty of Gulistan|Gulistan]], [[Treaty of Turkmenchay|Turkmenchay]] and [[Treaty of Akhal|Akhal]]. In spite of [[The Great Game]] Iran managed to maintain her sovereignty and was never colonized, unlike neighbouring states in the region. Repeated foreign intervention and a corrupt and weakened Qajar rule led to [[Tobacco Protest|various protests]], which by the end of the Qajar period resulted in [[Iranian Constitutional Revolution|Persia's constitutional revolution]] establishing [[Majles|the nation's first parliament]] in 1906, within a [[constitutional monarchy]]. ===Late Modern Era (1921&ndash;)=== {{main|History of the Islamic Republic of Iran|Iranian Revolution|Iran-Iraq War|Pahlavi Dynasty}}{{seealso|Operation Ajax}} [[Image:Mossadeq.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Former Iranian prime minister, Dr. [[Mohammad Mossadegh]].]] In 1921, [[Reza Shah|Reza Khan]] overthrew the weakening [[Qajar Dynasty]] and became [[Shah]]. Reza Shah initiated [[industrialization]], [[rail transport|railroad]] construction, and the establishment of a national [[Higher education in Iran|education]] system. Reza Shah sought to balance Russian and British influence, but when [[World War II]] started, his nascent ties to Germany alarmed Britain and Russia. In 1941, [[Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran|Britain and the USSR invaded Iran]] in order to utilize Iranian railroad capacity during [[World War II]]. The Shah was forced to abdicate in favour of his son, [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]]. In 1951 Dr. [[Mohammed Mossadegh]] was elected [[Prime Minister of Iran|prime minister]]. As prime minister, Mossadegh became enormously popular in Iran after he [[nationalization|nationalized]] Iran's oil reserves. In response Britain embargoed Iranian oil and invited the [[United States]] to join in a plot to depose Mossadegh, and in 1953 President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] authorized [[Operation Ajax]]. The operation was successful, and Mossadegh was arrested on [[19 August]], [[1953]]. [[Image:MohammadRezaPahlavi1977.jpg|thumb|left|[[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]] and [[Farah Pahlavi|Queen Farah]] about to depart after a visit to the United States.]] After Operation Ajax, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi's rule became increasingly [[autocracy|autocratic]]. With American support the Shah was able to rapidly modernize Iranian infrastructure, but he simultaneously crushed all forms of political opposition with his intelligence agency, [[SAVAK]]. [[Ayatollah]] [[Ruhollah Khomeini]] became an active critic of the Shah's [[White Revolution]] and publicly denounced the government. Khomeini, who was popular in religious circles, was arrested and imprisoned for 18 months. After his release in 1964 Khomeini publicly criticized the United States government. The Shah was persuaded to send him into exile by General [[Hassan Pakravan]]. Khomeini was sent first to [[Turkey]], then to [[Iraq]] and finally to [[France]]. While in exile he continued to denounce the Shah. The [[Iranian Revolution]], also known as the [[Islamic Revolution]],<ref>[http://www.iranchamber.com/history/islamic_revolution/islamic_revolution.php Islamic Revolution of 1979], retrieved [[23 January]] [[2008]]</ref><ref>[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761588431/Islamic_Revolution_of_Iran.html Islamic Revolution of Iran], [[encarta]], retrieved [[23 January]] [[2008]]</ref><ref>Fereydoun Hoveyda, ''The Shah and the Ayatollah: Iranian Mythology and Islamic Revolution'' ISBN 0275978583, Praeger Publishers </ref> began in January 1978 with the first major demonstrations against the [[Shah]].<ref>[http://www.fsmitha.com/h2/ch29ir.html The Iranian Revolution] retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> After strikes and demonstrations paralysed the country and its economy, the [[Shah]] fled the country in January 1979 and [[Ayatollah Khomeini]] soon returned from exile to Tehran, enthusiastically greeted by millions of Iranians.<ref name = "Britannica Khomeini">[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9045329 Ruhollah Khomeini], Encyclopaedia Britannica retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> The [[Pahlavi Dynasty]] collapsed ten days later on [[11 February]] when Iran's military declared itself "neutral" after guerrillas and rebel troops overwhelmed troops loyal to the Shah in armed street fighting. Iran officially became an Islamic Republic on [[1 April]], [[1979]] when Iranians overwhelmingly approved a national referendum to make it so.<ref name="britannica1"/><ref name = "Britannica">[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-32981 Encyclopædia Britannica]23 January 2008</ref> In December 1979 the country approved a [[theocratic]] constitution, whereby Khomeini became [[Supreme Leader]] of the country. The speed and success of the revolution surprised many throughout the world,<ref>Jahangir Amuzegar, ''The Dynamics of the Iranian Revolution,'' (1991), p.4, 9–12 ISBN 0791407314</ref> as it had not been precipitated by a military defeat, a financial crisis, or a peasant rebellion.<ref>Arjomand, ''Turban'' (1988), p. 191.</ref> Although both nationalists and Marxists joined with Islamic traditionalists to overthrow the Shah, tens of thousands were killed and executed by the Islamic regime afterward, the revolution ultimately resulted in an Islamic Republic under [[Ayatollah]] [[Ruhollah Khomeini]].<ref name = "Benard">Cheryl Benard, Zalmay Khalilzad, ''"The Government of God"'' ISBN 0231053762, Columbia University Press (1984), p. 18.</ref> [[Image:Imam Khomeini in Mehrabad.jpg|thumb|right|160px|Arrival of [[Ayatollah]] [[Khomeini]] on [[1 February]], [[1979]] from France.]] Iran's [[US-Iran relations|relationship with the United States]] deteriorated rapidly during the revolution. On [[4 November]] [[1979]], a group of Iranian students [[Iran hostage crisis|seized US embassy personnel]], labelling the embassy a "den of spies".<ref name="carterpbs">[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/carter/sfeature/sf_hostage.html PBS, American Experience, Jimmy Carter, "444 Days: America Reacts"], retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref> They accused its personnel of being CIA agents plotting to overthrow the revolutionary government, as the CIA had done to [[Mohammad Mossadegh]] in 1953. While the student ringleaders had not asked for permission from [[Khomeini]] to seize the embassy, [[Khomeini]] nonetheless supported the embassy takeover after hearing of its success.<ref name = "MarkBowden-Guests">Guests of the Ayatollah: The Iran Hostage Crisis: The First Battle in America's War with Militant Islam, Mark Bowden, p. 127 ISBN 0802143032, Grove Press</ref> While most of the [[female]] and [[African American]] hostages were released within the first months,<ref name = "MarkBowden-Guests"/> the remaining fifty-two hostages were held for 444 days. The students demanded the handover of the Shah in exchange for the hostages, and following the Shah's death in the summer of 1980, that the hostages be put on trial for espionage. Subsequently attempts by the [[Jimmy Carter]] administration to negotiate or [[Operation Eagle Claw|rescue]] were unsuccessful. But in January 1981 the hostages were set free according to the [[Algiers declaration]]. [[Iraqi]] leader [[Saddam Hussein]] decided to take advantage of what he perceived to be disorder in the wake of the Iranian Revolution and its unpopularity with Western governments. The once-strong [[Iranian military]] had been disbanded during the revolution. Saddam sought to expand Iraq's access to the [[Persian Gulf]] by acquiring territories that Iraq had claimed earlier from Iran during the Shah's rule. Of chief importance to Iraq was [[Khuzestan Province|Khuzestan]] which not only has a substantial [[Arab]] population, but boasted rich oil fields as well. On the unilateral behalf of the [[United Arab Emirates]], the islands of [[Abu Musa]] and the [[Greater and Lesser Tunbs]] became objectives as well. With these ambitions in mind, Hussein planned a full-scale assault on Iran, boasting that his forces could reach the capital within three days. On [[22 September]], [[1980]] the Iraqi army invaded Iran at Khuzestan, precipitating the [[Iran-Iraq War]]. [[Image:Saddam rumsfeld.jpg|thumb|left|170px|[[Donald Rumsfeld]] meets [[Saddam Hussein]] on 19–20 December 1983. Rumsfeld visited again on [[24 March]] [[1984]], the day the UN reported that Iraq had used [[mustard gas]] and [[Tabun (nerve agent)|tabun]] nerve agent against Iranian troops. ''[[The New York Times]]'' reported from Baghdad on [[29 March]] [[1984]], that "American diplomats pronounce themselves satisfied with Iraq and the US, and suggest that normal diplomatic ties have been established in all but name."<ref>[[National Security Archive]]: http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB82 retrieved 23 January 2008</ref>]] Although Saddam Hussein's forces made several early advances, by 1982, Iranian forces managed to push the Iraqi army back into Iraq. Khomeini sought to export his Islamic revolution westward into Iraq, especially on the majority Shi'a Arabs living in the country. The war then continued for six more years until 1988, when Khomeini, in his words, "drank the cup of poison" and accepted a truce mediated by the United Nations. There were more than 100,000 Iranian victims<ref name="r1">Centre for Documents of The Imposed War, Tehran. (مرکز مطالعات و تحقیقات جنگ)</ref> of Iraq's chemical weapons during the eight-year war. The total Iranian casualties of the war were estimated to be anywhere between 500,000 and 1,000,000. Almost all relevant international agencies have confirmed that Saddam engaged in chemical warfare to blunt Iranian [[human wave attack]]s; these agencies unanimously confirmed that Iran never used chemical weapons during the war.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.fas.org/news/iran/1997/970205-480132.htm | title = News | publisher = FAS}} retrieved 23 January 2008</ref><!-- --><ref>http://www.fas.org/cw/intro.htm 23 January 2008</ref><!-- --><ref>[http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/Iran/Chemical/2340_2965.html NTI Chemical profile of Iran] 23 January 2008</ref> [[Arms sales to Iraq|Iraq was financially backed]] mainly by the [[Soviet Union]] and the [[Warsaw Pact]] states, [[France]] and the [[People's Republic of China]] (which also sold weapons to Iran). Following the Iran-Iraq War President [[Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani]] and his administration concentrated on a pragmatic pro-business policy of rebuilding and strengthening the economy without making any dramatic break with the ideology of the revolution. During the 1991 [[Gulf War|Persian Gulf War]] Iran remained neutral despite the close proximity of the American military. Rafsanjani served until 1997 when he was succeeded by the moderate [[Iranian reform movement|reformist]] [[Mohammad Khatami]] who promised supporters "Islamic democracy". This presidency was soon marked by tensions between the Khatami administration and an increasingly conservative and vocal clergy. In July 1999 [[Iran student riots, July 1999|massive, week-long anti-government protests]] were dispersed with police and security forces. In 2001, Khatami was re-elected and served a second term, but his administration's reform efforts to allow more freedom of expression and democracy were blocked by the conservative [[Guardian Council]] and the conservative judiciary and security forces that banned liberal newspapers and disqualifying reformist candidates for parliamentary elections. His administration ended with widespread disillusionment among supporters with him and with reform politics.<ref>[http://www.boston.com/news/world/articles/2006/09/10/khatami_caught_between_worlds/ Khatami caught between worlds, Iran's ex-president on difficult mission, By Farah Stockman, Globe Staff | September 10, 2006] </ref> In the [[Iranian presidential election, 2005|2005 presidential elections]] Iran made yet another change in political direction when conservative populist candidate [[Mahmoud Ahmadinejad]], was elected over [[Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani]].<ref> {{cite web | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4740441.stm | title = Iran hardliner becomes president | accessdate = 2006-12-06 | date = [[August 3]], [[2005]] | publisher = [[BBC]] }} </ref> ==Government and politics== {{main|Politics and Government of Iran|Foreign relations of Iran|Supreme Leader of Iran|President of Iran|Majlis of Iran|Council of Guardians|Expediency Discernment Council|Judicial system of Iran|Assembly of Experts|City and Village Councils of Iran}} [[Image:Schema gvt iran en.png|right|thumb|Political institutions of Iran]] The political system of the Islamic [[Republic]] is based on the 1979 [[Iranian Constitution|Constitution]]. The system comprises several intricately connected governing bodies. '''[[Supreme Leader of Iran|The Supreme Leader of Iran]]''' is responsible for [[Guardianship of the jurists (doctrine)|delineation and supervision]] of the general policies of the Islamic Republic of Iran.<ref name="leader">[http://www.leader.ir/langs/en/index.php?p=leader_law] retrieved 13 May 2008</ref> The Supreme Leader is ''Commander-in-Chief'' of the armed forces, controls the military intelligence and security operations; and has sole power to declare war or peace.<ref name="leader" /> The heads of the judiciary, state radio and television networks, the commanders of the police and military forces and six of the twelve members of the [[Council of Guardians]] are appointed by the Supreme Leader.<ref name="leader" /> The [[Assembly of Experts]] elects and dismisses the Supreme Leader on the basis of qualifications and popular esteem.<ref name=loc">{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/iran/81.htm |title="Iran — The Constitution" |first=Library of Congress |last=Federal Research Division |accessdate=2006-04-14}}</ref> The Assembly of Experts is responsible for supervising the Supreme Leader in the performance of legal duties. After the Supreme Leader, the Constitution defines the '''[[President of Iran]]''' as the highest state authority.<ref name="leader" /><ref name="photius">[http://www.photius.com/countries/iran/government/iran_government_the_presidency.html Iran The Presidency] retrieved 25 January 2008</ref> The President is elected by [[universal suffrage]] for a term of four years and can only be re-elected for one term.<ref name="photius" /> Presidential candidates must be approved by the [[Council of Guardians]] prior to running in order to ensure their allegiance to the ideals of the Islamic revolution.<ref>Chibli Mallat, The Renewal of Islamic Law: Muhammad Baqer As-Sadr, Najaf and the Shi'i international, ISBN 0521531225, Cambridge University Press</ref> The President is responsible for the implementation of the Constitution and for the exercise of executive powers, except for matters directly related to the Supreme Leader, who has the final say in all matters.<ref name="leader" /> The President appoints and supervises the [[Council of Minsters of Iran|Council of Ministers]], coordinates government decisions, and selects government policies to be placed before the legislature.<ref>http://countrystudies.us/iran/84.htm retrieved 2 February 2008</ref> Eight Vice-Presidents serve under the President, as well as a cabinet of twenty two ministers, who must all be approved by the legislature.<ref>[http://www.iranchamber.com/government/articles/structure_of_power.php The Structure of Power in Iran<!-- Bot generated title -->] retrieved 28 Feb 2008</ref> Unlike many other states, the executive branch in Iran does not control the armed forces. Although the President appoints the Ministers of Intelligence and Defense, it is customary for the President to obtain explicit approval from the Supreme Leader for these two ministers before presenting them to the legislature for a vote of confidence. Iran's current president, [[Mahmoud Ahmadinejad]], was elected in a run-off poll in the [[Iranian presidential election, 2005|2005 presidential elections]]. His term expires in 2009.<ref>[http://www.biographyartist.com/2007/03/mahmood-ahmadinejad.html Biography of popular peoples: Mahmood Ahmadinejad<!-- Bot generated title -->] retrieved 28 Feb 2008</ref> [[Image:Grand Ayatollah Ali Khamenei,.jpg|right|thumb|[[Ali Khamenei]], [[Supreme Leader of Iran]]]] As of 2008 the '''[[Majlis of Iran|Legislature of Iran]]''' (also known as the [[Majlis of Iran]]) is a [[unicameral]] body.<ref name="Majlis">http://www.electionguide.org/country.php?ID=103 retrieved 3 February 2008</ref> Before the [[Iranian Revolution]], the legislature was [[bicameral]], but the [[Iranian Senate|upper house]] was removed under the new constitution. The [[Majlis of Iran]] comprises 290 members elected for four-year terms.<ref name="Majlis"/> The Majlis drafts [[legislation]], ratifies international [[treaties]], and approves the national budget. All Majlis candidates and all legislation from the assembly must be approved by the '''[[Council of Guardians]]'''.<ref>[http://countrystudies.us/iran/86.htm Iran - The Council of Guardians<!-- Bot generated title -->] retrieved 3 February 2008</ref> The [[Council of Guardians]] comprises twelve jurists including six appointed by the Supreme Leader. The others are elected by the [[Majlis|Parliament]] from among the jurists nominated by the Head of the [[Judicial system of Iran|Judiciary]].<ref>http://www.iranonline.com/iran/iran-info/Government/constitution-6-2.html retrieved 3 February 2008</ref><ref name=photius>http://www.photius.com/countries/iran/government/iran_government_the_council_of_guard~276.html retrieved 3 February 2008</ref> The Council interprets the constitution and may [[veto]] Parliament. If a law is deemed incompatible with the constitution or ''[[Sharia]]'' (Islamic law), it is referred back to Parliament for revision.<ref name=photius> In a controversial exercise of its authority, the Council has drawn upon a narrow interpretation of Iran's constitution to veto parliamentary candidates. The '''[[Expediency Discernment Council|Expediency Council]]''' has the authority to mediate disputes between Parliament and the Council of Guardians, and serves as an advisory body to the Supreme Leader, making it one of the most powerful governing bodies in the country.<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/spl/hi/middle_east/03/iran_power/html/expediency_council.stm retrieved 3 February 2008</ref> [[Image:Ebadi.jpg|left|thumb|[[Shirin Ebadi]], a long-time pro-democracy activist, was awarded 2003 Nobel Peace Prize.]] The Supreme Leader appoints the head of '''[[Judicial system of Iran|Iran's Judiciary]]''', who in turn appoints the head of the Supreme Court and the chief public prosecutor.<ref name="Judiciary">http://www.iranchamber.com/government/articles/structure_of_power.php, retrieved 3 Feb 2008</ref> There are several types of courts including public courts that deal with civil and criminal cases, and "revolutionary courts" which deal with certain categories of offenses, including crimes against [[national security]]. The decisions of the revolutionary courts are final and cannot be appealed.<ref name="Judiciary"/> The Special Clerical Court handles crimes allegedly committed by [[cleric]]s, although it has also taken on cases involving [[lay people]]. The Special Clerical Court functions independently of the regular judicial framework and is accountable only to the Supreme Leader. The Court's rulings are final and cannot be appealed.<ref name="Judiciary"/> The '''[[Assembly of Experts]]''', which meets for one week annually, comprises 86 "virtuous and learned" clerics elected by adult suffrage for eight-year terms. As with the presidential and parliamentary elections, the [[Council of Guardians]] determines candidates' eligibility.<ref name="Judiciary"/> The Assembly elects the Supreme Leader and has the constitutional authority to remove the Supreme Leader from power at any time.<ref name="Judiciary"/> As all of their meetings and notes are strictly confidential, the Assembly has never been publicly known to challenge any of the Supreme Leader's decisions.<ref name="Judiciary"/> '''[[City and Village Councils of Iran|Local City Councils]]''' are elected by public vote to four-year terms in all cities and villages of Iran. According to article seven of Iran's Constitution, these local councils together with the Parliament are "decision-making and administrative organs of the State". This section of the constitution was not implemented until 1999 when the first local council elections were held across the country. Councils have many different responsibilities including electing mayors, supervising the activities of municipalities; studying the social, cultural, educational, health, economic, and welfare requirements of their constituencies; planning and co-ordinating national participation in the implementation of social, economic, constructive, cultural, educational and other welfare affairs. ==Foreign relations and military== {{main|Foreign relations of Iran|Military of Iran|Iranian defense industry}} {{see also|Military history of Iran}} [[Image:Iranian kilo class submarine.jpg|thumb|180px|One of Iran's 6 [[Kilo class submarine|SSK Kilo class submarine]]s]] [[Foreign relations of Iran|Iran's foreign relations]] are based on two strategic principles: eliminating outside influences in the region and pursuing extensive diplomatic contacts with developing and [[Non-Aligned Movement|non-aligned countries]]. Iran maintains diplomatic relations with almost every member of the [[United Nations]], except for [[Israel]], which Iran does not recognize, and the [[United States]] since the [[Iranian Revolution]].<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/newshour/indepth_coverage/middle_east/iran/timeline.html Key Events in Iran Since 1921] retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> Since 2005, [[Iran's Nuclear Program]] has become the subject of contention with the West because of suspicions regarding Iran's military intentions. This has led the [[UN Security Council]] to impose [[sanctions against Iran]] on select companies linked to this program, thus furthering its economic [[isolation]] on the international scene. The Islamic Republic of Iran has two kinds of [[armed forces]]: the regular forces [[Islamic Republic of Iran Army]], [[Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force]], [[Islamic Republic of Iran Navy]] and the [[Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps]] (IRGC), totalling about 545,000 active troops. Iran also has around 350,000 Reserve Force totalling around 900,000 trained troops.<ref>[[IISS]] Military Balance 2006, Routledge for the IISS, London, 2006, p.187</ref>Iran has not invaded any country over the past two centuries.<ref>[web-srv.mfa.gov.ir/output/english/documents/doc5097.htm Statement by Deputy Foreign Minister for Legal and International Affairs] retrieved June 28, 2008</ref> Iran has a paramilitary, volunteer militia force within the IRGC, called the [[Basij]], which includes about 90,000 full-time, active-duty uniformed members. Up to 11 million men and women are members of the Basij who could potentially be called up for service; [[GlobalSecurity.org]] estimates Iran could mobilize "up to one million men". This would be among the largest troop mobilizations in the world.<ref>[http://www.globalsecurity.org/intell/world/iran/basij.htm Niruyeh Moghavemat Basij Mobilisation Resistance Force] retrived 27 Feb 2008</ref> In 2005, Iran's military spending represented 3.3% of the GDP or $91 per capita, the lowest figure of the [[Persian Gulf]] nations.<ref>[http://www.payvand.com/news/06/jun/1011.html Iran's defense spending 'a fraction of Persian Gulf neighbors'] retrieved 27 Feb 2008</ref> Iran's military doctrine is based on [[deterrence]].<ref>[http://www2.irna.com/en/news/view/line-24/0804185731142306.htm IRNA: Iran's doctrine based on deterrence]retrieved June 28, 2008</ref> Since the [[Iranian revolution]], to overcome foreign embargo, Iran has developed its own [[Iranian military industry|military industry]], produced its own [[tanks]], [[armored personnel carriers]], [[guided missile]]s, [[submarine]]s, and [[fighter planes]].<ref>[http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,156160,00.html Iran Launches Production of Stealth Sub] retrieved 27 Feb 2008</ref> In recent years, official announcements have highlighted the development of weapons such as the [[Fajr-3 (MIRV)]], [[Hoot (missile)|Hoot]], [[Kowsar]], [[Zelzal]], [[Fateh-110]], [[Shahab-3]] missiles, and a variety of [[unmanned aerial vehicles]] (UAVs). The [[Fajr-3 (MIRV)]] is currently Iran's most advanced [[ballistic missile]]. It is a domestically-developed and produced [[liquid fuel]] missile with an unknown range. The [[IRIS (missile)|IRIS]] solid-fuelled missile will be Iran's first missile to bring [[satellites]] into orbit. ==Economy== {{main|Economy of Iran}} {{seealso|Next Eleven|Central Bank of Iran|Tehran Stock Exchange|Transport in Iran|Communications in Iran|Construction in Iran|Economic Cooperation Organization|Privatization in Iran|Foreign Direct Investment in Iran}} [[Image:Iranmoney.jpg|thumb|The [[Iranian rial|rial]] is Iran's official currency.]] [[Economy of Iran|Iran's economy]] is a mixture of [[Planned economy|central planning]], [[state ownership]] of oil and other large [[Business|enterprises]], village [[agriculture]], and small-scale private trading and service ventures.<ref>http://www.traveldocs.com/ir/economy.htm retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> Its economic [[communications in Iran|infrastructure]] has been improving steadily over the past two decades but continues to be affected by [[inflation]] and [[unemployment]].<ref>{{cite web|date=2007-07-08|url=http://iran-daily.com/1386/2887/html|title=World Bank: Iran’s Economic Indices Improving|publisher=Iran Daily|accessdate=2007-07-08}}</ref> In the early 21st century the service sector contributed the largest percentage of the GDP, followed by industry ([[Mining in Iran|mining]] and manufacturing) and [[Agriculture of Iran|agriculture]]. In 2006, about 45% of the government's budget came from oil and natural gas revenues, and 31% came from taxes and fees. Government spending contributed to an average annual inflation rate of 14% in the period 2000–2004. Iran has earned $70 billion in [[foreign exchange reserves]] mostly (80%) from crude oil exports (2007).<ref>[http://iran-daily.com/1386/3068/html/economy.htm] Forex Reserves Put at $70b Retrieved on 24 February 2008</ref> In 2007, the GDP was estimated at $206 billion ($852 billion at PPP), or $3,160 per capita ($12,300 at [[Purchasing power parity|PPP]]).<ref name="cia" /> Iran's official annual growth rate is at 6%.<ref>Surrounded:seeing the world from Iran's point of view Military review July-August 2007 Houman A. Sadri p.21</ref> Because of these figures and the country’s diversified but small industrial base, the United Nations classifies Iran's economy as semi-developed.<ref name="newworldencyclopedia">[http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Iran "New World Encyclopedia"], retrieved 28 Jan 2008</ref> [[Image:Tehran skyline may 2007.jpg|250px|thumb|left|[[Tehran]] was one of the first cities in Iran which was modernized in the [[Pahlavi]] era.]] The services sector has seen the greatest long-term growth in terms of its share of GDP, but the sector remains volatile. State investment has boosted agriculture with the liberalization of production and the improvement of packaging and marketing helping to develop new export markets. Thanks to the construction of many [[dam]]s throughout the country in recent years, large-scale [[irrigation]] schemes, and the wider production of export-based agricultural items like [[date palm|dates]], [[flower]]s, and [[pistachio]]s, produced the fastest economic growth of any sector in Iran over much of the 1990s. Close to 1.8% of national employment is generated in the tourism sector which is slated to increase to 10% in the next five years.<ref>http://www.farsinet.com/travel2iran/ retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> About 1,659,000 foreign [[tourists]] visited Iran in 2004; most came from [[Asia]]n countries, including the republics of [[Central Asia]], while a small share came from the countries of the [[European Union]] and [[North America]]. Iran currently ranks 89th in [[tourist]] income, but is rated among the 10 most touristic countries in the world.<ref name=Tourism>http://www.iran-daily.com/1384/2241/html/focus.htm retrieved 15 Feb 2008</ref> Weak advertising, unstable regional conditions, a poor public image in some parts of the world, and absence of efficient planning schemes in the tourism sector have all hindered the growth of tourism. The administration continues to follow the market reform plans of the previous one and indicated that it will diversify Iran's oil-reliant economy. Iran has also developed a [[biotechnology]], [[nanotechnology]], and [[pharmaceuticals]] industry.<ref>[http://www.nanovip.com/nanotechnology-companies/iran List of Iranian Nanotechnology companies] retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> The strong oil market since 1996 helped ease financial pressures on Iran and allowed for Tehran's timely debt service payments. Iranian [[budget deficits]] have been a chronic problem, mostly due to [[Ministry of Petroleum of Iran#Gasoline subsidies|large-scale state subsidies]], that include foodstuffs and especially gasoline, totaling more than $84 billion in 2008 for the energy sector alone.<ref>http://www.payvand.com/news/07/jan/1295.html "Ahmadinejad's Achilles Heel: The Iranian Economy" retrieved 23 January 2008</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2007-01-08|url=http://www.iran-daily.com/1387/3111/html/economy.htm|title=Energy subsidies reach $84b|publisher=Iran-Daily|accessdate=2008-04-27}}</ref> [[Image:Samand Sarir2.jpg|thumb|right|[[Samand]] is Iran's national car, manufactured by [[Iran Khodro]]]] The authorities so as the private sector have put in the past 15 years an emphasis on the local production of domestic-consumption oriented goods such as home appliances, cars, agricultural products, pharmaceutical, etc. Today, Iran possesses a good manufacturing industry, despite [[sanctions against Iran|restrictions]] imposed by foreign countries. However, nationalized industries such as the [[bonyad]]s have often been managed badly, making them ineffective and uncompetitive with years. Today, the government is trying to [[Privatization in Iran|privatize]] these industries, such as [[Damavand]] mineral water company, and despite some successes, there are still several problems to be overcome such as the lagging corruption in the public sector (and therefore, nationalized industries) and lack of competitiveness. Globally, Iran has leading manufacture industry in the fields of car-manufacture and transportations, construction materials, home appliances, food and agricultural goods, armaments, pharmaceuticals, information technology, power and petrochemicals.<ref name=Economy>[https://www.uktradeinvest.gov.uk/ukti/appmanager/ukti/countries?_nfls=false&_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=CountryType1&navigationPageId=/iran] retrieved 26 Feb 08</ref> ===Energy=== {{main|Energy in Iran|Ministry of Petroleum of Iran|Iranian Oil Bourse|Nuclear programme of Iran}} Iran ranks second in the world in [[natural gas]] reserves and third in [[oil]] reserves.<ref>http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Iran/Background.html retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> It is [[OPEC]]'s 2nd largest oil exporter. In 2005, Iran spent US$4 billion dollars on fuel imports, because of [[contraband]] and inefficient domestic use.<ref>[http://www.heraldextra.com/content/view/205986/3/ "U.S. targets Iran's vulnerable oil"] retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> Oil industry output averaged {{convert|4|Moilbbl/d|m3/d}} in 2005, compared with the peak of six million barrels per day reached in 1974. In the early 2000s, industry [[infrastructure]] was increasingly inefficient because of technological lags. Few exploratory [[wells]] were drilled in 2005. In 2004, a large share of Iran’s natural gas reserves were untapped. The addition of new [[hydroelectric]] stations and the streamlining of conventional [[coal]] and oil-fired stations increased installed capacity to 33,000 megawatts. Of that amount, about 75% was based on natural gas, 18% on oil, and 7% on hydroelectric power. In 2004, Iran opened its first [[wind]]-powered and geothermal plants, and the first [[solar]] thermal plant is to come online in 2009. [[Demographics of Iran|Demographic]] trends and intensified industrialization have caused [[electric power]] demand to grow by 8% per year. The government’s goal of 53,000 megawatts of installed capacity by 2010 is to be reached by bringing on line new gas-fired plants and by adding hydroelectric, and [[nuclear programme of Iran|nuclear power generating capacity]]. Iran’s first [[nuclear power plant]] at [[Bushehr]] was not online by 2007.<ref name=nuclear>http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Iran.pdf retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> ==Demography== {{main|Demography of Iran|Iranian peoples|Health care in Iran|Iranian citizens abroad}} [[Image:Iran peoples.jpg|thumb|right|Ethnic diversity of Iran]] Iran is a diverse country consisting of people of many religions and ethnic backgrounds cemented by the [[Persian culture]]. 70% of present-day Iranians are [[Iranic peoples]], native speakers of [[Iranian languages|Iranian]] branches of the [[Indo-European languages]]. The majority of the population speaks the official [[Persian language]], and other [[Iranian language]]s or dialects. In addition Arabic is spoken in Southwestern Iran, and Turkic dialects, (i.e. Azeri, etc) are spoken in different areas in Iran. The main ethnic groups are [[Persians]] (51%), [[Azeris]] (24%), [[Guilak|Gilaki]] and [[Mazandarani people|Mazandarani]] (8%), [[Kurds]] (7%), [[Arabs]] (3%), [[Baloch|Baluchi]] (2%), [[Lurs]] (2%), [[Turkmen people|Turkmens]] (2%), [[Lak people (Iran)|Laks]], [[Qashqai]], [[Armenians]], [[Persian Jews]], [[Georgians]], [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]], [[Circassians]], [[Tats]], [[Mandaeans]], [[Romani people|Gypsies]], [[Brahui people|Brahuis]], [[Hazara people|Hazara]], [[Kazakh people|Kazakhs]] and others (1%).<ref name="cia" /> Iran's population increased dramatically during the latter half of the 20th century, reaching about 70 million by 2006. In recent years, however, Iran's [[birth rate]] has dropped significantly. Currently the population is almost 72 million<ref name="una">{{cite web |url=http://www.un.org/Depts/escap/pop/journal/v10n1a1.htm |title="A New Direction in Population Policy and Family Planning in the Islamic Republic of Iran" |first=United Nations |last=Asia-Pacific Population Journal |accessdate=2006-04-14}}</ref> Studies show that Iran's rate of population growth will continue to slow until it stabilizes above 90 million by 2050.<ref name="bureau">{{cite web |url=http://www.census.gov/cgi-bin/ipc/idbsum.pl?cty=IR |title="IDB Summary Demographic Data for Iran" |first=Government of the U.S.A. |last=Census Bureau |accessdate=2006-04-14}}</ref><ref name="payvand">{{cite web |url=http://www.payvand.com/news/04/aug/1017.html |title="Iran's population growth rate falls to 1.5 percent: UNFP" |first=Payvand.com |last=Iran News |accessdate=2006-10-18}}</ref> More than two-thirds of the population is under the age of 30, and the literacy rate is 82%.<ref name="cia" /> Women today compose more than half of the incoming classes for universities around the country and increasingly continue to play pivotal roles in society. [[Image:Iran Population (1880-2005).JPG|thumb|300px|left|Population of Iran]] Iran hosts one of the largest [[refugee]] populations in the world, with more than one million refugees, mostly from [[Afghan refugees|Afghanistan]] and [[Iraq]]. Since 2006, Iranian officials have been working with the [[UNHCR]] and Afghan officials for their [[repatriation]].<ref name="bbcb">{{cite web |url=http://www.unhcr.org/news/NEWS/452b78394.html |title="Tripartite meeting on returns to Afghanistan" |first=[[UNHCR]] |last=United Nations |accessdate=2006-04-14}}</ref> Most Iranians are Muslims; 89% belong to the [[Twelver]] [[Shi'a Islam|Shi'a]] branch of [[Islam]], the official state religion, and about 9% belong to the [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] branch, mainly Kurds and Iran's Balochi Sunni. The remaining 2% are non-Muslim [[Religious minorities in Iran|religious minorities]], including [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'ís]], [[Mandaeism|Mandeans]], [[Hindus]], [[Yezidi]]s, [[Yarsan]]is, [[Zoroastrians in Iran|Zoroastrians]], [[Persian Jews|Jews]], and [[Christians in Iran|Christians]].<ref name="cia"/> The latter three [[minority]] religions are officially recognized and protected, and have reserved seats in the ''[[Majlis]]'' (Parliament). However the [[Bahá'í Faith]], Iran's largest religious minority, is not officially recognized, and has been persecuted during its existence in Iran. Since the 1979 revolution the [[persecution of Bahá'ís]] has increased with executions, the denial of civil rights and liberties, and the denial of access to higher education and employment.<ref name="fdih1">{{cite web |date=2003-08-01 |title=Discrimination against religious minorities in Iran |author=International Federation for Human Rights |publisher=fdih.org |accessdate=2007-03-19 |url=http://www.fidh.org/IMG/pdf/ir0108a.pdf}}</ref><ref name="ihrdc">{{cite web | author= Iran Human Rights Documentation Center |publisher=Iran Human Rights Documentation Center | title= A Faith Denied: The Persecution of the Bahá'ís of Iran | date= 2007 |accessdate=2007-03-19|url=http://www.iranhrdc.org/english/pdfs/Reports/bahai_report.pdf}}</ref> Currently, the Islamic Republic of Iran is noted for significant [[Human rights in Islamic Republic of Iran|human rights violations]], despite efforts by human right activists, writers, [[Non-governmental organization|NGOs]] and some political parties. Human rights violations include governmental impunity, restricted [[freedom of speech]], [[Gender differences|gender inequality]], treatment of [[LGBT rights in Iran|homosexuals]], execution of [[Minor (law)|minors]], and in some cases torture. According to the [[Iranian Constitution]], the government is required to provide every citizen of the country with access to [[social security]] that covers [[retirement]], [[unemployment]], old age, [[disability]], [[accidents]], calamities, [[health]] and medical treatment and care services. This is covered by [[Labor and tax laws in Iran|public revenues]] and income derived from public contributions. The [[World Health Organization]] in the last report on health systems ranks Iran's performance on health level 58th, and its overall [[health care in Iran|health system]] performance 93rd among the world's nations.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.who.int/whr/2000/en/annex10_en.pdf| title=The World Health Report 2000| first=[[World Health Organisation]]| last=WHO| accessdate=2006-10-12}}</ref> ==Culture== {{main|Culture of Iran}} {{seealso|Media of Iran|Cinema of Iran}} [[Image:MahmoudFarshchian.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Example of modern Iranian miniature, painted by [[Mahmoud Farshchian]]]] The Culture of Iran is a mix of ancient pre-Islamic culture and Islamic culture. [[Iranian culture]] probably originated in [[Central Asia]] and the [[Andronovo culture]] is strongly suggested as the predecessor of Iranian culture ''ca''. 2000 BC. Iranian culture has long been a predominant culture of the [[Middle East]] and [[Central Asia]], with [[Persian language|Persian]] considered the language of intellectuals during much of the 2nd millennium, and the language of religion and the populace before that. The [[Sassanid empire|Sassanid era]] was an important and influential historical period in Iran as Iranian culture influenced China, India and Roman civilization considerably,<ref>J. B. Bury, History of the Later Roman Empire: From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian Volume 1, p.109 ISBN 0486203980, Dover Publications</ref> and so influenced as far as Western Europe and Africa.<ref>[http://www.transoxiana.com.ar/0104/sasanians.html Transoxiana 04: Sassanids in Africa] retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> This influence played a prominent role in the formation of both [[Asian art|Asiatic]] and European [[medieval art]].<ref>[http://www.artarena.force9.co.uk/sass2.htm Iransaga: The art of Sassanids] retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> This influence carried forward to the [[Islamic world]]. Much of what later became known as Islamic learning, such as [[philology]], [[Islamic literature|literature]], [[Fiqh|jurisprudence]], [[Early Islamic philosophy|philosophy]], [[Islamic medicine|medicine]], [[Islamic architecture|architecture]] and the [[Islamic science|sciences]] were based on some of the practises taken from the [[Sassanid dynasty|Sassanid]] Persians to the broader Muslim world.<ref>[http://www.parstimes.com/history/title.html Iran - A country study] retrieved 23 January 2008</ref><ref>[http://www.levity.com/alchemy/islam16.html History of Islamic Science 5] retrieved 23 January 2008</ref><ref name="Iran in Britannica"/> After [[Islamization in Iran|Islamicization of Iran]] Islamic rituals have penetrated in the Iranian culture. The most noticeable one of them is [[commemoration of Husayn ibn Ali]]. Every year in [[Day of Ashura]] most of Iranians, including [[Armenians]] and [[Zoroastrians]] participate in mourning for the martyrs of [[battle of Karbala]]. Daily life in modern Iran is closely interwoven with [[Shia Islam]] and the country's art, literature, and architecture are an ever-present reminder of its deep national tradition and of a broader literary culture.<ref name="Iran in Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|last=Afary |first=Janet |title=Iran|year=2006|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-10-29|location=|publisher=|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9106324/Iran}}</ref><ref>[http://www.tebyan.net/Literature_Art/GodlyPeople/Occasions/2005/2/22/10530.html گزارش عزاداری ، ارامنه و زرتشتیان ایران] </ref> The Iranian New Year ([[Nowruz]]) is an ancient tradition celebrated on [[21 March]] to mark the beginning of spring in Iran. It is also celebrated in Afghanistan, Republic of Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan and previously also in Georgia and Armenia. It is also celebrated by the Iraqi and Anatolian Kurds.<ref>http://www.zoroastrian.org/articles/nowruz.htm retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> Norouz was nominated as one of [[UNESCO]]'s [[Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity]] in 2004.<ref name="culture">{{cite web |url=http://www.payvand.com/news/04/jul/1090.html |title="Nowrouz Vital Meeting to be Held in Tehran" |first=Payvand.com |last=Iran News |accessdate=2006-04-14}}</ref> [[Iranian cinema]] has thrived in modern Iran, and many Iranian directors have garnered worldwide recognition for their work. Iranian movies have won over three hundred awards in the past twenty-five years. One of the best-known directors is [[Abbas Kiarostami]]. The [[media of Iran]] is a mixture of private and state-owned, but books and movies must be approved by the Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance before being released to the public. State [[Censorship in Iran|censorship]] is often brought upon films which do not meet approval. The [[Internet]] has become enormously popular among the Iranian youth. Iran is now the world's fourth largest country of [[Iranian Blogs|bloggers]].<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2004/dec/20/iran.blogging Freedom in Farsi blogs] retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> ===Language and literature=== {{main|Persian language|History of the Persian language|Persian literature}} {{seealso|music of Iran|Persian miniature}} [[Image:ModernIranianlanguagesMap.jpg|left|thumb|The region where Persian '''(green)''' and other [[Iranian languages]] are spoken]] Article 15 of the Iranian constitution states that the "Official language (of Iran)... is Persian...[and]... the use of regional and tribal languages in the press and mass media, as well as for teaching of their literature in schools, is allowed in addition to Persian." Persian serves as a ''[[lingua franca]]'' in Iran and most publications and broadcastings are in this language. Next to Persian there are many publications and broadcastings in other relatively large languages of Iran such as [[Azeri language|Azeri]], [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]] and even in relatively smaller ones such as [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and [[Armenian language|Armenian]]. Many [[Iranian languages|languages]] have originated from Iran, but Persian is the most used language. Persian is a tongue belonging to the [[Aryan]] or [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]] branch of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] family of languages. The oldest records in [[Old Persian]] date back to the [[Achaemenid Empire]]<ref>{{cite book | title=The Languages of the World | year=2002 | last=Katzner | first=Kenneth | publisher=Routledge | pages=163 | isbn=0415250048}}</ref> and examples of Old Persian have been found in present-day Iran, [[Iraq]], [[Turkey]] and [[Egypt]]. In the late 8th century the [[Persian language]] was highly Arabized and written in a [[Perso-Arabic script|modified Arabic script]]. This caused a movement supporting the revival of Persian. An important event of this revival was the writing of the ''[[Shahname]]'' by [[Ferdowsi]] (Persian: ''Epic of Kings''), Iran's national epic, which is said to have been written entirely in native Persian. This gave rise to a strong reassertion of Iranian national identity, and is in part responsible for the continued existence of Persian as a separate language. ''{{cquote|<center>بسی رنج بردم در این سال سی <br />عجم زنده کردم بدین پارسی</center>''For thirty years, I suffered much pain and strife<br />with Persian I gave the [[Ajam]] verve and life''}}<center>''—[[Ferdowsi]]'' (935&ndash;1020)</center>''[[Image:Kelileh va Demneh.jpg|thumb|right|[[Kelileh va Demneh]] Persian manuscript copy dated 1429]] Persian beside Arabic has been a medium for literary and scientific contributions to the [[Islamic world]] especially in [[Anatolia]], [[central Asia]] and [[Indian sub-continent]]. Poetry is a very important part of Persian culture. Poetry is used in many classical works, whether from Persian literature, science, or metaphysics. For example about half of [[Avicenna]]'s medical writings are known to be versified. Iran has produced a number of famous poets, however only a few names such as [[Rumi]] and [[Omar Khayyám]] have surfaced among western popular readership, even though the likes of [[Hafez]] and [[Saadi]] are considered by many Iranians to be just as influential. The books of famous poets have been translated into western languages since 1634. An example of Persian poetic influence is the poem below which is inscribed on the entrance of [[United Nations]]' Hall of Nations. ''{{cquote|<center>بنى آدم اعضاء يک پیکرند <br />که در آفرينش ز يک گوهرند<br />چو عضوى بدرد آورد روزگارد <br />دگر عضوها را نماند قرار</center>''Of one Essence is the human race<br />thus has Creation put the base<br />One Limb impacted is sufficient<br />For all Others to feel the Mace''}}<center>''—[[Saadi (poet)|Saadi]]'' (1184&ndash;1283)</center>'' ===Art=== {{main|Iranian architecture|Iranian art}} [[Image:Naghshe Jahan Square Isfahan modified.jpg|thumb|left|[[Naghsh-i Jahan Square]]]] [[Image:Mehmooni2.jpg|thumb|right|17th century painting from Hasht-Bahesht palace, Isfahan]] [[Greater Iran]] is home to one of the richest [[art]]istic traditions in world history and encompasses many disciplines, including [[architecture]], [[painting]], [[weaving]], [[pottery]], [[calligraphy]], [[metalworking]] and [[stone masonry]]. Carpet-weaving is one of the most distinguished manifestations of Persian culture and art, and dates back to ancient Persia. Persians were among the first to use [[mathematics]], [[geometry]], and [[astronomy]] in architecture and also have extraordinary skills in making massive domes which can be seen frequently in the structure of bazaars and mosques. The main building types of classical [[Iranian architecture]] are the [[mosque]] and the [[palace]]. Iran, besides being home to a large number of art houses and galleries, also holds one of the [[Iranian Crown Jewels|largest and valuable jewel collections]] in the world. The oldest [[backgammon]] in the world along with 60 pieces has been unearthed in southeastern Iran.<ref name="Persian-journal">[http://www.iranian.ws/cgi-bin/iran_news/exec/view.cgi/2/4743 "Iran's Burnt City Throws up World’s Oldest Backgammon"], ''Persian Journal'', [[December 4]], 2004. Retrieved on [[August 5]], 2006.</ref> Iran ranks seventh among countries in the world with the most archeological architectural ruins and attractions from antiquity as recognized by [[UNESCO]].<ref>[http://www.american.edu/ted/iran-tour.htm Bustling bazaars and ancient sights, parched deserts and snowcapped mountains, awesome architecture and simple hospitality] retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> Fifteen of [[UNESCO]]'s [[World Heritage Site]]s are creations of [[Iranian architecture]] and the [[mausoleum of Maussollos]] was identified as one of the [[Seven Wonders of the Ancient World]]. ===Cuisine=== {{main|Iranian cuisine}} The [[cuisine of Iran]] is diverse, with each province featuring dishes, as well as culinary traditions and styles, distinct to their regions. The main Persian cuisines are combinations of rice with meat, chicken or fish and some onion, vegetables, nuts, and herbs. Herbs are frequently used along with fruits such as plums, pomegranates, quince, prunes, apricots, and raisins. To achieve a balanced taste, characteristic flavourings such as saffron, dried limes, cinnamon, and parsley are mixed delicately and used in some special dishes. Onions and garlic are normally used in the preparation of the accompanying course, but are also served separately during meals, either in raw or pickled form. Iranian food is not spicy. ==Science and technology== [[Image:Ghotb2.jpg|thumb|upright|left|13th century manuscript depicting an [[Epicycle|epicyclic planetary model]]]] {{main|Science in Iran}} {{see also|Education in Iran|Higher education in Iran}} Ancient Iranians built [[Qanat]]s and [[Yakhchal]] to provide and keep water. The first [[windmill]] appeared in Iran in the 9th century.<ref name="Al-Hassan, Hill, p.54f.">[[Ahmad Y Hassan]], [[Donald Routledge Hill]] (1986). ''Islamic Technology: An illustrated history'', p. 54. [[Cambridge University Press]]. ISBN 0-521-42239-6.</ref> Iranians contributed significantly to the current understanding of [[astronomy]], [[nature]], [[medicine]], [[mathematics]], and [[philosophy]]. [[Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī]] is widely hailed as the father of algebra. The discovery ethanol (alcohol) was first achieved by Persian alchemists such as Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi. Throughout the [[Middle Ages]], the [[natural philosophy]] and [[mathematics]] of the Ancient Greeks and Persians were furthered and preserved within Persia. The [[Academy of Gundishapur]] was a renowned centre of learning in the city of [[Gundeshapur]] during late antiquity and was the most important medical centre of the ancient world during the sixth and seventh centuries.<ref>The Cambridge History of Iran Vol 4, p396. ISBN 0-521-20093-8</ref> During this period, Persia became a centre for the manufacture of [[Measuring instrument|scientific instruments]], retaining its reputation for quality well into the 19th century. Iran strives to revive the golden age of Persian science. The country has increased its publication output nearly tenfold from 1996 through 2004, and has been ranked first in terms of output growth rate followed by [[China]].<ref>http://experts.about.com/q/Economics-2301/economic.htm retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> [[Image:Astrolabe-Persian-18C.jpg|thumb|right|An 18th century Persian [[astrolabe]]]] Despite the limitations in funds, facilities, and international collaborations, [[List of Iranian scientists|Iranian scientists]] remain highly productive in several experimental fields as [[pharmacology]], [[pharmaceutical chemistry]], [[organic chemistry]], and [[polymer chemistry]]. Iranian scientists are also helping construct the [[Compact Muon Solenoid]], a detector for [[CERN]]'s [[Large Hadron Collider]]. In the biomedical sciences, Iran's [[Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics]] is a [[UNESCO]] chair in biology.<ref>[http://www.ibb.ut.ac.ir/ Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics] retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> in late 2006, Iranian scientists successfully [[Cloning|cloned]] a sheep by somatic cell nuclear transfer, at the [[Royan Institute|Rouyan research centre]] in Isfahan.<ref>[http://www.middle-east-online.com/english/?id=17674] The first successfully cloned animal in Iran</ref> The [[Iranian nuclear program]] was launched in the 1950s. Iran's current facilities includes several research reactors, a [[uranium]] mine, an almost complete commercial [[nuclear reactor]], and uranium processing facilities that include a [[Enriched uranium#The gas centrifuge|uranium enrichment plant]]. The [[Iranian Space Agency]] launched its first [[reconnaissance satellite]] named [[Sina-1]] in 2006, and a "space rocket" in 2007,<ref>[http://asia.news.yahoo.com/070225/afp/070225120805top.html Rocket launch] retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> which aimed at improving science and research for university students.<ref>[http://newsmax.com/archives/articles/2007/2/26/90124.shtml Iran Says 'Space Rocket' for Research]. NewsMax.com, [[Feb 26]], 2007.</ref> [[List of Iranian scientists|Iranian scientists]] outside of Iran have also made some major contributions to science. In 1960, [[Ali Javan]] co-invented the first [[gas laser]] and [[Fuzzy set|fuzzy set theory]] was introduced by [[Lotfi Zadeh]].<ref>[http://www-bisc.cs.berkeley.edu/Zadeh-1965.pdf cs.berkeley.edu] retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> Iranian cardiologist, [[Toffy Musivand|Tofy Mussivand]] invented and developed the first artificial cardiac pump, the precursor of the [[artificial heart]]. Furthering research and treatment of diabetes, [[HbA1c]] was discovered by [[Samuel Rahbar]]. Iranian physics is especially strong in [[string theory]], with many papers being published in Iran.<ref>[http://press.web.cern.ch/press/PressReleases/Releases2001/PR09.01EIran.html] retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> Iranian-American string theorist [[Cumrun Vafa]] proposed the [[Vafa-Witten theorem]] together with [[Edward Witten]]. ==Sports== {{main|Sports in Iran}} [[Image:Azadistadium tehran iran.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Azadi Stadium|Azadi Football Stadium]]]] With two thirds of Iran's population under the age of 25, sports constitutes a highly active portion of Iran's society, both traditional and modern. Iran hence was the birthplace of sports such as [[polo]],<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4272210.stm news.bb.co.uk] retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> and [[Varzesh-e Pahlavani]]. [[Image:Dizin.jpg|thumb|200px|left|[[Dizin]] skiing resort, Iran]] [[Freestyle wrestling]] has been traditionally referred to as Iran's [[national sport]], but today, the most popular sport in Iran is [[football (soccer)]], with the [[Iran national football team|national team]] having reached the [[Football World Cup|World Cup]] finals three times, and having won the [[Asian Cup]] on three occasions. Iran was the first country in the [[Middle East]] to host the [[Asian Games]]. It is home to several unique skiing resorts,<ref>[http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=10000088&sid=aGpcjac1ZTF8&refer=culture bloomberg.com] retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> with the [[Tochal]] resort being the world's fifth-highest ski resort ({{convert|3730|m|ft|0|abbr=on|disp=/|lk=on}} at its highest station) situated only fifteen minutes away from Tehran. Being a mountainous country, Iran offers enthusiasts abundant challenges for hiking, rock climbing,<ref>http://www.rockclimbing.com/routes/Asia/Iran/ retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> and mountain climbing.<ref>http://www.mountainzone.ir/ retrieved 23 January 2008</ref><ref>[http://www.abc-of-mountaineering.com/middle-east/iran/ Mountaineering in Iran] retrieved 23 January 2008</ref><ref>[http://abclocal.go.com/kgo/story?section=News&id=2062458 Local Woman Feared Dead In Iran Mountain Hike] retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> Women are also active in sports, primarily in [[volleyball]] and [[badminton]] and even [[rallying]]. Female drivers participate in national rally tournaments, such as the famous driver [[Laleh Seddigh]]. ==See also== {{Iran topics}} ==References== <div style="height: 250px; overflow: auto; padding: 3px; border:1px solid #AAAAAA; reflist4" > {{reflist|2}} </div> ==Further reading== * [[Benjamin Walker]], ''Persian Pageant: A Cultural History of Iran,'' Arya Press, Calcutta, 1950. ==External links== {{portal|Iran|Flag of Iran.svg}} {{sisterlinks}} * [http://www.president.ir/eng/ The President of Iran] * [http://www.majlis.ir/mhtml/ The Majlis (Legislature) of Iran] {{fa icon}} * [http://www.iran.ir/ Iran.ir] * [http://www.persianlanguage.ir Persian language] (Persian) * [http://www.worldisround.com/articles/73022/index.html Amazing Iran] * [http://www.worldisround.com/articles/326945/index.html Contemporary Iranian Architecture] * [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ir.html CIA World Factbook—''Iran''] * {{wikiatlas|Iran}} * {{wikitravel}} * {{dmoz|Regional/Middle_East/Iran}} * [http://www.jazirehdanesh.com/find.php?item=1.601.897.en Iranian Innovations] * ''Faces of Iran: The World in One Nation'' (a sequence of still photographs, showing the richness of the ethnic and religious diversity of the people of Iran), [http://www.youtube.com/v/OjtGr1Qqhng&hl=en&rel=0&border=1 YouTube]. * ''Rageh Inside Iran'', a BBC Four production, 17 February 2007, [http://video.google.co.uk/videoplay?docid=9161934809152225169&q=Rageh+inside+Iran&total=26&start=0&num=10&so=0&type=search&plindex=1 Google] (1 h 30 min). * Farhad Nabipour, ''From Persia to Iran'', Part I, AMIR Productions, 4 November 2006 (slide show accompanied with Pink Floyd and Persian music &mdash; 28 min 8 sec), [http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-2032099907583727317 Google]. Highly recommended! * Farhad Nabipour, ''From Persia to Iran'', Part II, AMIR Productions, 10 November 2006 (slide show accompanied with Pink Floyd and Persian music &mdash; 21 min 46 sec), [http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=1936128339543074566 Google]. * Some Iranian folk-songs sung by [[Shusha Guppy]] in the 1970s:<br /> [http://www.iranian.com/ram/Shusha/1.ram ''Silver Gun''] (from [[Shiraz]]), [http://www.iranian.com/ram/Shusha/2.ram ''Wheat Flower''] (a harvest song), [http://www.iranian.com/ram/Shusha/3.ram ''The Rain''] (from the [[Gilan]] Province), [http://www.iranian.com/ram/Shusha/4.ram ''The Stars in Heaven''] (from Shiraz), [http://www.iranian.com/ram/Shusha/5.ram ''On Top of the Hill''] (from Shiraz), [http://www.iranian.com/ram/Shusha/6.ram ''The Silken Handkerchief''] (from the [[Fars]] Province), [http://www.iranian.com/ram/Shusha/7.ram ''Darling Leila''] (from the Gilan Province), [http://www.iranian.com/ram/Shusha/8.ram ''I Have Come to Ravish My Heart''] (from the [[Lorestan]] Province), [http://www.iranian.com/ram/Shusha/9.ram ''The Lor Youth''] (a [[Bakhtiari]]-Tribe song), [http://www.iranian.com/ram/Shusha/10.ram ''Lullaby''] (from [[Gorgan]]), [http://www.iranian.com/ram/Shusha/11.ram ''Girl from Boyer-Ahmadi Tribe''] (from the [[Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad Province]]), [http://www.iranian.com/ram/Shusha/12.ram ''My Beloved is Short''] (from the Fars Province), [http://www.iranian.com/ram/Shusha/13.ram ''The Water Pipe''], [http://www.iranian.com/ram/Shusha/14.ram ''You Must Come to Me''] (from [[Mamasani County]]), [http://www.iranian.com/ram/Shusha/15.ram ''Darling Dareyne''] (from the [[Mazandaran]] Province). <br /> For further details see: [http://www.iranian.com/Music/Shusha/ ''Iranian'']. * Gareth Porter, ''Bush's Iran/Argentina Terror Frame-Up'', The Nation, posted January 18, 2008 (web only), [http://www.thenation.com/doc/20080204/porter]. * Nir Rosen, ''Selling the War with Iran'', The Washington Note, Thursday, May 1 2008, [http://www.thewashingtonnote.com/archives/2008/05/selling_the_war/]. * The Second [[International Festival of Peace Poetry]], Iran, 16 May 2009: [http://www.peacepoetryfest.com/en/index.htm (English)], [http://www.peacepoetryfest.com/pe/index.htm (Persian)]. * [http://venus.unive.it/riccardozipoli/demo/galleries_part.php?a=26&n=1&d=IRAN Photography gallery: People, roads and landscapes of Iran] * [http://www.archive.org/details/GreatSpeechesAndInterviewsJamesWhitaker James Whitaker speaks about his life in Iran], a discussion about Iran <br /> {{Template group |title = Geographic locale |list = {{Countries bordering the Caspian Sea}} {{Countries bordering the Persian Gulf}} {{Countries and territories of the Middle East}} {{Countries of Southwest Asia}} }} {{Template group |title = International membership |list = {{Economic Cooperation Organization}} {{D8 nations}} {{G15 nations}} {{Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC)|state=collapsed}} {{Iranian-speaking regions}} }} <!--Categories--> [[Category:Iran|Iran]] [[Category:Countries with alcohol prohibition]] [[Category:Near Eastern countries]] [[Category:Middle Eastern countries]] [[Category:Developing 8 Countries member states]] [[Category:G15 nations]] [[Category:Iranian Plateau]] [[Category:Persian-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:Islamic republics]] {{Link FA|fr}} {{Link FA|hr}} <!--Interwiki--> [[af:Iran]] [[als:Iran]] [[ar:إيران]] [[an:Irán]] [[arc:ܐܝܪܐܢ]] [[frp:Éran]] [[ast:Irán]] [[az:İran İslam Respublikası]] [[bn:ইরান]] [[zh-min-nan:Iran]] [[be:Іран]] [[be-x-old:Іран]] [[bo:ཡི་ལང་]] [[bs:Iran]] [[br:Iran]] [[bg:Иран]] [[ca:Iran]] [[cv:Иран]] [[ceb:Iran]] [[cs:Írán]] [[cy:Iran]] [[da:Iran]] [[pdc:Iraen]] [[de:Iran]] [[dv:އީރާން]] [[dsb:Iran]] [[dz:ཨི་རཱན་]] [[et:Iraan]] [[el:Ιράν]] [[es:Irán]] [[eo:Irano]] [[eu:Iran]] [[fa:ایران]] [[fo:Iran]] [[fr:Iran]] [[fy:Iran]] [[ga:An Iaráin]] [[gv:Yn Eeraan]] [[gd:Ioràn]] [[gl:Irán - ایران]] [[hak:Yî-làn]] [[ko:이란]] [[hy:Իրան]] [[hi:ईरान]] [[hsb:Iran]] [[hr:Iran]] [[io:Iran]] [[ilo:Iran]] [[bpy:ইরান]] [[id:Iran]] [[ia:Iran]] [[ie:Iran]] [[os:Иран]] [[is:Íran]] [[it:Iran]] [[he:איראן]] [[jv:Iran]] [[pam:Iran]] [[kn:ಇರಾನ್]] [[ka:ირანი]] [[ks:ईरान]] [[csb:Iran]] [[kk:Иран]] [[kw:Iran]] [[ky:Иран]] [[sw:Uajemi]] [[ht:Iran]] [[ku:Îran]] [[la:Irania]] [[lv:Irāna]] [[lb:Iran]] [[lt:Iranas]] [[lij:Iran]] [[li:Iraan]] [[jbo:iran]] [[hu:Irán]] [[mk:Иран]] [[ml:ഇറാന്‍]] [[mi:Īrāna]] [[mr:इराण]] [[mzn:ئيران]] [[ms:Iran]] [[mn:Иран]] [[nah:Iran]] [[na:Iran]] [[nl:Iran]] [[ja:イラン]] [[no:Iran]] [[nn:Iran]] [[nov:Iran]] [[oc:Iran]] [[or:ଇରାନ]] [[uz:Eron]] [[ps:ايران]] [[pms:Iran]] [[nds:Iran]] [[pl:Iran]] [[pt:Irão]] [[crh:İran]] [[ro:Iran]] [[rm:Iran]] [[qu:Iran]] [[ru:Иран]] [[se:Iran]] [[sa:ईरान]] [[sco:Iran]] [[sq:Irani]] [[scn:Iran]] [[simple:Iran]] [[sk:Irán]] [[sl:Iran]] [[sr:Иран]] [[sh:Iran]] [[su:Iran]] [[fi:Iran]] [[szl:Iran]] [[sv:Iran]] [[tl:Iran]] [[ta:ஈரான்]] [[kab:Iran]] [[te:ఇరాన్]] [[th:ประเทศอิหร่าน]] [[vi:Iran]] [[tg:Эрон]] [[tr:İran]] [[tk:Eýran]] [[udm:Иран]] [[uk:Іран]] [[ur:ایران]] [[vo:Lirän]] [[war:Iran]] [[yi:איראן]] [[yo:Ìránì]] [[zh-yue:伊朗]] [[diq:İran]] [[bat-smg:Irans]] [[zh:伊朗]]