Islamic medicine
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In the [[history of medicine]], '''Islamic medicine''' or '''Arabic medicine''' refers to [[medicine]] developed in the [[Islamic Golden Age|medieval Islamic civilization]] and written in [[Arabic language|Arabic]], the ''[[lingua franca]]'' of the Islamic civilization. Despite these names, a significant number of scientists during this period were not [[Arab]]. Some consider the label "Arab-Islamic" as historically inaccurate, arguing that this label does not appreciate the rich diversity of Eastern scholars who have contributed to [[Islamic science]] in this era.<ref>Behrooz Broumand, The contribution of Iranian scientists to world civilization, Arch Iranian Med 2006; 9 (3): 288 – 290</ref> [[Latin translations of the 12th century|Latin translations]] of Arabic medical works had a significant influence on the development of modern medicine.
==Overview==
Islamic medicine was a genre of medical writing that was influenced by several different medical systems, including the traditional [[Arabia]]n medicine of [[Muhammad]]'s time, ancient [[Hellenistic medicine]] such as [[Unani]], [[ancient India]]n medicine such as [[Ayurveda]], and the [[ancient Iranian Medicine]] of the [[Academy of Gundishapur]].
===Foundations===
The first Muslim physician is believed to have been [[Muhammad]] himself, as a significant number of [[hadith]]s concerning medicine are attributed to him. Several [[Sahaba]] are said to have been successfully treated of certain diseases by following the medical advice of Muhammad. The three methods of healing known to have been mentioned by him were [[honey]], [[cupping]], and [[cauterization]], though he was generally opposed to the use of cauterization unless it "suits the [[ailment]]." According to [[Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani]], Muhammad disliked this method due to it causing "pain and menace to a patient" since there was no [[anasthesia]] in his time.<ref name=Deuraseh>Nurdeen Deuraseh, "Ahadith of the Prophet (s.a.w) on Healing in Three Things (al-Shifa’ fi Thalatha): An Interpretational", ''Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine'', 2003 (4): 14-20.</ref> Muhammad also appears to have been the first to suggest the [[Infectious disease|contagious]] nature of [[leprosy]], [[mange]] and [[sexually transmitted disease]];<ref name=Conrad/> and that there is always a cause and a cure for every [[disease]],<ref name=Deuraseh/> according to several hadiths in the [[Sahih al-Bukhari]], [[Sunan Abi Dawood]] and [[Al-Muwatta]] attributed to Muhammad, such as:
{{quote|"There is no disease that Allah has created, except that He also has created its treatment."<ref>[[Sahih al-Bukhari]], {{Bukhari-usc|7|71|582}}</ref>}}
{{quote|"Make use of medical treatment, for Allah has not made a disease without appointing a remedy for it, with the exception of one disease, namely old age."<ref>[[Sunan Abi Dawood]], [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/abudawud/028.sat.html 28:3846]</ref>}}
{{quote|"Allah has sent down both the disease and the cure, and He has appointed a cure for every disease, so treat yourselves medically."<ref>[[Sunan Abi Dawood]], [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/abudawud/028.sat.html 28:3865]</ref>}}
{{quote|"The one who sent down the disease sent down the remedy."<ref>[[Al-Muwatta]], {{Muwatta-usc|50|5|12|}}</ref>}}
The belief that there is a cure for every disease encouraged early Muslims to engage in [[biomedical research]] and seek out a cure for every disease known to them. Many early authors of Islamic medicine, however, were usually [[cleric]]s rather than [[physician]]s, and were known to have advocated the traditional medical practices of prophet Muhammad's time, such as those mentioned in the [[Qur'an]] and [[Hadith]]. For instance, [[therapy]] did not require a [[patient]] to undergo any surgical procedures at the time.
From the 9th century, [[Hunayn ibn Ishaq]] translated a number of [[Galen]]'s works into the [[Arabic language]], followed by translations of the ''[[Sushruta Samhita]]'', ''[[Charaka Samhita]]'' and [[Middle Persian]] works from Gundishapur. Muslim physicians soon began making many of their own significant advances and contributions to medicine, including the fields of [[allergology]], [[anatomy]], [[bacteriology]], [[botany]], [[dentistry]], [[embryology]], [[environmentalism]], [[etiology]], [[immunology]], [[microbiology]], [[obstetrics]], [[Ophthalmology in medieval Islam|ophthalmology]], [[pathology]], [[pediatrics]], [[perinatology]], [[physiology]], [[psychiatry]], [[psychology]], [[Pulse|pulsology and sphygmology]], [[surgery]], [[therapy]], [[urology]], [[zoology]], and the [[pharmaceutical sciences]] such as [[pharmacy]] and [[pharmacology]], among others.
Medicine was a central part of medieval Islamic culture. Responding to circumstances of time and place, Islamic physicians and scholars developed a large and complex medical literature exploring and synthesizing the theory and practice of medicine.<ref name=NLM>[[National Library of Medicine]] digital archives.</ref> Islamic medicine was initially built on tradition, chiefly the theoretical and practical knowledge developed in [[Arabia]], [[Persia]], [[Greece]], [[Rome]], and [[History of India|India]]. [[Galen]] and [[Hippocrates]] were pre-eminent authorities, as well as the [[Ayurveda|Indian physicians]] [[Sushruta]] and [[Charaka]], and the [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic]] scholars in [[Alexandria]]. Islamic scholars translated their voluminous writings from [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Sanskrit]] into [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and then produced new medical knowledge based on those texts.<ref>Hakeem Abdul Hameed, [http://www.salaam.co.uk/knowledge/hakeems.php Exchanges between India and Central Asia in the field of Medicine]</ref> In order to make the Greek and Indian traditions more accessible, understandable, and teachable, Islamic scholars ordered and made more systematic the vast and sometimes inconsistent Greco-Roman and Indian medical knowledge by writing encyclopedias and summaries.<ref name=NLM/> It was through Arabic translations that the West learned of Hellenic medicine, including the works of [[Galen]] and [[Hippocrates]]. Of equal if not of greater influence in Western Europe were systematic and comprehensive works such as [[Avicenna]]'s ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'', which were translated into Latin and then disseminated in manuscript and printed form throughout Europe. During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries alone, ''The Canon of Medicine'' was published more than thirty-five times.<ref name=NLM/>
===Hospitals and Universities===
{{main|Bimaristan}}
Muslim [[physician]]s set up the earliest dedicated [[hospital]]s in the modern sense, known as [[Bimaristan]]s, which were establishments where the ill were welcomed and cared for by qualified staff, and which were clearly distinguished from the ancient [[healing temple]]s, [[sleep temple]]s, [[hospice]]s, [[assylum]]s, [[lazaret]]s and [[leper]]-houses which were more concerned with isolating the [[sick]] and the [[mad]] from society "rather than to offer them any way to a true cure."<ref>{{citation|last=Micheau|first=Francoise|contribution=The Scientific Institutions in the Medieval Near East|pages=991–2}}, in {{Harv|Morelon|Rashed|1996|pp=985-1007}}</ref> The Bimaristan hospitals later functioned as the first [[public hospital]]s,<ref>[[Peter Barrett]] (2004), ''Science and Theology Since Copernicus: The Search for Understanding'', p. 18, [[Continuum International Publishing Group]], ISBN 056708969X.</ref> [[psychiatric hospital]]s<ref name=Syed/> and [[diploma]]-granting [[Medical school|medical]] [[universities]].<ref>{{citation|last=Sir Glubb|first=John Bagot|author-link=John Bagot Glubb|year=1969|title=A Short History of the Arab Peoples|url=http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/quote2.html#glubb|accessdate=2008-01-25}}</ref>
In the medieval Islamic world, hospitals were built in all major cities; in Cairo for example, the Qalawun Hospital could care for 8,000 patients, and a staff that included physicians, pharmacists, and nurses. One could also access a dispensary, and research facility that led to advances, which included the discovery of the [[Infectious disease|contagious]] nature of [[disease]]s, and research into [[optics]] and the mechanisms of the [[eye]]. Muslim [[Physician|doctors]] were removing [[cataract]]s with [[Hypodermic needle|hollow needles]] over 1000 years before Western physicians dared attempt such a task. Hospitals were built not only for the physically sick, but for the mentally sick also. One of the first ever [[psychiatric hospital]]s that cared for the mentally ill was built in Cairo. Hospitals later spread to Europe during the [[Crusade]]s, inspired by the hospitals in the Middle East. The first hospital in [[Paris]], Les Quinze-vingts, was founded by [[Louis IX of France|Louis IX]] after his return from the Crusade between 1254-1260.<ref name=Sarton>{{citation|first=George|last=Sarton|author-link=George Sarton|title=Introduction to the History of Science|year=1927-31|url=http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/Introl1.html#sarton2|accessdate=2008-01-25}}</ref>
Hospitals in the Islamic world featured [[Test (student assessment)|competency tests]] for doctors, [[drug]] purity regulations, [[nurse]]s and [[intern]]s, and advanced [[surgery|surgical procedures]].<ref name=Woods>Michael Woods, [http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/04102/299292.stm Islam, once at forefront of science, fell by wayside], ''[[Pittsburgh Post-Gazette|Post-Gazette National Bureau]]'', Sunday, April 11, 2004.</ref> Hospitals were also created with separate wards for specific [[illness]]es, so that people with [[contagious disease]]s could be kept away from other patients.<ref>[http://www.bookrags.com/history/islam-science-technology-health/sub12.html Medicine And Health], "Rise and Spread of Islam 622-1500: Science, Technology, Health", ''World Eras'', [[Thomson Gale]].</ref>
One of the features in medieval Muslim hospitals that distinguished them from their contemporaries and predecessors was their significantly higher standards of [[medical ethics]]. Hospitals in the Islamic world treated patients of all religions, ethnicities, and backgrounds, while the hospitals themselves often employed staff from Christian, Jewish and other minority backgrounds. Muslim doctors and physicians were expected to have obligations towards their patients, regardless of their wealth or backgrounds. The ethical standards of Muslim physicians was first laid down in the 9th century by Ishaq bin Ali Rahawi, who wrote the ''Adab al-Tabib'' (''Conduct of a Physician''), the first treatise dedicated to medical ethics. He regarded physicians as "guardians of souls and bodies", and wrote twenty chapters on various topics related to medical ethics.<ref name=Ethics>[http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=570 Islamic Science, the Scholar and Ethics], Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.</ref>
Another unique feature of medieval Muslim hospitals was the role of female staff, who were rarely employed in ancient and medieval healing temples elsewhere in the world. Medieval Muslim hospitals commonly employed female [[nurse]]s, including nurses from as far as [[Sudan]], a sign of great breakthrough. Muslim hospitals were also the first to employ female physicians, the most famous being two female physicians from the [[Ibn Zuhr|Banu Zuhr]] family who served the [[Almohad]] ruler [[Abu Yusuf Ya'qub al-Mansur]] in the 12th century.<ref>[http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/islamic_medical/islamic_13.html The Art as a Profession], [[United States National Library of Medicine]]</ref> Later in the 15th century, female [[surgeon]]s were illustrated for the first time in [[Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu]]'s ''Cerrahiyyetu'l-Haniyye'' (''Imperial Surgery'').<ref>G. Bademci (2006), First illustrations of female "Neurosurgeons" in the fifteenth century by Serefeddin Sabuncuoglu, ''Neurocirugía'' '''17''': 162-165.</ref>
===Encyclopedias===
The first [[encyclopedia]] of medicine in Arabic was [[Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari]]'s ''Firdous al-Hikmah'' (''"Paradise of Wisdom"''), written in seven parts, c. [[860]]. It was the first to deal with [[pediatrics]] and [[child development]], as well as [[psychology]] and [[psychotherapy]]. In the fields of medicine and psychotherapy, the work was primarily influenced by [[Early Islamic philosophy|Islamic thought]] and ancient [[Ayurveda|Indian physicians]] such as [[Sushruta]] and [[Charaka]]. Unlike earlier physicians, however, al-Tabari emphasized strong ties between [[psychology]] and medicine, and the need of psychotherapy and [[counseling]] in the therapeutic treatment of patients.<ref name=Amber>Amber Haque (2004), "Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions
of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists", ''Journal of Religion and Health'' '''43''' (4): 357-377 [361]</ref>
[[Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi]] (Rhazes) wrote the ''Comprehensive Book of Medicine'' in the 9th century. The ''Large Comprehensive'' was the most sought after of all his compositions, in which Rhazes recorded [[clinical]] cases of his own experience and provided very useful recordings of various [[disease]]s. The ''Comprehensive Book of Medicine'', with its introduction of [[measles]] and [[smallpox]], was very influential in Europe.
[[Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi]] (Haly Abbas)'s ''Kitab Kamil as-sina'a at-tibbiyya'' ("''Complete Book of the Medical Art''"), c. [[980]], became better known as the ''Kitab al-Maliki'' ("''Royal Book''", [[Latin]]: ''Liber regalis'') in honour of its royal patron [['Adud al-Dawla]]. In twenty sections, ten of theory and ten of practice, it was more systematic and concise than Razi's ''Hawi'', but more practical than Avicenna's ''Canon'', by which it was superseded. With many interpolations and substitutions, it served as the basis for the ''[[Pantegni]]'' (c. 1087) of [[Constantinus Africanus]], the founding text of the [[Schola Medica Salernitana]] in [[Salerno]].<ref>Charles S. F. Burnett, Danielle Jacquart (eds.), ''Constantine the African and ʻAlī Ibn Al-ʻAbbās Al-Magūsī: The Pantegni and Related Texts''. Leiden: Brill, 1995. ISBN 9004100148</ref>
[[Abu al-Qasim|Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi]] (Abulcasis), regarded as the father of modern [[surgery]],<ref name=Araguz/> contributed greatly to the discipline of medical [[surgery]] with his ''[[Al-Tasrif|Kitab al-Tasrif]]'' ("''Book of Concessions''"), a 30-volume medical [[encyclopedia]] published in [[1000]], which was later translated to [[Latin]] and used in European [[medical school]]s for centuries. He invented numerous [[surgical instruments]] and described them in his ''al-Tasrif''.
[[Avicenna]] (Ibn Sina), a [[Hanbali]] and [[Mu'tazili]] philosopher and doctor in the early [[11th century]], was another influential figure. He is regarded as the father of modern medicine,<ref name=Cesk>Cas Lek Cesk (1980). "The father of medicine, Avicenna, in our science and culture: Abu Ali ibn Sina (980-1037)", ''Becka J.'' '''119''' (1), p. 17-23.</ref> and one of the greatest thinkers and medical scholars in history. His medical encyclopedia, ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'' (c. 1020), remained a standard textbook in Europe for centuries, up until the renewal of the Muslim tradition of scientific medicine. He also wrote ''[[The Book of Healing]]'' (actually a more general encyclopedia of science and philosophy), which became another popular textbook in Europe. Among other things, Avicenna's contributions to medicine include the introduction of systematic [[experiment]]ation and [[quantification]] into the study of [[physiology]],<ref name=Park>Katharine Park (March 1990). "''Avicenna in Renaissance Italy: The Canon and Medical Teaching in Italian Universities after 1500'' by Nancy G. Siraisi", ''The Journal of Modern History'' '''62''' (1), p. 169-170.</ref> the discovery of the contagious nature of [[infectious disease]]s, the introduction of [[quarantine]] to limit the spread of contagious diseases, the introduction of [[experimental medicine]],<ref name=Jacquart>{{citation|journal=European Review|year=2008|volume=16|pages=219–27|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|title=Islamic Pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Theories and Substances|first=Danielle|last=Jacquart|doi=10.1017/S1062798708000215}}</ref> [[evidence-based medicine]], [[clinical trial]]s,<ref name=Tschanz>David W. Tschanz, MSPH, PhD (August 2003). "Arab Roots of European Medicine", ''Heart Views'' '''4''' (2).</ref>
[[randomized controlled trial]]s,<ref name=Eldredge>Jonathan D. Eldredge (2003), "The Randomised Controlled Trial design: unrecognized opportunities for health sciences librarianship", ''Health Information and Libraries Journal'' '''20''', p. 34–44 [36].</ref><ref name=Bloom>Bernard S. Bloom, Aurelia Retbi, Sandrine Dahan, Egon Jonsson (2000), "Evaluation Of Randomized Controlled Trials On Complementary And Alternative Medicine", ''International Journal of Technology Assessment in Health Care'' '''16''' (1), p. 13–21 [19].</ref>
[[efficacy]] tests,<ref name=Brater-449>D. Craig Brater and Walter J. Daly (2000), "Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Principles that presage the 21st century", ''Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics'' '''67''' (5), p. 447-450 [449].</ref><ref name=Daly>Walter J. Daly and D. Craig Brater (2000), "Medieval contributions to the search for truth in clinical medicine", ''Perspectives in Biology and Medicine'' '''43''' (4), p. 530–540 [536], [[Johns Hopkins University Press]].</ref>
[[clinical pharmacology]],<ref name=Brater-448>D. Craig Brater and Walter J. Daly (2000), "Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Principles that presage the 21st century", ''Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics'' '''67''' (5), p. 447-450 [448].</ref>
[[risk factor]] analysis, and the idea of a [[syndrome]] in the [[diagnosis]] of specific diseases,<ref name=Goodman>Lenn Evan Goodman (2003), ''Islamic Humanism'', p. 155, [[Oxford University Press]], ISBN 0195135806.</ref>
the first descriptions on [[bacteria]] and [[virus|viral]] [[organism]]s,<ref name=Unani>[http://www.unani.com/avicenna%20story%203.htm The Canon of Medicine], The American Institute of Unani Medicine, 2003.</ref> the distinction of [[mediastinitis]] from [[pleurisy]], the contagious nature of [[phthisis]] and [[tuberculosis]], the distribution of [[disease]]s by [[water]] and [[soil]], and the first careful descriptions of [[skin]] troubles, [[sexually transmitted disease]]s, [[perversion]]s, and [[Nervous system|nervous]] [[ailment]]s,<ref name=Sarton/> as well the use of [[ice]] to treat [[fever]]s, and the separation of [[medicine]] from [[pharmacology]], which was important to the development of the [[pharmaceutical sciences]].<ref name=Saad/>
[[Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]]'s ''Kitab-al-Saidana'' was an extensive medical encyclopedia which synthesized Islamic medicine with [[Ayurveda|Indian medicine]]. His medical investigations included one of the earliest descriptions on [[Conjoined twins|Siamese twins]].<ref>Dr. A. Zahoor (1997), [http://www.unhas.ac.id/~rhiza/saintis/biruni.html Abu Raihan Muhammad al-Biruni], [[Hasanuddin University]].</ref> [[Ibn Al-Thahabi]] (d. 1033) was famous for writing the first known alphabetical encyclopedia of medicine.
[[Ibn al-Nafis]] (1213-1288) wrote ''Al-Shamil fi al-Tibb'' (''The Comprehensive Book on Medicine''), a voluminous medical encyclopedia that was originally planned to comprise 300 volumes, but he was only able to complete 80 volumes as a result of his death in 1288. However, even in its incomplete state, the book is one of the largest known medical encyclopedias in history, though only a small portion of ''The Comprehensive Book on Medicine'' has survived. During his lifetime, ''The Comprehensive Book on Medicine'' had eventually replaced Ibn Sina's ''The Canon of Medicine'' as a medical authority in the [[Islamic Golden Age|medieval Islamic world]]. Arabic biographers from the 13th onwards considered Ibn al-Nafis the greatest physician in history, some referring to him as "the second Ibn Sina", and others considering him even greater than Ibn Sina.<ref>Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)", p. 58 & 61, ''Electronic Theses and Dissertations'', [[University of Notre Dame]].[http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615]</ref>
The last major medical encyclopedia from the Islamic world was [[Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu]]'s surgical [[atlas]], ''Cerrahiyyetu'l-Haniyye'' (''Imperial Surgery''). Though his work was mostly based on [[Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi]]'s ''[[Al-Tasrif]]'', he also introduced many innovations of his own.
===Legacy===
[[George Sarton]], the father of the [[history of science]], wrote in the ''Introduction to the History of Science'':<ref name=Sarton>[[George Sarton]], ''Introduction to the History of Science''.<br>([[cf.]] Dr. A. Zahoor and Dr. Z. Haq (1997), [http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/Introl1.html Quotations From Famous Historians of Science], Cyberistan.</ref>
{{quote|"Through their medical investigations they not merely widened the horizons of medicine, but enlarged humanistic concepts generally. [...] Thus it can hardly have been accidental that those researches should have led them that were inevitably beyond the reach of Greek masters. If it is regarded as symbolic that the most spectacular achievement of the mid-twentieth century is atomic fission and the nuclear bomb, likewise it would not seem fortuitous that the early Muslim's medical endeavor should have led to a discovery that was quite as revolutionary though possibly more beneficent."}}
{{quote|"A philosophy of self-centredness, under whatever disguise, would be both incomprehensible and reprehensible to the Muslim mind. That mind was incapable of viewing man, whether in health or sickness as isolated from God, from fellow men, and from the world around him. It was probably inevitable that the Muslims should have discovered that [[disease]] need not be born within the patient himself but may reach from outside, in other words, that they should have been the first to establish clearly the existence of [[Infectious disease|contagion]]."}}
{{quote|"One of the most famous exponents of Muslim [[universalism]] and an eminent figure in Islamic learning was [[Ibn Sina]], known in the West as Avicenna (981-1037). For a thousand years he has retained his original renown as one of the greatest thinkers and medical scholars in history. His most important medical works are the [[The Canon of Medicine|Qanun (Canon)]] and a treatise on [[Heart|Cardiac]] [[drug]]s. The '[[The Canon of Medicine|Qanun fi-l-Tibb]]' is an immense encyclopedia of medicine. It contains some of the most illuminating thoughts pertaining to distinction of [[mediastinitis]] from [[pleurisy]]; [[Infectious disease|contagious nature]] of [[phthisis]]; distribution of diseases by water and soil; careful description of skin troubles; of [[sexual disease]]s and [[perversion]]s; of [[Nervous system|nervous]] [[ailment]]s."}}
{{quote|"We have reason to believe that when, during the crusades, Europe at last began to establish hospitals, they were inspired by the [[Arab]]s of near East.... The first hospital in [[Paris]], Les Quinze-vingt, was founded by [[Louis IX of France|Louis IX]] after his return from the crusade 1254-1260."}}
==Scientific method==
Like in other fields of [[Islamic science]], Muslim physicians and doctors developed the first [[scientific method]]s for the field of medicine. This included the introduction of mathematization, [[quantification]], [[experiment]]ation, [[experimental medicine]],<ref name=Jacquart/> [[evidence-based medicine]], [[clinical trial]]s,<ref name=Huff/> [[dissection]], [[animal testing]],<ref name=Saad/> [[human experimentation]] and postmortem [[autopsy]] by Muslim physicians, whilst hospitals in the Islamic world featured the first [[drug test]]s, [[drug]] purity regulations, and [[Test (student assessment)|competency tests]] for doctors.<ref name=Woods/>
===Mathematization===
In the 9th century, [[al-Kindi]] (Alkindus), in ''[[De Gradibus]]'', demonstrated the application of [[Islamic mathematics|mathematics]] and [[quantification]] to medicine, particularly in the field of [[pharmacology]]. This includes the development of a mathematical scale to quantify the strength of [[drug]]s, and a system that would allow a doctor to determine in advance the most [[Medical conditions|critical days]] of a patient's illness, based on the phases of the [[Moon]].<ref name=Frank/>
===Experimental method===
In the 10th century, [[Rhazes|Razi]] (Rhazes) introduced [[Scientific control|controlled experiment]] and [[clinical]] [[observation]] into the field of medicine, and rejected several [[Galen]]ic medical theories unverified by [[experiment]]ation.<ref name=Huff/> The earliest known medical experiment was carried out by Razi in order to find the most hygienic place to build a hospital. He hung pieces of meat in places throughout 10th century [[Baghdad]] and observed where the meat decomposed least quickly, and that was where he built the hospital. In his ''Comprehensive Book of Medicine'', Razi recorded [[clinical]] cases of his own experience and provided very useful recordings of various [[disease]]s. In his ''Doubts about Galen'', Razi was also the first to prove both [[Galen]]'s theory of [[humorism]] and [[Aristotle]]'s theory of [[classical element]]s false using experimentation.<ref name=Stolyarov/> He also introduced [[urinalysis]] and [[stool test]]s.<ref name=Berjak>Rafik Berjak and Muzaffar Iqbal, "Ibn Sina—Al-Biruni correspondence", ''Islam & Science'', December 2003.</ref>
[[Image:Avicenna Persian Physician.jpg|thumb|right|[[Avicenna]], considered the father of modern [[medicine]], introduced [[experimental medicine]] and systematic [[experiment]]ation and [[quantification]] in [[physiology]], discovered the [[Infectious disease|contagious]] nature of [[disease]]s, and described many medical treatments, including [[anasthesia|anesthetics]] and medical and therapeutic [[drug]]s, in ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]''.]]
[[Avicenna]] (Ibn Sina) is considered the father of modern [[medicine]],<ref name=Cesk/> for his introduction of systematic [[experiment]]ation and [[quantification]] into the study of [[physiology]],<ref name=Park/> the introduction of [[experimental medicine]],<ref name=Jacquart/> [[clinical trial]]s,<ref name=Tschanz/> [[risk factor]] analysis, and the idea of a [[syndrome]] in the [[diagnosis]] of specific diseases,<ref name=Goodman/> in his medical encyclopedia, ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'' (c. 1025), which was also the first book dealing with [[evidence-based medicine]], [[randomized controlled trial]]s,<ref name=Eldredge/><ref name=Bloom/> and [[efficacy]] tests.<ref name=Brater-449/><ref name=Daly/>
According to Toby Huff and A. C. Crombie, the ''Canon'' contained "a set of rules that laid down the conditions for the [[experiment]]al use and testing of [[drug]]s" which were "a precise guide for practical experimentation" in the process of "discovering and proving the effectiveness of [[Medication|medical substances]]."<ref name=Huff>{{Citation
|first=Toby
|last=Huff
|year=2003
|title=The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China, and the West
|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]
|isbn=0521529948
|pages=218
}}</ref> Avicenna's emphasis on tested medicines laid the foundations for an experimental approach to [[pharmacology]].<ref>{{citation|last=Jacquart|first=Danielle|journal=European Review|volume=16|issue=2|pages=219–227 [219 & 222–5|title=Islamic Pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Theories and Substances}}</ref> The ''Canon'' laid out the following rules and principles for testing the effectiveness of new [[drug]]s and [[medication]]s, which still form the basis of [[clinical pharmacology]]<ref name=Brater-448/> and modern [[clinical trial]]s:<ref name=Tschanz/>
#"The drug must be free from any extraneous accidental quality."
#"It must be used on a simple, not a composite, disease."
#"The drug must be tested with two contrary types of diseases, because sometimes a drug cures one disease by Its essential qualities and another by its accidental ones."
#"The quality of the drug must correspond to the strength of the disease. For example, there are some drugs whose heat is less than the coldness of certain diseases, so that they would have no effect on them."
#"The time of action must be observed, so that essence and accident are not confused."
#"The effect of the drug must be seen to occur constantly or in many cases, for if this did not happen, it was an accidental effect."
#"The experimentation must be done with the human body, for testing a drug on a lion or a horse might not prove anything about its effect on man."
One of the earliest physicians known to have performed human [[dissection]] and postmortem [[autopsy]] in his medical experiments was [[Ibn Zuhr]] (Avenzoar),<ref name=Hutchinson/> who introduced the experimental method into [[surgery]],<ref name=Rabie2005/> for which he is considered the father of experimental surgery.<ref name=Rabie2006/> There were a number of other early practitioners of human dissection and autopsy at the time,<ref name=Smith>{{citation|first=Emilie|last=Savage-Smith|title=Attitudes Toward Dissection in Medieval Islam|journal=Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences|year=1995|volume=50|issue=1|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|pages=67–110|doi=10.1093/jhmas/50.1.67|pmid=7876530}}</ref> including [[Ibn Tufail]],<ref>Jon Mcginnis, ''Classical Arabic Philosophy: An Anthology of Sources'', p. 284, [[Hackett Publishing Company]], ISBN 0872208710.</ref> [[Saladin]]'s physicians al-Shayzari<ref name=Smith/> and Ibn Jumay, [[Abd-el-latif]],<ref name=Emilie/> and [[Ibn al-Nafis]].<ref name=Oataya/>
The experimental method was introduced into [[botany]], [[materia medica]] and the [[agricultural sciences]] in the 13th century by the [[Al-Andalus|Andalusian]]-Arab botanist Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati, the teacher of [[Ibn al-Baitar]]. Al-Nabati introduced [[empirical]] techniques in the testing, description and identification of numerous materia medica, and he separated unverified reports from those supported by actual tests and observations.<ref name=Huff/>
===Peer review===
The first documented description of a [[peer review]] process is found in the ''Ethics of the Physician'' written by Ishaq bin Ali al-Rahwi (854–931) of al-Raha, [[Syria]], who describes the first [[medical peer review]] process. His work, as well as later Arabic medical manuals, state that a visiting physician must always make duplicate notes of a patient's condition on every visit. When the patient was cured or had died, the notes of the physician were examined by a local medical council of other physicians, who would [[review]] the practising physician's notes to decide whether his/her performance have met the required standards of medical care. If their reviews were negative, the practicing physician could face a [[lawsuit]] from a maltreated patient.<ref>Ray Spier (2002), "The history of the peer-review process", ''Trends in Biotechnology'' '''20''' (8), p. 357-358 [357].</ref>
==Anatomy and Physiology==
In [[anatomy]] and [[physiology]], the first physician to refute [[Galen]]'s theory of [[humorism]] was [[Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi]] (Rhazes) in his ''Doubts about Galen'' in the 10th century. He criticized Galen's theory that the body possessed four separate "humors" (liquid substances), whose balance are the key to health and a natural body-temperature. Razi was the first to prove this theory wrong using an [[experiment]]. He carried out an experiment which would upset this system by inserting a liquid with a different temperature into the body resulting in an increase or decrease of bodily heat, which resembled the temperature of that particular fluid. Razi noted particularly that a warm drink would heat up the body to a degree much higher than its own natural temperature, thus the drink would trigger a response from the body, rather than transferring only its own warmth or coldness to it. This line of criticism was the first comprehensive experimental refutation of Galen's theory of humours and [[Aristotle]]'s theory of the four [[classical element]]s on which it was grounded. Razi's own [[Alchemy (Islam)|chemical]] experiments suggested other qualities of matter, such as "[[oil]]iness" and "[[sulfur]]ousness", or [[inflammability]] and [[salinity]], which were not readily explained by the traditional fire, water, earth and air division of elements.<ref name=Stolyarov>G. Stolyarov II (2002), "Rhazes: The Thinking Western Physician", ''The Rational Argumentator'', Issue VI.</ref>
===Experimental anatomy and physiology===
The contributions of [[Avicenna]] to [[physiology]] include the introduction of systematic [[experiment]]ation and [[quantification]] into the study of physiology in ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'' (c. 1020).<ref name=Park/> The contributions of [[Ibn al-Haytham]] (Alhacen) to [[anatomy]] and physiology include his correct explanation of the process of [[sight]] and [[visual perception]] for the first time in his ''[[Book of Optics]]'', published in [[1021]].<ref name=Saad/> Other innovations introduced by Muslim physicians to the field of physiology by this time include the use of [[animal testing]]<ref name=Saad/> and human [[dissection]].<ref name=Smith/>
[[Ibn Zuhr]] (Avenzoar) (1091-1161) was one of the earliest physicians known to have carried out human [[dissection]] and postmortem [[autopsy]]. He proved that the [[List of skin diseases|skin disease]] [[scabies]] was caused by a [[parasite]], a discovery which upset the theory of [[humorism]] supported by [[Hippocrates]] and [[Galen]]. The removal of the parasite from the patient's body did not involve [[purging]], [[bleeding]], or any other traditional treatments associated with the four humours.<ref name=Hutchinson>[http://encyclopedia.farlex.com/Islamic+medicine Islamic medicine], ''[[Hutchinson Encyclopedia]]''.</ref>
In the 12th century, [[Saladin]]'s physicians al-Shayzari<ref name=Smith/> and Ibn Jumay were also among the earliest to undertake human dissection, and they made explicit appeals for other physicians to do so as well. During a [[famine]] in [[Egypt]] in [[1200]], [[Abd-el-latif]] observed and [[examine]]d a large number of [[skeleton]]s, and he discovered that [[Galen]] was incorrect regarding the formation of the [[bone]]s of the lower [[jaw]] and [[sacrum]].<ref name=Emilie>Emilie Savage-Smith (1996), "Medicine", pp. 951-2, in {{Harv|Morelon|Rashed|1996|pp=903-962}}</ref>
[[Image:ibn al-nafis page.jpg|300px|thumb|The opening page of a medical work by [[Ibn al-Nafis]], the father of the [[Cardiovascular physiology|circulatory physiology]]. This is probably a copy made in [[India]] during the 17th or 18th centuries.]]
===Circulatory anatomy and physiology===
[[Ibn al-Nafis]], the father of [[Cardiovascular physiology|circulatory physiology]],<ref>Chairman's Reflections (2004), "Traditional Medicine Among Gulf Arabs, Part II: Blood-letting", ''Heart Views'' '''5''' (2), p. 74-85 [80].</ref> was another early proponent of human dissection.<ref name=Oataya/> In 1242, he was the first to describe the [[pulmonary circulation]],<ref name=Dabbagh>S. A. Al-Dabbagh (1978). "Ibn Al-Nafis and the pulmonary circulation", ''[[The Lancet]]'' '''1''', p. 1148.</ref> [[coronary circulation]],<ref>Husain F. Nagamia (2003), "Ibn al-Nafīs: A Biographical Sketch of the Discoverer of Pulmonary and Coronary Circulation", ''Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine'' '''1''', p. 22–28.</ref> and [[capillary]] circulation,<ref>Dr. Paul Ghalioungui (1982), "The West denies Ibn Al Nafis's contribution to the discovery of the circulation", ''Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis'', Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait ([[cf.]] [http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/drpaul.html The West denies Ibn Al Nafis's contribution to the discovery of the circulation], ''Encyclopedia of Islamic World'')</ref> which form the basis of the [[circulatory system]], for which he is considered the one of the greatest [[physiologists]] in history.<ref>[[George Sarton]] ([[cf.]] Dr. Paul Ghalioungui (1982), "The West denies Ibn Al Nafis's contribution to the discovery of the circulation", ''Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis'', Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait) <br> ([[cf.]] [http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/drpaul.html The West denies Ibn Al Nafis's contribution to the discovery of the circulation], ''Encyclopedia of Islamic World'')</ref> The first European descriptions of the pulmonary circulation came several centuries later, by [[Michael Servetus]] in 1553 and [[William Harvey]] in 1628. Ibn al-Nafis also described the earliest concept of [[metabolism]],<ref name=Roubi>Dr. Abu Shadi Al-Roubi (1982), "Ibn Al-Nafis as a philosopher", ''Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis'', Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait ([[cf.]] [http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/drroubi.html Ibn al-Nafis As a Philosopher], ''Encyclopedia of Islamic World'').</ref> and developed new Nafisian systems of anatomy, physiology and [[psychology]] to replace the [[Avicenna|Avicennian]] and [[Galen]]ic doctrines, while discrediting many of their erroneous theories on the [[humorism|four humours]], [[Pulse|pulsation]],<ref>Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)", p. 3 & 6, ''Electronic Theses and Dissertations'', [[University of Notre Dame]].[http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615]</ref> [[bone]]s, [[muscle]]s, [[intestine]]s, [[Sensory system|sensory organs]], [[Bile|bilious]] [[Canal (anatomy)|canals]], [[esophagus]], [[stomach]], and the [[anatomy]] of almost every other part of the [[human body]].<ref name=Oataya>Dr. Sulaiman Oataya (1982), "Ibn ul Nafis has dissected the human body", ''Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis'', Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait ([[cf.]] [http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/index.html Ibn ul-Nafis has Dissected the Human Body], ''Encyclopedia of Islamic World'').</ref>
The [[Arab]] physician Ibn al-Lubudi (1210-1267), also from [[Damascus]], wrote the ''Collection of discussions relative to fifty psychological and medical questions'', in which he rejects the theory of four [[Humorism|humours]] supported by [[Galen]] and [[Hippocrates]], discovers that the [[body]] and its preservation depend exclusively upon [[blood]], rejects Galen's idea that women can produce [[sperm]], and discovers that the movement of [[arteries]] are not dependent upon the movement of the [[heart]], that the heart is the first organ to form in a [[fetus]]' body (rather than the [[brain]] as claimed by Hippocrates), and that the [[bone]]s forming the [[skull]] can grow into [[tumor]]s. He also advises that in cases of extreme [[fever]], a patient should not be released from hospital.<ref>L. Leclerc (1876), ''Histoire de la medecine Arabe'', vol. 2, p. 161, [[Paris]]. <br> ([[cf.]] Salah Zaimeche, [http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=497 The Scholars of Aleppo: Al Mahassin, Al Urdi, Al-Lubudi, Al-Halabi], Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation)</ref>
In the 15th century, the ''Tashrih al-badan'' (''Anatomy of the body'') written by [[Mansur ibn Ilyas]] contained comprehensive diagrams of the body's structural, [[Nervous system|nervous]] and [[circulatory system]]s.<ref name=Turner>H. R. Turner (1997), ''Science in Medieval Islam: An Illustrated Introduction'', p. 136-138. [[University of Texas Press]], Austin.</ref>
===Pulsology and sphygmology===
Muslim physicians were pioneers in [[Pulse|pulsology and sphygmology]]. In ancient times, [[Galen]] as well as [[Traditional Chinese medicine|Chinese physicians]] erroneously believed that there was a unique type of [[pulse]] for every [[organ (anatomy)|organ]] of the body and for every [[disease]].<ref name=Hajar>Rachel Hajar (1999), "The Greco-Islamic Pulse", ''Heart Views'' '''1''' (4), pp. 136-140 [138].</ref> Galen also erroneously believed that "every part of an artery pulsates simultaneously" and that the motion of the pulse was due to natural motions (the arteries expanding and contracting naturally) as opposed to foced motions (the heart causing the arteries to either expand or contract).<ref>Fancy, pp. 224-228</ref> The first correct explanations of pulsation were given by Muslim physicians.
[[Avicenna]] was a pioneer of sphygmology after he refined Galen's theory of the pulse and discovered the following in ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'':<ref name=Hajar/>
{{quote|"Every beat of the pulse comprises two movements and two pauses. Thus, expansion : pause : contraction : pause. [...] The pulse is a movement in the heart and arteries ... which takes the form of alternate expansion and contraction."}}
Avicenna also pioneered the modern approach of examining the pulse through the examination of the [[wrist]], which is still practiced in modern times. His reasons for choosing the wrist as the ideal location is due to it being easily
available and the patient not needing to be distressed at the exposure of his/her body. The Latin translation of his ''Canon'' also laid the foundations for the later invention of the [[sphygmograph]].<ref>Rachel Hajar (1999), "The Greco-Islamic Pulse", ''Heart Views'' '''1''' (4), pp. 136-140 [139-140].</ref>
[[Ibn al-Nafis]], in his ''Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon'', completely rejected the Galenic theory of pulsation after his discovery of the [[pulmonary circulation]]. He developed his own Nafisian theory of pulsation after discovering that pulsation is a result of both natural and forced motions, and that the "forced motion must be the contraction of the [[arteries]] caused by the expansion of the [[heart]], and the natural motion must be the expansion of the arteries." He notes that the "arteries and the heart do not expand and contract at the same time, but rather the one contracts while the other expands" and vice versa. He also recognized that the purpose of the pulse is to help disperse the [[blood]] from the heart to the rest of the body. Ibn al-Nafis briefly summarizes his new theory of pulsation:<ref>Fancy, pp. 224-228</ref>
{{quote|"The primary purpose of the expansion and contraction of the heart is to absorb the cool air and expel the wastes of the spirit and the warm air; however, the ventricle of the heart is wide. Moreover, when it expands it is not possible for it to absorb air until it is full, for that would then ruin the temperament of the spirit, its substance and texture, as well as the temperament of the heart. Thus, the heart is necessarily forced to complete its fill by absorbing the spirit."}}
==Epidemiology, Etiology, Pathology==
In [[etiology]] and [[epidemiology]], Muslim physicians were responsible for the discovery of [[infectious disease]] and the [[immune system]], advances in [[pathology]], and early hypotheses related to [[bacteriology]] and [[microbiology]].<ref name=Saad/> Their discovery of [[contagious disease]] in particular is considered revolutionary and is one of the most important discoveries in medicine.<ref name=Sarton/> The earliest ideas on [[Infectious disease|contagion]] can be traced back to several [[hadith]]s attributed to [[Muhammad]] in the [[7th century]], who is said to have understood the contagious nature of [[leprosy]], [[mange]], and [[sexually transmitted disease]].<ref name=Conrad>Lawrence I. Conrad and Dominik Wujastyk (2000), ''Contagion: Perspectives from Pre-Modern Societies'', "A Ninth-Century Muslim Scholar's Discussion". [[Ashgate]], ISBN 0754602583.</ref> These early ideas on contagion arose from the generally sympathetic attitude of Muslim physicians towards lepers (who were often seen in a negative light in other ancient and medieval societies) which can be traced back through hadiths attributed to Muhammad and to the following advice given in the [[Qur'an]]:<ref>Michael W. Dols (1983), "The Leper in Medieval Islamic Society", ''Speculum'' '''58''' (4), p. 891-916.</ref>
{{quote|"There is no fault in the blind, and there is no fault in the lame, and there is no fault in the sick."}}
This eventually led to the theory of contagious disease, which was fully understood by [[Avicenna]] in the 11th century. By then, the pathology of contagion had been fully understood, and as a result, hospitals were created with separate wards for specific [[illness]]es, so that people with contagious diseases could be kept away from other patients who do not have any contagious diseases.<ref>[http://www.bookrags.com/history/islam-science-technology-health/sub12.html Medicine And Health], "Rise and Spread of Islam 622-1500: Science, Technology, Health", ''World Eras'', [[Thomson Gale]].</ref> In ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'' (1020), Avicenna discovered the contagious nature of [[infectious disease]]s such as [[phthisis]] and [[tuberculosis]], the distribution of [[disease]]s by [[water]] and [[soil]], and fully understood the contagious nature of [[sexually transmitted disease]]s.<ref name=Sarton/> In epidemiology, he introduced the method of [[quarantine]] as a means of limiting the spread of contagious diseases,<ref name=Tschanz/> and introduced the method of [[risk factor]] analysis and the idea of a [[syndrome]] in the [[diagnosis]] of specific diseases.<ref name=Goodman/>
In order to find the most hygienic place to build a hospital, [[Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi]] (Rhazes) carried out an [[experiment]] where he hung pieces of meat in places throughout 10th century [[Baghdad]] and observed where the meat decomposed least quickly. Razi also wrote the ''Comprehensive Book of Medicine'' in the 9th century. The ''Large Comprehensive'' was the most sought after of all his compositions, in which Razi recorded [[clinical]] cases of his own experience and provided very useful recordings of various [[disease]]s, as well as the discovery of [[measles]] and [[smallpox]]. The ''Large Comprehensive'' also criticized the views of [[Galen]], after Razi had observed many clinical cases which did not follow Galen's descriptions of [[fever]]s. For example, he stated that Galen's descriptions of [[urinary]] [[ailment]]s were inaccurate as he had only seen three cases, while Razi had studied hundreds of such cases in hospitals of [[Baghdad]] and [[Rayy]].<ref>Emilie Savage-Smith (1996), "Medicine", p. 917, in {{Harv|Morelon|Rashed|1996|pp=903-962}}</ref> The ''Comprehensive Book of Medicine'', especially with its introduction of measles and smallpox, was very influential in Europe.
[[Ibn Zuhr]] (Avenzoar) was the first physician to provide a real scientific [[etiology]] for the [[Inflammation|inflammatory diseases]] of the [[ear]], and the first to clearly discuss the causes of [[stridor]].<ref>Prof. Dr. Mostafa Shehata, "The Ear, Nose and Throat in Islamic Medicine", ''Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine'', 2003 (1): 2-5 [4].</ref> He also gave the first accurate descriptions on [[neurological]] diseases, including [[meningitis]], intracranial [[thrombophlebitis]], and [[mediastinal germ cell tumor]]s. [[Averroes]] suggested the existence of [[Parkinson's disease]] and attributed [[photoreceptor]] properties to the [[retina]]. [[Maimonides]] wrote about [[neuropsychiatric]] disorders and described [[rabies]] and [[Deadly nightshade|belladonna]] intoxication.<ref name=Araguz/>
===Allergology and immunology===
The study of [[allergology]] and [[immunology]] originate from the Islamic world.<ref name=Saad/> [[Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi]] (Rhazes) was responsible for discovering "allergic [[asthma]]", and was the first physician known to have written articles on [[allergy]] and the [[immune system]]. In the ''Sense of Smelling'', he explains the occurrence of [[rhinitis]] after smelling a rose during the Spring. In the ''Article on the Reason Why Abou Zayd Balkhi Suffers from Rhinitis When Smelling Roses in Spring'', he dicusses seasonal rhinitis, which is the same as allergic asthma or [[hay fever]]. Al-Razi was the first to realize that [[fever]] is a natural defense mechanism, the body's way of fighting disease.
The distinction between [[smallpox]] and [[measles]] also dates back to al-Razi. The medical procedure of [[inoculation]] was practiced in the medieval Islamic world in order to treat smallpox. This was later followed by the first [[smallpox vaccine]] in the form of [[cowpox]], invented in [[Turkey]] in the early 18th century.<ref name=Vallely>Paul Vallely, [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_20060311/ai_n16147544 How Islamic Inventors Changed the World], ''[[The Independent]]'', 11 March 2006.</ref>
===Hematology===
In [[hematology]], [[Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi]] (Abulcasis) wrote the first description on [[haemophilia]] in his ''[[Al-Tasrif]]'', in which he wrote of an Andalusian family whose males died of bleeding after minor injuries.<ref name=Patricia/>
===Microorganisms===
Muslim physicians speculated on the existence of [[bacteria]] and [[microorganism]]s, though these early theories were not proven or observed until the 17th century, when investigations into [[microbiology]] were only made possible with the invention of the [[microscope]]. These early ideas did, however, influence [[Girolamo Fracastoro]].
[[Avicenna]] hypothesized that bodily [[secretion]] is contaminated by foul foreign earthly bodies before being infected.<ref name=Syed>Ibrahim B. Syed PhD, "Islamic Medicine: 1000 years ahead of its times", ''Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine'', 2002 (2): 2-9.</ref><ref name=Unani/>
When the [[Black Death]] [[bubonic plague]] reached [[al-Andalus]] in the 14th century, Ibn Khatima hypothesized that infectious diseases are caused by small "[[Microorganism|minute bodies]]" which enter the human body and cause disease. Another 14th century Andalusian physician, Ibn al-Khatib (1313-1374), wrote a treatise called ''On the Plague'', in which he stated:<ref name=Syed/>
{{quote|"The existence of contagion is established by experience, investigation, the evidence of the senses and trustworthy reports. These facts constitute a sound argument. The fact of infection becomes clear to the investigator who notices how he who establishes contact with the aftlicted gets the disease, whereas he who is not in contact remains safe, and how transmission is affected through garments, vessels and earrings."}}
===Parasitology===
In [[parasitology]], [[Ibn Zuhr]], through his [[dissection]]s, was able to prove that the [[List of skin diseases|skin disease]] [[scabies]] was caused by a [[parasite]], a discovery which upset the theory of [[humorism]] supported by [[Hippocrates]], [[Galen]] and Avicenna. The removal of the parasite from the patient's body did not involve [[purging]], [[bleeding]], or any other traditional treatments associated with the four humours.<ref name=Hutchinson/>
==Dentistry==
===Dental surgery===
Muslim dentists were pioneers in [[dentistry]], particularly [[dental surgery]] and [[dental restoration]]. The earliest medical text to deal with dental surgery in detail was the ''[[Al-Tasrif]]'' by [[Abulcasis]]. He gave detailed methods for the successful replantation of dislodged teeth.<ref>Henry W. Noble, PhD (2002), [http://www.rcpsg.ac.uk/hdrg/2002oct4.htm Tooth transplantation: a controversial story], History of Dentistry Research Group, Scottish Society for the History of Medicine.</ref>
===Dental restoration===
Another 10th century Arab dentist, Abu Gaafar Amed ibn Ibrahim ibn abi Halid al-Gazzar, from [[North Africa]], described methods of dental restoration in his ''Kitab Zad al-Musafir wa qut al-Hadir'' (''Provision for the traveler and nutrition for the sedentary''), which was later translated into Latin as ''Viaticum'' by [[Constantine the African]] in [[Salerno]]. He provided the earliest treatment for [[dental caries]]:<ref>Salma Almahdi (2003), "Muslim Scholar Contribution in Restorative Dentistry", ''Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine'' '''2''', pp. 56-57.</ref>
{{quote|"With caries purging must take place first, and then the teeth can be filled with [[gall]]nut, [[dye]]r’s, [[buckthorn]], terbinth [[resin]]e, [[cedar]] resine, [[myrrh]], [[Anacyclus pyrethrum|pellitory]] and [[honey]], or [[Fumigation|fumigated]] with [[colocynth]]is root."}}
Al-Gazzar also recommended [[arsenic]] compound in his [[prescription]] for holes in the [[teeth]], as well as against dental caries, loosening, and relaxing of the nerves as a result of too many [[fluid]]s.<ref name=Almahdi>Salma Almahdi (2003), "Muslim Scholar Contribution in Restorative Dentistry", ''Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine'' '''2''', pp. 56-57 [57].</ref>
[[Avicenna]] dedicated many chapters of ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'' to dentistry, particularly dental restoration. Influenced by al-Gazzar, he provided his own treatment for dental caries, stating that carious teeth should be filled with [[cypress]], [[grass]], [[mastix]], myrrh, or [[styrax]], among others, with gallnut, yellow [[sulfur]], [[pepper]], [[camphor]], and with [[drug]]s for [[pain relief]], like arsenic or [[wolf]]’s [[milk]]. He further stated that arsenic boiled in [[oil]] should be dripped into the carious defect.<ref name=Almahdi/>
Both Avicenna and al-Gazzar, however, believed that dental caries were caused by "tooth worms" like what the ancients believed. This was proven false in 1200 by another Muslim physician named Gaubari in his ''Book of the Elite concerning the unmasking of mysteries and tearing of veils'' which dedicated a chapter to dentistry. He was the first to reject the idea of caries being caused by tooth worms, and he stated that tooth worms in fact do not even exist. The theory of the tooth worm was thus no longer accepted in the Islamic medical community from the 13th century onwards.<ref name=Almahdi/>
==Obstetrics==
===Perinatology===
Muslim physicians made many advances in [[obstetrics]], especially [[perinatology]]. In ancient times, Greek and Hellenistic writers such as [[Hippocrates]], [[Galen]], [[Ptolemy]] and [[Paul of Aegina]] erroneously believed that [[Contraction (childbirth)|uterine contractions]] were only an indication of the onset of [[childbirth]] and that the [[fetus]] would subsequently swim its way out of the [[womb]] and [[birth canal]]. In the 10th century, [[Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi]] proved this theory false as he discovered that uterine contractions are in fact the cause of delivery of the fetus. [[Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi]] offered advice to [[midwives]] on childbirth and complex obstetrics in his ''[[Al-Tasrif]]'' (1000) and made a number of advances in the field. He pioneered the method of fetal [[craniotomy]] for the delivery of obstructed labour, and he introduced the required surgical instruments for this operation. [[Caesarean section]]s were described in detail by [[Ferdowsi]] in his ''[[Shahnameh]]'' (1010) and by [[al-Biruni]] in his ''Al-Athar al-Baliyah''.<ref name=Abouleish>Ezzat Abouleish, "Contributions Of Islam To Medicine", in Shahid Athar (1993), ''Islamic Perspectives in Medicine'', [[Edinburgh University Press]], Edinburgh.</ref>
===Embryology===
:''Further information: [[The relation between Islam and science#Embryology|The relation between Islam and science: Embryology]]''
[[Embryology]] was discussed to some extent in early [[Islamic literature]], including the [[Qur'an]] and the [[Hadith]] literature (see [[The relation between Islam and science]] for more details).
[[Ibn al-Nafis]] criticized previous [[Aristotelianism|Aristotelian]], Galenic and Avicennian explanations of [[embryology]] and proceeds to develop his own theories on embryology and [[generation]]. He believed that when a male and female [[semen]] mix, and when they create a mixed [[matter]] that has an appropriate temperament to receive an animal or human [[soul]], [[God]] issues a soul to this matter, which then develops into an [[embryo]] that grows and generates [[organ (anatomy)|organ]]s.<ref>Fancy, pp. 147-148</ref> He further writes:
{{quote|"Galen believes that each of the two semen has in it the active faculty to fashion and the passive faculty to be fashioned, however the active faculty is stronger in the male semen while the passive in the female semen. The investigators amongst the ''falasifa'' believe that the male semen only has the active faculty, while the female
only has the passive faculty. ... As for our opinion on this, and God knows best, neither of the two semen has in it an active faculty to fashion."<ref>Fancy, p. 236</ref>}}
He then shows that once the male semen and female semen are brought together in the womb, the female semen quenches the hot fire of the male semen through its own cool and wet nature.<ref>Fancy, p. 237</ref>
The Arab physician Ibn al-Quff (1233-1305), a student of Ibn al-Nafis, described embryology and perinatology more accurately in his ''Al-Jami'':
{{quote|"The formation of a foam stage in the first 6 to 7 days, which in 13 to 16 days, is gradually transformed into a clot and in 28 to 30 days into a small chunk of meat. In 38 to 40 days, the head appears separate from the shoulders and limbs. The brain and heart followed by the liver are formed before other organs. The fetus takes its food from the mother in order to grow and to replenish what it discards or loses ... There are three membranes covering and protecting the fetus, of which the first connects arteries and veins with those in the mothers womb through the umbilical cord. The veins pass food for the nourishment of the fetus, while the arteries transmit air. By the end of seven months, all organs are complete ... After delivery, the baby's umbilical cord is cut at a distance of four fingers breadth from the body, and is tied with fine, soft woolen twine. The area of the cut is covered with a filament moistened in olive oil over which a styptic to prevent bleeding is sprinkled ... After delivery, the baby is nursed by his mother whose milk is the best. Then the midwife puts the baby to sleep in a darkened quiet room... Nursing the baby is performed two to three times daily. Before nursing, the mother's breast should be squeezed out two or three times to get rid of the milk near the nipple."<ref name=Abouleish/>}}
==Pharmaceutical sciences==
[[Al-Kindi]] was a renowned 9th century [[Arab]] doctor who wrote many books on the subject of medicine. His most important work in the field was ''[[De Gradibus]]'', in which he demonstrated the application of [[Islamic mathematics|mathematics]] to medicine, particularly in the field of [[pharmacology]]. This includes the development of a mathematical scale to quantify the strength of drugs, and a system that would allow a doctor to determine in advance the most critical days of a patient's illness, based on the phases of the [[Moon]].<ref name=Frank>Felix Klein-Frank (2001), ''Al-Kindi'', in [[Oliver Leaman]] and [[Hossein Nasr]], ''History of Islamic Philosophy'', p. 172. [[Routledge]], London.</ref>
In his ''Comprehensive Book of Medicine'', [[Rhazes|Razi]] (Rhazes) recorded [[clinical]] cases of his own experience and provided very useful recordings of various [[disease]]s. The ''Comprehensive Book of Medicine'', with its introduction of [[measles]] and [[smallpox]], was very influential in Europe. Razi also carried out an [[experiment]] in order to find the most hygienic place to build a hospital. He hung pieces of meat in places throughout 10th century [[Baghdad]] and observed where the meat decomposed least quickly, and that was where he built his hospital.
In the 10th century, Abu al-Mansur [[al-Muwaffak]] mentions for the first time some [[Alchemy (Islam)|chemical facts]] to distinguish certain medicines.<ref>Georges C. Anawati, "Arabic alchemy", p. 868, in {{Harv|Morelon|Rashed|1996|pp=853-902}}</ref>
===Clinical pharmacology===
[[Avicenna]]'s contribution to [[pharmacology]] and the [[pharmaceutical sciences]] in ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'' (1020s) include the introduction of systematic [[experiment]]ation and [[quantification]] into pharmacology and the study of physiology,<ref name=Park/> the introduction of [[clinical pharmacology]],<ref name=Brater-448/>
[[experimental medicine]],<ref name=Jacquart/> [[evidence-based medicine]], [[clinical trial]]s,<ref name=Tschanz/>
[[randomized controlled trial]]s,<ref name=Eldredge/><ref name=Bloom/>
[[efficacy]] tests,<ref name=Brater-449/><ref name=Daly/>
the experimental use and [[Drug test|testing of drugs]], a precise guide for practical experimentation in the process of discovering and proving the effectiveness of medical [[Chemical substance|substances]],<ref name=Huff/> and the first careful descriptions of [[skin]] troubles, [[sexually transmitted disease]]s, [[perversion]]s, and [[Nervous system|nervous]] [[ailment]]s,<ref name=Sarton/> as well the use of [[ice]] to treat [[fever]]s, and the separation of [[medicine]] from [[pharmacology]], which was important to the development of the pharmaceutical sciences.<ref name=Saad/> The ''Canon'' laid out the following rules and principles for testing the effectiveness of new [[drug]]s and [[medication]]s, which still form the basis of clinical pharmacology<ref name=Brater-448/> and modern clinical trials:<ref name=Tschanz/>
#"The drug must be free from any extraneous accidental quality."
#"It must be used on a simple, not a composite, disease."
#"The drug must be tested with two contrary types of diseases, because sometimes a drug cures one disease by Its essential qualities and another by its accidental ones."
#"The quality of the drug must correspond to the strength of the disease. For example, there are some drugs whose heat is less than the coldness of certain diseases, so that they would have no effect on them."
#"The time of action must be observed, so that essence and accident are not confused."
#"The effect of the drug must be seen to occur constantly or in many cases, for if this did not happen, it was an accidental effect."
#"The experimentation must be done with the human body, for testing a drug on a lion or a horse might not prove anything about its effect on man."
===Pharmacy===
In the field of [[pharmacy]], the first [[drugstore]]s were opened by Muslim pharmacists in [[Baghdad]] in 754,<ref name=Hadzovic>S. Hadzovic (1997). "Pharmacy and the great contribution of Arab-Islamic science to its development", ''Medicinski Arhiv'' '''51''' (1-2), p. 47-50.</ref> while the first [[apothecary]] shops were also founded by Muslim practitioners.<ref>Sharif Kaf al-Ghazal, ''Jounal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine'', 2004 (3), pp. 3-9 [8].</ref>
The advances made in the Middle East by [[Alchemy (Islam)|Muslim chemists]] in [[botany]] and [[chemistry]] led Muslim physicians to substantially develop [[pharmacology]]. [[Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi]] (Rhazes) (865-915), for instance, acted to promote the medical uses of chemical compounds. [[Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi]] (Abulcasis) (936-1013) pioneered the preparation of medicines by [[sublimation]] and [[distillation]]. His ''Liber servitoris'' is of particular interest, as it provides the reader with recipes and explains how to prepare the `simples’ from which were compounded the complex drugs then generally used. [[Shapur ibn Sahl]] (d 869), was, however, the first physician to initiate [[pharmacopoeia]], describing a large variety of drugs and remedies for ailments. [[Al-Biruni]] (973-1050) wrote one of the most valuable Islamic works on pharmacology entitled ''Kitab al-Saydalah'' (''The Book of Drugs''), where he gave detailed knowledge of the properties of drugs and outlined the role of pharmacy and the functions and duties of the pharmacist. [[Avicenna|Ibn Sina]] (Avicenna), too, described no less than 700 preparations, their properties, mode of action and their indications. He devoted in fact a whole volume to simple drugs in ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]''. Of great impact were also the works by al-Maridini of [[Baghdad]] and [[Cairo]], and Ibn al-Wafid (1008-1074), both of which were printed in [[Latin]] more than fifty times, appearing as ''De Medicinis universalibus et particularibus'' by `[[Mesue]]' the younger, and the ''Medicamentis simplicibus'' by `Abenguefit'. [[Peter of Abano]] (1250-1316) translated and added a supplement to the work of al-Maridini under the title ''De Veneris''. Al-Muwaffaq’s contributions in the field are also pioneering. Living in the 10th century, he wrote ''The foundations of the true properties of Remedies'', amongst others describing [[arsenious oxide]], and being acquainted with [[silicic acid]]. He made clear distinction between [[sodium carbonate]] and [[potassium carbonate]], and drew attention to the poisonous nature of [[copper]] compounds, especially copper [[vitriol]], and also [[lead]] compounds. For the story, he also mentions the [[Distilled water|distillation of sea-water]] for drinking.<ref>Levey M. (1973), ''Early Arabic Pharmacology'', E. J. Brill, Leiden.</ref>
===Analgesics, antiemetics, antipyretics, diuretics===
In the [[Islamic Golden Age|medieval Islamic world]], Arabic physicians discovered the [[diuretic]], [[antiemetic]], [[antiepileptic]], [[anti-inflammatory]], [[analgesic]] (pain killing) and [[antipyretic]] properties of [[medical cannabis]], specifically [[cannabis sativa]], and used it extensively as [[medication]] from the 8th to 18th centuries.<ref>Indalecio Lozano PhD (2001), "The Therapeutic Use of Cannabis sativa (L.) in Arabic Medicine", '' Journal of Cannabis Therapeutics'' '''1''' (1): 63-70</ref>
===Antiseptics===
[[Rhazes|Razi]] (10th century) used [[Mercury (element)|mercurial]] compounds as topical [[antiseptic]]s. From the 10th century, Muslim physicians and surgeons were applying purified [[alcohol]] to wounds as an antiseptic agent. Surgeons in Islamic Spain utilized special methods for maintaining antisepsis prior to and during surgery. They also originated specific protocols for maintaining [[hygiene]] during the post-operative period. Their success rate was so high that dignitaries throughout Europe came to [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]], [[Spain]], to be treated at what was comparably the "[[Mayo Clinic]]" of the Middle Ages.<ref name=Ajram/>
===Medical and therapeutic drugs===
[[Rhazes|Razi]], [[Avicenna]], [[al-Kindi]], [[Ibn Rushd]], [[Abu al-Qasim]], [[Ibn Zuhr]], [[Ibn al-Baitar]], [[Ibn Al-Jazzar]], Ibn Juljul, Ibn al-Quff, Ibn an-Nafs, [[al-Biruni]], [[Ibn Sahl]] and hundreds of other Muslim physicians developed [[Pharmacology|drug therapy]] and [[Medication|medicinal]] [[drug]]s for the treatment of specific symptoms and diseases. The word "drug" is derived from Arabic{{Fact|date=July 2007}}. Their use of practical experience and careful observation was extensive.<ref name=Ajram/>
[[Chemotherapy|Chemotherapeutical]] [[drug]]s were first developed in the Muslim world. Muslim physicians used a variety of specific substances to destroy [[Microorganism|microbes]]. They applied [[sulfur]] topically specifically to kill the [[scabies]] [[mite]].<ref name=Ajram/>
===Medicinal alcohol===
Numerous Muslim [[chemist]]s produced medicinal-grade [[alcohol]] through [[distillation]] as early as the 10th century and manufactured on a large scale the first distillation devices for use in [[chemistry]]. They used alcohol as a [[solvent]] and antiseptic.<ref name=Ajram/>
==Surgery==
<!-- Deleted image removed: [[Image:Albucasis.gif|thumb|right|[[Abu al-Qasim]] (Abulcasis), the father of modern [[surgery]], performed surgeries under [[inhalant]] [[anesthesia]], and invented the [[plaster]] and many [[surgical instruments]].]] -->
[[Abu al-Qasim|Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi]] (Abulcasis), regarded as the father of modern [[surgery]],<ref name=Araguz>Martin-Araguz, A.; Bustamante-Martinez, C.; Fernandez-Armayor, Ajo V.; Moreno-Martinez, J. M. (2002). "Neuroscience in al-Andalus and its influence on medieval scholastic medicine", ''Revista de neurología'' '''34''' (9), p. 877-892.</ref> contributed greatly to the discipline of medical [[surgery]] with his ''[[Al-Tasrif|Kitab al-Tasrif]]'' (''Book of Concessions'' or ''The Method of Medicine''), a 30-volume medical [[encyclopedia]] published in [[1000]], which was later translated to [[Latin]] and used in European [[medical school]]s for centuries. His influential ''al-Tasrif'' introduced his famous collection of over 200 [[surgical instruments]]. Many of these instruments were never used before by any previous surgeons. Hamidan, for example, listed at least twenty six innovative surgical instruments that were not known before Abulcasis. The surgical instruments he invented include the first instruments unique to women,<ref name=Saad>Bashar Saad, Hassan Azaizeh, Omar Said (October 2005). "Tradition and Perspectives of Arab Herbal Medicine: A Review", ''Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine'' '''2''' (4), p. 475-479 [476]. [[Oxford University Press]].</ref> as well as the surgical uses of [[catgut]] and [[forceps]], the [[Ligature (medicine)|ligature]], [[surgical needle]], [[scalpel]], [[curette]], [[retractor]], surgical [[spoon]], [[Sound (medical instrument)|sound]], surgical [[hook]], surgical [[rod]], [[Speculum (medical)|specula]],<ref name=Hadidi/> bone [[saw]],<ref name=Vallely/> and [[plaster]].<ref name=Khan>Zafarul-Islam Khan, [http://milligazette.com/Archives/15-1-2000/Art5.htm At The Threshold Of A New Millennium – II], ''The Milli Gazette''.</ref> His work also included anatomical descriptions and sections on [[orthopaedic surgery]] and [[ophthalmology]].<ref>Dr. Monzur Ahmed, [http://www.ummah.net/history/scholars/el_zahrawi El Zahrawi (Albucasis) - father of surgery], ''Muslim Technologist'', August 1990.</ref> The influence of the ''Al-Tasrif'' eventually led to the decline of the [[barber surgeon]]s who were prevalent before his time, and they were instead replaced by physician-surgeons in the Islamic world.
[[Ibn al-Haytham]] (Alhacen) made important advances in [[eye surgery]], as he studied and correctly explained the process of [[sight]] and [[visual perception]] for the first time in his ''[[Book of Optics]]'', published in [[1021]].<ref name=Saad/> [[Avicenna]] was the first to describe the surgical procedure of [[intubation]] in order to to facilitate [[breath]]ing, and he also described the "soporific sponge", an [[Anesthesia|anasthetic]] imbued with [[aromatics]] and [[narcotics]], which was to be placed under a patient's nose during surgical operations. He also described the first known surgical treatment for [[cancer]], stating that the [[excision]] should be radical and that all diseased [[Tissue (biology)|tissue]] should be removed, including the use of [[amputation]] or the removal of [[vein]]s running in the direction of the [[tumor]].<ref name=Patricia/> Ammar ibn Ali al-[[Mosul|Mawsili]] is also notable for inventing the [[Injection (medicine)|injection]] [[syringe]] and [[hypodermic needle]] for the extraction of [[cataract]]s in the first successful [[cataract surgery]].<ref name=Syed-7/><ref name=Finger/>
[[Ibn al-Nafis]] dedicated a volume of ''The Comprehensive Book on Medicine'' to surgery. He described three stages of a surgical operation. The first stage is the pre-operation period which he calls the "time of presentation" when the surgeon carries out a [[diagnosis]] on the affected area of the patient's body. The second stage is the acutal operation which he calls the "time of operative treatment" when the surgeon repairs the affected [[Organ (anatomy)|organs]] of the patient. The third stage is the post-operation period which he calls the "time of preservation" when the patient needs to take care of himself and be taken care of by [[nurse]]s and doctors until he recovers.<ref>Dr. Albert Zaki Iskandar (1982), "Comprehensive Book on the Art of Medicine", ''Symposium on Ibn al Nafis'', Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait ([[cf.]] [http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/iskandar.html Comprehensive Book on the Art of Medicine], ''Encyclopedia of Islamic World'')</ref> ''The Comprehensive Book on Medicine'' was also the earliest book dealing with the [[decubitus]] of a patient.<ref>Albert Z. Iskandar (1974), "Ibn al-Nafis", in ''[[Dictionary of Scientific Biography]]'', Vol. 9, p. 602-606 [603].</ref>
===Anesthesiology===
Modern [[anesthesia]] was developed by Muslim [[anesthesiologist]]s. They were the first to utilize oral as well as [[Inhalational anaesthetic|inhalant anesthetics]]. In [[Al-Andalus|Islamic Spain]], [[Abu al-Qasim]] and [[Ibn Zuhr]], among other Muslim surgeons, performed hundreds of [[Surgery|surgeries]] under inhalant anesthesia with the use of [[narcotic]]-soaked [[sponge]]s which were placed over the face. Muslim physicians also introduced the anesthetic value of [[opium]] derivatives during the [[Middle Ages]]. [[Avicenna|Ibn Sina]] (Avicenna) wrote about its medical uses in his works, which later influenced the works of [[Paracelsus]].<ref name=Ajram>Dr. Kasem Ajram (1992). ''Miracle of Islamic Science'', Appendix B. Knowledge House Publishers. ISBN 0911119434.</ref><ref>[[Sigrid Hunke]] (1969), ''Allah Sonne Uber Abendland, Unser Arabische Erbe'', Second Edition, p. 279-280: {{quote|"The science of medicine has gained a great and extremely important discovery and that is the use of general anaesthetics for surgical operations, and how unique, efficient, and merciful for those who tried it the Muslim anaesthetic was. It was quite different from the drinks the Indians, Romans and Greeks were forcing their patients to have for relief of pain. There had been some allegations to credit this discovery to an Italian or to an Alexandrian, but the truth is and history proves that, the art of using the anaesthetic sponge is a pure Muslim technique, which was not known before. The sponge used to be dipped and left in a mixture prepared from cannabis, opium, hyoscyamus and a plant called Zoan."}} <br> ([[cf.]] Prof. Dr. M. Taha Jasser, [http://www.islamset.com/hip/i_medcin/taha_jasser.html Anaesthesia in Islamic medicine and its influence on Western civilization], Conference
on Islamic Medicine)</ref>
===Cataract surgery===
:''See [[#Ophthalmology|Ophthalmology]]''
===Dental surgery===
:''See [[#Dentistry|Dentistry]]''
===Experimental surgery===
[[Ibn Zuhr]] (Avenzoar) is considered the father of [[experiment]]al surgery,<ref name=Rabie2006>Rabie E. Abdel-Halim (2006), "Contributions of Muhadhdhab Al-Deen Al-Baghdadi to the progress of medicine and urology", ''Saudi Medical Journal'' '''27''' (11): 1631-1641.</ref> for introducing the experimental method into surgery in his ''Al-Taisir''.<ref name=Rabie2005>Rabie E. Abdel-Halim (2005), "Contributions of Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) to the progress of surgery: A study and translations from his book Al-Taisir", ''Saudi Medical Journal 2005; Vol. 26 (9): 1333-1339''.</ref> He was the first to employ [[animal testing]] in order to experiment with surgical procedures before applying them to human patients.<ref name=Rabie2005/> He also performed the first [[dissection]]s and postmortem [[Autopsy|autopsies]] on humans as well as animals.<ref name=Hutchinson/>
===Eye surgery===
{{main|Ophthalmology in medieval Islam}}
===Neurosurgery===
{{main|Islamic psychology}}
===Tracheotomy===
The surgical procedure of [[tracheotomy]] was invented by [[Ibn Zuhr]] (Avenzoar) in the 12th century.<ref name=Makki/>
==Surgical instruments==
===Adhesive bandage and Plaster===
[[Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi]] (Abulcasis), in his ''[[Al-Tasrif]]'' (1000), invented the modern [[plaster]] and [[adhesive bandage]], which are still used in [[hospital]]s throughout the world.<ref name=Khan>Zafarul-Islam Khan, [http://milligazette.com/Archives/15-1-2000/Art5.htm At The Threshhold (sic) Of A New Millennium – II], ''The Milli Gazette''.</ref> The use of plasters for [[fracture]]s became a standard practice for Arab physicians, though this practice was not widely adopted in Europe until the 19th century.<ref name=Patricia/>
===Catgut and Forceps===
[[Abu al-Qasim]]'s use of [[catgut]] for internal stitching is still practised in modern surgery. The [[catgut]] appears to be the only natural substance capable of dissolving and is acceptable by the body
Abu al-Qasim also invented the [[forceps]] for extracting a dead [[fetus]], as illustrated in the ''[[Al-Tasrif]]''.<ref>Ingrid Hehmeyer and Aliya Khan (2007). "Islam's forgotten contributions to medical science", ''Canadian Medical Association Journal'' '''176''' (10).</ref>
=== Cauter and Ligature ===
A special medical instrument called a cauter, used for the [[cauterization]] of [[Artery|arteries]], was first described by Abu al-Qasim in his ''Kitab al-Tasrif''.<ref>Mohamed Kamel Hussein (1978), ''The Concise History of Medicine and Pharmacy'' ([[cf.]] Mostafa Shehata, "The Father Of Islamic Medicine: An International Questionnaire", ''Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine'', 2002 (2): 58-59 [58])</ref>
In the ''[[Al-Tasrif]]'', [[Abu al-Qasim]] also introduced the use of [[Ligature (medicine)|ligature]] for the arteries in lieu of [[cauterization]].<ref>Rabie E. Abdel-Halim, Ali S. Altwaijiri, Salah R. Elfaqih, Ahmad H. Mitwall (2003), "''Extraction of urinary bladder described'' by Abul-Qasim Khalaf Alzahrawi (Albucasis) (325-404 H, 930-1013 AD)", ''Saudi Medical Journal'' '''24''' (12): 1283-1291 [1289].</ref>
=== Cotton dressing and Surgical needle ===
Al-Zahrawi was the first surgeon to make use of [[cotton]] (which itself is derived from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] word ''qutn'') as a [[Dressing (medical)|medical dressing]] for controlling [[Bleeding|hemorrhage]].<ref name=Patricia/>
The [[Suture|surgical needle]] was invented and described by [[Abu al-Qasim]] in his ''[[Al-Tasrif]]''.<ref name=Makki>A. I. Makki. "Needles & Pins", ''AlShindagah'' '''68''', January-February 2006.</ref>
===Injection syringe and hypodermic needle===
The [[Iraq]]i surgeon Ammar ibn Ali al-[[Mosul|Mawsili]] invented the first hollow [[hypodermic needle]] and [[Injection (medicine)|injection]] [[syringe]] in ''circa'' 1000 using a hollow [[glass]] tube and [[suction]] to extract and remove [[cataract]]s from a patient's eye during a [[cataract surgery]].<ref>{{citation|title=Origins of Neuroscience: A History of Explorations Into Brain Function|first=Stanley|last=Finger|year=1994|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=0195146948|pages=70}}</ref>
===Other instruments===
Other surgical instruments invented by [[Abu al-Qasim]] and first described in his ''[[Al-Tasrif]]'' (1000) include the [[scalpel]], [[curette]], [[retractor]], surgical [[spoon]], [[Sound (medical instrument)|sound]], surgical [[hook]], surgical [[rod]], and [[Speculum (medical)|specula]],<ref name=Hadidi>Khaled al-Hadidi (1978), "The Role of Muslem Scholars in Oto-rhino-Laryngology", ''The Egyptian Journal of O.R.L.'' '''4''' (1), p. 1-15. ([[cf.]] [http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=674 Ear, Nose and Throat Medical Practice in Muslim Heritage], Foundation for Science Technology and Civilization.)</ref> as well as the bone [[saw]].<ref name=Vallely/>
==Therapy==
===Aromatherapy===
[[Steam distillation]] was invented by [[Avicenna]] in the early [[11th century]] for the purpose of producing [[essential oil]]s, giving rise to [[aromatherapy]]. As a result, he is regarded as a pioneer of [[aromatherapy]].<ref>Marlene Ericksen (2000). ''Healing with Aromatherapy'', p. 9. McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 0658003828.</ref>
===Cancer therapy===
In [[unproven cancer therapy|cancer therapy]], [[Avicenna]] described the first known treatments for [[cancer]] in ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]''; one was a surgical method involving [[amputation]] or removal of [[vein]]s,<ref name=Patricia>Patricia Skinner (2001), [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_g2603/is_0007/ai_2603000716 Unani-tibbi], ''Encyclopedia of Alternative Medicine''</ref> and the other was a herbal compound drug named "Hindiba", which [[Ibn al-Baitar]] later identified as having "anticancer" properties and which could also treat other [[tumor]]s and [[neoplastic]] disorders.<ref>{{cite web|author=Prof. Nil Sari ([[Istanbul University]], Cerrahpasha Medical School)|title=Hindiba: A Drug for Cancer Treatment in Muslim Heritage|publisher=FSTC Limited|date=06 June, 2007|url=http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=707}}</ref> After recognizing its usefulness in treating neoplastic disorders, Hindiba was [[patent]]ed in 1997 by Nil Sari, Hanzade Dogan, and John K. Snyder.<ref>{{patent|US|5663196|Methods for treating neoplastic disorders}}</ref>
===Chemotherapy===
[[Chemotherapy]] was pioneered by [[al-Razi]] (Rhazes) in the 10th century, when he introduced the use of [[chemical substance]]s and drugs as forms of [[medication]]. These chemicals included [[vitriol]], [[copper]], [[mercuric]] and [[arsenic]] [[salt]]s, [[sal ammoniac]], [[gold]] [[scoria]], [[chalk]], [[clay]], [[coral]], [[pearl]], [[tar]], [[bitumen]] and [[alcohol]].<ref>[http://www.muslimheritage.com/uploads/The_Valuable_Contributions_of_al-Razi_in_the_History_of_Pharmacy.pdf The Valuable Contribution of al-Razi (Rhazes) to the History of Pharmacy], FSTC.</ref>
===Chromotherapy===
Avicenna, who viewed colour to be of vital importance in [[diagnosis]] and [[treatment]], made significant contributions to [[chromotherapy]] in ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]''. He wrote that "Color is an observable symptom of disease" and also developed a chart that related colour to the [[temperature]] and physical condition of the body. He further discussed the properties of colours for healing and was "the first to establish that the wrong colour suggested for therapy would elicit no response in specific diseases." As an example, "he observed that a person with a nosebleed should not gaze at things of a brilliant red color and should not be exposed to red light because this would stimulate the sanguineous humor, whereas blue would soothe it and reduce blood flow."<ref>Samina T. Yousuf Azeemi and S. Mohsin Raza (2005), "A Critical Analysis of Chromotherapy and Its Scientific Evolution", ''Evidence-Based Complementary Alternative Medicine'' '''2''' (4): 481–488.</ref>
===Hirudotherapy===
[[Hirudotherapy]], the use of [[medicinal leech]] for medical purposes, was introduced by [[Avicenna]] in ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'' (1020s). He considered the application of [[leech]] to be more useful than [[cupping]] in "letting off the [[blood]] from deeper parts of the body." He also introduced the use of leech as treatment for [[skin disease]]. Leech therapy became a popular method in [[medieval Europe]] due to the influence of his ''Canon''. A more modern use for medicinal leech was introduced by [[Abd-el-latif]] in the 12th century, who wrote that leech could be used for cleaning the [[Tissue (biology)|tissues]] after surgical operations. He did, however, understand that there is a risk over using leech, and advised patients that leech need to be cleaned before being used and that the dirt or dust "clinging to a leech should be wiped off" before application. He further writes that after the leech has sucked out the blood, [[salt]] should be "sprinkled on the affected part of the human body."<ref>Nurdeen Deuraseh, "Ahadith of the Prophet (s.a.w) on Healing in Three Things (al-Shifa’ fi Thalatha): An Interpretational", ''Jounal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine'', 2004 (3): 14-20 [18].</ref>
===Pharmacotherapy===
:''See [[#Pharmaceutical sciences|Pharmaceutical sciences]] and [[#Cancer therapy|Cancer therapy]]''
===Physiotherapy===
Muslim physicians developed a method of [[therapy]] that began with [[diet]] and [[physiotherapy]]; if this didn't work for the patient, then [[prescription]]s for [[drug]]s and [[medication]] were given; and if this didn't work, then they resorted to [[surgery]]. The physiotherapy prescribed by Muslim physicians usually included [[physical exercise]] and [[bathing]]. Muslim Arab physicians developed an elaborate system of [[dieting]], in which there was an awareness of food deficiencies, and proper [[nutrition]] was an important item of treatment. Medical drugs were divided into two groups: simple and [[Compounding|compound drugs]]. As they were aware of the interaction between drugs, they used simple drugs first; if these failed, then compound drugs were used which are made from two or more compounds; and if these conservative methods failed, then surgery was undertaken as a last resort.<ref name=Abouleish/>
===Psychotherapy===
{{main|Islamic psychological thought}}
===Phytotherapy===
In [[phytotherapy]], Avicenna introduced the medicinal use of [[Taxus baccata]] L. in ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]''. He named this herbal [[drug]] as "Zarnab" and used it as a [[Heart|cardiac]] remedy. This was the first known use of a [[calcium channel blocker]] drug, which were not used in the [[Western world]] until the 1960s.<ref>Yalcin Tekol (2007), "The medieval physician Avicenna used an herbal calcium channel blocker, Taxus baccata L.", ''Phytotherapy Research'' '''21''' (7): 701-2.</ref>
==Urology==
Muslim physicians from the Islamic world made many advances in the field of [[urology]]. [[Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi]] introduced the methods of [[urinalysis]] and [[stool test]]ing,<ref name=Berjak/> while other physicians dealt with the medical management and treatment of [[kidney stone]]s, [[inflammation]]s, [[infection]]s, and [[sexual dysfunction]]. They pioneered advanced surgical approaches to the treatment of bladder stones as well as [[penile]] and [[scrotal]] problems, using techniques that are still used by modern physicians. They were also the first to produce tested [[drug]]s for the treatment of many urological disorders.<ref>A. Al Dayel (2006), "Urology in Islamic medicine", ''Urology'' '''68''' (1), p. 253.</ref>
===Lithotomy===
In [[lithotomy]], [[Abulcasis]] performed the first successful extraction of bladder and [[kidney stone]]s from the [[urinary bladder]] using a new instrument he invented—a lithotomy [[scalpel]] with two sharp cutting edges—and a new technique he invented—[[Perineum|perineal]] [http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/cystolithotomy cystolithotomy]—which allowed him to crush a large stone inside the bladder before its removal, significantly decreasing the [[death]] rates previously caused by earlier attempts at this operation by the ancients.<ref name=Kaadan>Abdul Nasser Kaadan PhD, "Albucasis and Extraction of Bladder Stone", ''Jounal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine'', 2004 (3): 28-33.</ref>
===Sexual health===
In [[sexual health]], Muslim physicians and pharmacists identified the issues of [[sexual dysfunction]] and [[erectile dysfunction]], and they were the first to prescribe [[medication]] for the treatment of these problems. They developed several methods of [[therapy]] for this issue, including the single drug method where a [[drug]] is prescribed, and a "combination method of either a drug or [[food]]." These drugs were also occasionally used for [[recreational drug use]] to improve [[male sexuality]] in general by those who did not suffer from sexual dysfunctions. Most of these drugs were oral medication, though a few patients were also treated through [[topical]] and [[Transurethral resection of the prostate|transurethral]] means. Sexual dysfunctions were being treated with tested drugs in the Islamic world since the 9th century until the 16th century by a number of Muslim physicians and pharmacists, including al-Razi, [[Thabit bin Qurra]], [[Ibn Al-Jazzar]], [[Avicenna]] (''[[The Canon of Medicine]]''), [[Averroes]], [[Ibn al-Baitar]], and [[Ibn al-Nafis]] (''The Comprehensive Book on Medicine'').<ref>A. Al Dayela and N. al-Zuhair (2006), "Single drug therapy in the treatment of male sexual/erectile dysfunction in Islamic medicine", ''Urology'' '''68''' (1), p. 253-254.</ref>
==Other medieval contributions==
Other medical contributions first introduced by Muslim physicians include the discovery of the [[immune system]], the introduction of [[microbiology]], the use of [[animal testing]], and the combination of medicine with other [[science]]s (including [[agriculture]], [[botany]], [[chemistry]], and [[pharmacology]]),<ref name=Saad/> as well as the first [[drugstore]]s in [[Baghdad]] (754), the distinction between medicine and pharmacy in the 12th century, and the discovery of at least 2,000 medicinal [[Chemical substance|substances]].<ref name=Hadzovic/> Other medical advances came in the fields of [[pharmacology]] and [[pharmacy]],<ref name=Turner/> and in the following fields of the [[biomedical sciences]]:
===Botany and environmental science===
{{main|Muslim Agricultural Revolution}}
{{see|Islamic geography}}
Muslims developed a scientific approach to [[botany]] and [[agriculture]] based on three major elements; sophisticated systems of [[crop rotation]], highly developed [[irrigation]] techniques, and the introduction of a large variety of [[crops]] which were studied and catalogued according to the [[season]], type of [[land]] and amount of [[water]] they require. Numerous [[encyclopaedia]]s on [[botany]] were produced, with highly accurate [[precision]] and details.<ref>Al-Hassani, Woodcock and Saoud (2007), ''Muslim heritage in Our World'', FSTC publishing, 2nd Edition, pp. 102–23.</ref> [[Al-Dinawari]] (828-896) is considered the founder of Arabic botany for his ''Book of Plants'', in which he described at least 637 plants and discussed [[plant evolution]] from its birth to its death, describing the phases of [[plant growth]] and the production of flowers and fruit.<ref name=Fahd-815>{{citation|last=Fahd|first=Toufic|contribution=Botany and agriculture|pages=815}}, in {{Harvard reference |last1=Morelon |first1=Régis |last2=Rashed |first2=Roshdi |year=1996 |title=[[Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science]] |volume=3 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=0415124107}}</ref>
In the early 13th century, the [[Al-Andalus|Andalusian]]-[[Arab]]ian biologist Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati developed an early [[scientific method]] for botany, introducing [[empirical]] and [[experiment]]al techniques in the testing, description and identification of numerous [[materia medica]], and separating unverified reports from those supported by actual tests and [[observation]]s.<ref>{{Citation |first=Toby |last=Huff |year=2003 |title=The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China, and the West |page=218 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=0521529948 |pages=813–852}}</ref> His student [[Ibn al-Baitar]] published the ''Kitab al-Jami fi al-Adwiya al-Mufrada'', which is considered one of the greatest botanical compilations in history, and was a botanical authority for centuries. It contains details on at least 1,400 different [[plant]]s, [[food]]s, and [[drug]]s, 300 of which were his own original discoveries. The ''Kitab al-Jami fi al-Adwiya al-Mufrada'' was also influential in [[Europe]] after it was translated into [[Latin]] in 1758.<ref>Diane Boulanger (2002), "The Islamic Contribution to Science, Mathematics and Technology", ''OISE Papers'', in ''STSE Education'', Vol. 3.</ref><ref>Russell McNeil, [http://www.mala.bc.ca/~mcneil/baitart.htm Ibn al-Baitar], [[Malaspina University-College]].</ref>
The earliest known treatises dealing with [[environmentalism]] and [[environmental science]], especially [[pollution]], were Arabic treatises written by [[al-Kindi]], [[Qusta ibn Luqa]], [[al-Razi]], [[Ibn Al-Jazzar]], [[al-Tamimi]], [[al-Masihi]], [[Avicenna]], [[Ali ibn Ridwan]], Ibn Jumay, [[Isaac Israeli ben Solomon]], [[Abd-el-latif]], Ibn al-Quff, and [[Ibn al-Nafis]]. Their works covered a number of subjects related to pollution such as [[air pollution]], [[water pollution]], [[soil contamination]], [[municipal solid waste]] mishandling, and [[environmental impact assessment]]s of certain localities.<ref>L. Gari (2002), "Arabic Treatises on Environmental Pollution up to the End of the Thirteenth Century", ''Environment and History'' '''8''' (4), pp. 475-488.</ref> [[Córdoba, Spain|Cordoba]], [[al-Andalus]] also had the first [[waste container]]s and [[waste disposal]] facilities for [[litter]] collection.<ref>S. P. Scott (1904), ''History of the Moorish Empire in Europe'', 3 vols, J. B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia and London. <br> F. B. Artz (1980), ''The Mind of the Middle Ages'', Third edition revised, [[University of Chicago Press]], pp 148-50. <br> ([[cf.]] [http://www.1001inventions.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=main.viewSection&intSectionID=441 References], 1001 Inventions)</ref>
<!-- fair use image with no rationale for this article. Hopefully a free one can be found. [[Image:Rhazes.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi]] (Rhazes), the father of [[pediatrics]], made significant advances in [[psychiatry]] and [[psychotherapy]], presenting definitions, symptoms and treatments for [[mental disorder]]s. He also used [[Mercury (element)|mercurial]] compounds as topical [[antiseptic]]s.]]-->
===Child development and pediatrics===
[[Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari]] was a pioneer of [[pediatrics]] and the field of [[child development]], which he discussed in his ''Firdous al-Hikmah''.<ref name=Amber/>
His student [[Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi]] (Rhazes) is considered the father of [[pediatrics]] for writing ''The Diseases of Children'', the first book to deal with pediatrics as an independent field of medicine.<ref name=Tschanz/>
===Endocrinology===
In [[endocrinology]], [[Avicenna]] (980-1037) provided a detailed account on [[diabetes mellitus]] in ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'', "describing the abnormal appetite and the collapse of sexual functions and he documented the sweet taste of diabetic urine." Like [[Aretaeus of Cappadocia]] before him, Avicenna recognized a primary and secondary diabetes. He also described diabetic [[gangrene]], and treated diabetes using a mixture of [[lupin]]e, [[trigonella]] ([[fenugreek]]), and [[zedoary]] seed, which produces a considerable reduction in the excretion of sugar, a treatment which is still prescribed in modern times. Avicenna also "described diabetes insipidus very precisely for the first time", though it was later [[Johann Peter Frank]] (1745-1821) who first differentiated between diabetes mellitus and diabetes insipidus.<ref>{{citation|journal=International Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism|year=2003|volume=1|pages=43–45 [44–5]|title=Clinical Endocrinology in the Islamic Civilization in Iran|last=Nabipour|first=I.}}</ref>
In the 12th century, [[al-Jurjani]] provided the first description of [[Graves' disease]] after noting the association of [[goitre]] and [[exophthalmos]] in his ''Thesaurus of the Shah of Khwarazm'', the major medical dictionary of its time.<ref name=WNI>{{WhoNamedIt|synd|1517|Basedow's syndrome or disease}} - the history and naming of the disease</ref><ref>{{citation|journal=Lakartidningen|year=1983|date=August 10, 1983|volume=80|issue=32-33|title=Who was the man behind the syndrome: Ismail al-Jurjani, Testa, Flagani, Parry, Graves or Basedow? Use the term hyperthyreosis instead|last=Ljunggren|first=J. G.|pages=2902}}</ref> Al-Jurjani also established an association between goitre and [[palpitation]].<ref>{{citation|journal=International Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism|year=2003|volume=1|pages=43–45 [45]|title=Clinical Endocrinology in the Islamic Civilization in Iran|last=Nabipour|first=I.}}</ref>
[[Image:Cheshm manuscript.jpg|right|thumb|An [[Arabic]] manuscript, dated 1200 CE, titled ''Anatomy of the Eye'', authored by al-Mutadibih.]]
===Ophthalmology===
{{Main|Ophthalmology in medieval Islam}}
Of all the branches of Islamic medicine, [[ophthalmology]] was one of the foremost. The specialized instruments used in their operations ran into scores. Innovations such as the “[[Injection (medicine)|injection]] [[syringe]]”, invented by the [[Iraq]]i physician Ammar ibn Ali of [[Mosul]], which was used for the extraction by suction of soft [[cataract]]s, were quite common. In [[cataract surgery]], Ammar ibn Ali attempted the earliest extraction of cataracts using [[suction]]. He introduced a hollow metallic syringe [[hypodermic needle]] through the [[sclerotic]] and successfully extracted the cataracts through suction.<ref name=Syed-7/><ref name=Finger>{{citation|title=Origins of Neuroscience: A History of Explorations Into Brain Function|first=Stanley|last=Finger|year=1994|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=0195146948|page=70}}</ref>
[[Ibn al-Haytham]] (Alhacen) made important contributions to ophthalmology and [[eye surgery]], as he studied and correctly explained the process of [[sight]] and [[visual perception]] for the first time in his ''[[Book of Optics]]'', published in [[1021]].<ref name=Saad/> He was also the first to hint at the [[retina]] being involved in the process of [[image]] formation.<ref name=Wade1998>{{cite book | author=N. J. Wade | year=1998 | title=A Natural History of Vision. | publisher=Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.}}</ref>
[[Ibn al-Nafis]], in ''The Polished Book on Experimental Ophthalmology'', discovered that the [[muscle]] behind the [[eye]]ball does not support the [[ophthalmic nerve]], that they do not get in contact with it, and that the [[optic nerve]]s [[transect]] but do not get in touch with each other. He also discovered many new treatments for [[glaucoma]] and the weakness of [[Visual system|vision]] in one eye when the other eye is affected by [[disease]].<ref>Mohamad S. M. Takrouri (King Khalid University Hospital Riyadh), [http://www.angelfire.com/md/Takrouri/Ibn_alNafis.htm Medical aspects of Ala al-Din Abu'l-Hasan Ali Ibn Abi'l-Haram al-Qurashi (Ibn al-Nafis)'s contributions to science]</ref>
===Psychiatry and psychology===
{{main|Islamic psychology}}
The first [[psychiatric hospital]]s and insane asylums were built in the Islamic world as early as the 8th century. The first psychiatric hospitals were built by Arab Muslims in [[Baghdad]] in 705, [[Fes]] in the early 8th century, and [[Cairo]] in 800. Other famous psychiatric hospitals were built in [[Damascus]] and [[Aleppo]] in 1270.<ref>Ibrahim B. Syed PhD, "Islamic Medicine: 1000 years ahead of its times", ''Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine'', 2002 (2): 2-9 [7-8].</ref> Unlike medieval Christian physicians who relied on [[demon]]ological explanations for mental illness, medieval Muslim physicians relied mostly on [[clinical psychiatry]] and clinical observations on mentally ill patients. They made significant advances to psychiatry and were the first to provide [[psychotherapy]] and [[moral treatment]] for mentally ill patients, in addition to other new forms of treatment such as [[bathing|bath]]s, drug [[medication]], [[music therapy]] and [[occupational therapy]].<ref name=Syed-7>Ibrahim B. Syed PhD, "Islamic Medicine: 1000 years ahead of its times", ''Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine'', 2002 (2): 2-9 [7].</ref>
The concepts of [[mental health]] and "mental hygiene" were introduced by the Muslim physician [[Ahmed ibn Sahl al-Balkhi]] (850-934). In his ''Masalih al-Abdan wa al-Anfus'' (''Sustenance for Body and Soul''), he was the first to successfully discuss diseases related to both the body and the mind, and argued that "if the ''nafs'' [psyche] gets sick, the body may also find no joy in life and may eventually develop a physical illness."<ref name=Talib>Nurdeen Deuraseh and Mansor Abu Talib (2005), "Mental health in Islamic medical tradition", ''The International Medical Journal'' '''4''' (2), p. 76-79.</ref> Al-Balkhi was also a pioneer of psychotherapy, [[psychophysiology]] and [[psychosomatic medicine]]. He recognized that the [[body]] and the [[soul]] can be healthy or sick, or "balanced or imbalanced", and that mental illness can have both [[psychological]] and/or [[physiological]] causes. He wrote that imbalance of the body can result in [[fever]], [[headache]]s and other physical illnesses, while imbalance of the soul can result in [[anger]], [[anxiety]], [[sadness]] and other mental symptoms. He recognized two types of [[Clinical depression|depression]]: one caused by known reasons such as [[loss]] or [[failure]], which can be treated psychologically; and the other caused by unknown reasons possibly caused by physiological reasons, which can be treated through physical medicine.<ref name=Talib/>
Najab ud-din Muhammad (10th century) described a number of mental diseases in detail. He made many careful [[observation]]s of mentally ill patients and compiled them in a book which "made up the most complete classification of mental diseases theretofore known." The mental illnesses first described by Najab include [[agitated depression]], [[neurosis]], [[priapism]] and sexual [[impotence]] (''Nafkhae Malikholia''), [[psychosis]] (''Kutrib''), and [[mania]] (''Dual-Kulb'').<ref name=Syed-7/> Symptoms resembling [[schizophrenia]] were also reported in later Arabic medical literature.<ref>Hanafy A. Youssef and Fatma A. Youssef (1996), "Evidence for the existence of schizophrenia in medieval Islamic society", ''History of Psychiatry'' '''7''' (25): 55-62.</ref>
[[Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi]] (Rhazes) and al-Balkhi were the first known physicians to study psychotherapy. Razi in particular made significant advances in psychiatry in his landmark texts ''El-Mansuri'' and ''Al-Hawi'' in the [[10th century]], which presented [[definition]]s, [[symptom]]s and [[treatment]]s for problems related to [[mental health]] and [[mental illness]]. He also ran the psychiatric ward of a [[Baghdad]] hospital. Such institutions could not exist in Europe at the time because of fear of [[demonic possession]]s.<ref name=Syed-7/>
In [[al-Andalus]], [[Abu al-Qasim]] (Abulcasis), the father of modern [[surgery]], developed material and technical designs which are still used in [[neurosurgery]]. [[Ibn Zuhr]] (Avenzoar) gave the first accurate descriptions on [[neurological]] disorders, including [[meningitis]], intracranial [[thrombophlebitis]], and [[mediastinal germ cell tumor]]s, and made contributions to modern [[neuropharmacology]]. [[Averroes]] suggested the existence of [[Parkinson's disease]] and attributed [[photoreceptor]] properties to the [[retina]]. [[Maimonides]] wrote about [[neuropsychiatric]] disorders and described [[rabies]] and [[Deadly nightshade|belladonna]] intoxication.<ref name=Araguz>Martin-Araguz, A.; Bustamante-Martinez, C.; Fernandez-Armayor, Ajo V.; Moreno-Martinez, J. M. (2002). "Neuroscience in al-Andalus and its influence on medieval scholastic medicine", ''Revista de neurología'' '''34''' (9), p. 877-892.</ref>
[[Ibn al-Haytham]] is considered by some to be the founder of [[experimental psychology]] and [[psychophysics]],<ref name=Khaleefa>Omar Khaleefa (Summer 1999). "Who Is the Founder of Psychophysics and Experimental Psychology?", ''American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences'' '''16''' (2).</ref> for his pioneering work on the [[psychology]] of [[visual perception]] in the ''[[Book of Optics]]''.<ref name=Steffens/> In Book III of the ''[[Book of Optics]]'', [[Ibn al-Haytham]] was the first [[scientist]] to argue that vision occurs in the brain, rather than the eyes. He pointed out that personal experience has an effect on what people see and how they see, and that vision and perception are [[Subjectivity|subjective]].<ref name=Steffens>Bradley Steffens (2006). ''Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist'', Chapter 5. Morgan Reynolds Publishing. ISBN 1599350246.</ref> Along with [[al-Kindi]] and Ibn al-Haytham, [[al-Biruni]] was also a pioneer of experimental psychology, as he was the first to [[empirical]]ly describe the concept of [[reaction time]].<ref>[[Muhammad Iqbal]], ''[[The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam]]'', "The Spirit of Muslim Culture" ([[cf.]] [http://www.allamaiqbal.com/works/prose/english/reconstruction] and [http://www.witness-pioneer.org/vil/Books/MI_RRTI/chapter_05.htm])</ref>
[[Avicenna]] was a pioneer of psychophysiology and psychosomatic medicine. He recognized '[[physiological psychology]]' in the treatment of illnesses involving [[emotion]]s, and developed a system for associating changes in the [[pulse]] rate with inner feelings, which is seen as an anticipation of the [[word association]] test attributed to [[Carl Jung]].<ref name=Syed-7/> Avicenna was also a pioneer of [[neuropsychiatry]]. He first described numerous neuropsychiatric conditions, including [[hallucination]], [[insomnia]], [[mania]], [[nightmare]], [[melancholia]], [[dementia]], [[epilepsy]], [[paralysis]], [[stroke]], [[Vertigo (medical)|vertigo]] and [[tremor]].<ref>S Safavi-Abbasi, LBC Brasiliense, RK Workman (2007), "The fate of medical knowledge and the neurosciences during the time of Genghis Khan and the Mongolian Empire", ''Neurosurgical Focus'' '''23''' (1), E13, p. 3.</ref>
===Rheumatology===
In [[rheumatology]], [[Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi]] reported a psychotherapeutic [[case study]] from a contemporary 10th century Muslim physician who treated a woman suffering from severe [[cramp]]s in her joints which made her unable to rise. The physician cured who by lifting her skirt, putting her to shame. He wrote: "A flush of heat was produced within her which dissolved the rheumatic humour."<ref name=Syed-7/>
===Zoology===
:''Further information: [[Early Islamic philosophy#Evolution|Early Islamic philosophy: Evolution]]''
In the [[zoology]] field of [[biology]], Muslim biologists developed theories on [[evolution]] and [[natural selection]] which were widely taught in medieval Islamic schools. [[John William Draper]], a contemporary of [[Charles Darwin]], considered the "Mohammedan theory of evolution" to be developed "much farther than we are disposed to do, extending them even to [[Inorganic compound|inorganic]] or [[mineral]] things." According to [[al-Khazini]], ideas on evolution were widespread among "common people" in the Islamic world by the 12th century.<ref>[[John William Draper]] (1878). ''History of the Conflict Between Religion and Science'', p. 154-155, 237. ISBN 1603030964.</ref>
The first Muslim biologist to develop a theory on evolution was [[al-Jahiz]] (781-869). He wrote on the effects of the environment on the likelihood of an animal to survive, and he first described the [[The Origin of Species#Struggle for existence, and natural selection|struggle for existence]] and an early form of [[natural selection]].<ref>Conway Zirkle (1941). Natural Selection before the "Origin of Species", ''Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society'' '''84''' (1), p. 71-123.</ref><ref>Mehmet Bayrakdar (Third Quarter, 1983). "Al-Jahiz And the Rise of Biological Evolutionism", ''The Islamic Quarterly''. [[London]].</ref> Al-Jahiz was also the first to discuss [[food chain]]s,<ref>Frank N. Egerton, "A History of the Ecological Sciences, Part 6: Arabic Language Science - Origins and Zoological", ''Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America'', April 2002: 142-146 [143]</ref>
and was also an early adherent of [[environmental determinism]], arguing that the environment can determine the physical characteristics of the inhabitants of a certain community and that the origins of different [[human skin color]]s is the result of the environment.<ref>Lawrence I. Conrad (1982), "Taun and Waba: Conceptions of Plague and Pestilence in Early Islam", ''Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient'' '''25''' (3), pp. 268-307 [278].</ref>
[[Ibn al-Haytham]] wrote a book in which he argued for [[evolutionism]] (although not natural selection), and numerous other Islamic scholars and scientists, such as [[Ibn Miskawayh]], the [[Brethren of Purity]], [[al-Khazini]], [[Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]], [[Nasir al-Din Tusi]], and [[Ibn Khaldun]], discussed and developed these ideas. Translated into Latin, these works began to appear in the West after the [[Renaissance]] and appear to have had an impact on Western science.
[[Ibn Miskawayh]]'s ''al-Fawz al-Asghar'' and the [[Brethren of Purity]]'s ''[[Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity]]'' (''The Epistles of Ikhwan al-Safa'') expressed evolutionary ideas on how species evolved from [[matter]], into [[vapor]], and then [[water]], then [[mineral]]s, then [[plant]]s, then [[animal]]s, then [[ape]]s, and then [[human]]s. These works were known in Europe and likely had an influence on [[Darwinism]].<ref name=Hamidullah>[[Muhammad Hamidullah]] and Afzal Iqbal (1993), ''The Emergence of Islam: Lectures on the Development of Islamic World-view, Intellectual Tradition and Polity'', p. 143-144. Islamic Research Institute, Islamabad.</ref>
==Modern contributions==
After the 15th century, there were very few medical contributions from Muslim scientists until the 20th and 21st centuries, when [[Pakistan]]i, [[Turkey|Turkish]], [[Iran]]ian, [[Saudi Arabia]]n, [[Yemen]]i, [[Malaysia]]n and [[American Muslim]] scientists made significant contributions to modern medicine and [[biomedical research]].
===Pharmacology and natural products chemistry===
In the 20th century, [[Salimuzzaman Siddiqui]] was a leading Pakistani scientist in [[natural products]] [[chemistry]]. He is the pioneer in extracting chemical compunds from the [[Neem]] and [[Rauwolfia]], and is also known for isolating novel chemical compunds from various other [[flora]] in the [[Indian subcontinent]]. As the director of [[H.E.J. Research Institute of Chemistry]], he carried out extensive research with a team of scientists on [[pharmacology]] of various plants to extract a number of chemical substances of [[medicinal]] importance.<ref>M. Akhtar (1996), Salimuzzaman Siddiqui, ''Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society'', Vol. 42, November, pp. 400-417</ref>
===Dermatology and neurology===
[[Behçet's disease]] is named after [[Hulusi Behçet]] (1889-1948), the Turkish [[dermatologist]] and [[scientist]] who first recognized the syndrome in one of his patients in 1924 and reported his research on the disease in ''Journal of Skin and Venereal Diseases'' in 1936.<ref name="WhoNamedIt">{{WhoNamedIt|synd|1863}}</ref><ref>H. Behçet. Über rezidivierende, aphtöse, durch ein Virus verursachte Geschwüre am Mund, am Auge und an den Genitalien.
Dermatologische Wochenschrift, Hamburg, 1937, 105(36): 1152-1163.</ref>
In 1991, Saudi medical researchers discovered "neuro-Behcet's disease",<ref name=Ravi>Ravi Malhotra (2004), "Saudi Arabia", ''Practical Neurology'' '''4''': 184-185.</ref> a [[neurological]] involvement in Behcet's disease, considered one of the most devastating manifestations of the disease.<ref>S. Saleem (2005), [http://www.neurographics.org/4/2/1/4.shtml Neuro-Behcet's Disease: NBD], ''Neurographics'', Vol. 4, Issue 2, Article 1.</ref> In 1989, Saudi neurologists also discovered "neurobrucellosis", a neurological involvement in [[brucellosis]].<ref name=Ravi/>
===Diabetes and hematology===
Iranian scientist [[Samuel Rahbar]] was a pioneer in [[hematology]] and the understanding of [[diabetes]]. In 1969, he discovered [[glycosylated hemoglobin]] (HbA1C), a form of [[hemoglobin]] used primarily to identify [[blood plasma|plasma]] [[glucose]] [[concentration]] over time. He was also the first to describe its increase in [[diabetes]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rahbar S, Blumenfeld O, Ranney HM |title=Studies of an unusual hemoglobin in patients with diabetes mellitus |journal=Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. |volume=36 |issue=5 |pages=838–43 |year=1969 |pmid=5808299 |doi=10.1016/0006-291X(69)90685-8}}</ref>
===Medical technology===
Iranian physician and engineer [[Toffy Musivand]] invented a variety of [[medical technology]], including the [[artificial heart|artificial cardiac pump]] as treatment for [[heart failure]], "remote power transfer for implantable [[medical device]]s, remote patient monitoring ([[telemedicine]]), bio[[fluid dynamics]] to reduce/eliminate [[thrombosis]] in blood conducting devices, [[Simulated patient|patient care simulation]] centre, [[detection]] devices and methods for detection, [[in situ]] sterilization, medical devices ([[failure analysis]] and regulatory process), and medical [[sensor]]s."<ref>[http://www.ottawaheart.ca/UOHI/bio/Tofy_Mussivand.jsp Tofy Mussivand PhD, FRSC], [[University of Ottawa Heart Institute]].</ref>
===Internal medicine, pathology, rheumatology===
Dr. Muhammad B. Yunus is a Muslim American physician who practices [[internal medicine]] and [[rheumatology]].<ref>
[http://www.healthgrades.com/directory_search/physician/profiles/dr-md-reports/Dr-Muhammad-Yunus-MD-044503D8.cfm Dr. Muhammad Yunus, MD], [[HealthGrades, Inc]].</ref> In 1981, he published the "first controlled study of the clinical characteristics" of the [[fibromyalgia]] syndrome, for which he is regarded as "the father of our modern view of fibromyalgia."<ref name=Winfield/> His work was the "first controlled [[Clinical trial|clinical study]]" of fibromyalgia "with validation of known [[symptom]]s and tender points" and he also proposed "the first data-based criteria." In 1984, he proposed the important concept that the fibromyalgia syndrome and other similar conditions are interconnected. He showed [[serotonergic]] and norepinephric [[drug]]s to be effective in 1986, published a criteria for fibromyalgia in 1990, and developed [[Neurohormone|neurohormonal]] mechanisms with central [[sensitization]] in the 1990s.<ref>F. Fatma Inanici and Muhammad B. Yunus (2004), "History of fibromyalgia: Past to present", '''8''' (5): 369-378.</ref>
He also made important advances in the understanding of the [[chronic fatigue syndrome]]s in general, the [[biopsychosocial model]], [[medical sociology]], [[neurology]], [[psychosocial]] development, and [[neurochemical]] [[pathology]].<ref>[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/06/070625095756.htm Further Legitimization Of Fibromyalgia As A True Medical Condition], ''[[Science Daily]]'', June 25, 2007.</ref> His "biopsychosocial perspective" of fibromyalgia and other chronic fatigue syndromes is the "only way to synthesize the disparate contributions of such variables as genes and adverse childhood experiences, life stress and distress, posttraumatic stress disorder, mood disorders, self-efficacy for pain control, catastrophizing, coping style, and social support into the evolving picture of central nervous system dysfunction vis-a-vis chronic pain and fatigue."<ref name=Winfield>John B. Winfield (2007), "Fibromyalgia and Related Central Sensitivity Syndromes: Twenty-five Years of Progress", ''Seminars in Arthritis and Rheumatism'' '''36''' (6): 335-338.</ref>
===Virology===
In [[virology]], Yemeni scientist Sheikh [[Abdul Majeed al-Zindani]] is involved in finding a treatment for [[HIV]] and [[AIDS]] using unorthodox methods inspired by the [[Qur'an]] and [[Hadith]]s.<ref>Gregory D. Johnsen, [http://www.jamestown.org/terrorism/news/article.php?articleid=2369951 Profile of Sheikh Abd al-Majid al-Zindani]</ref> In 2007, he claimed to have found a remedy for HIV and AIDS and cited the Hadiths as his inspiration.<ref>{{YouTube|id=yeFr5t19aQs|Yemenite Sheik Claims to Have Found the Cure for AIDS}}</ref> He gave a speech praising the quality of scientific and medical research carried out at [[Iman University]], claiming that they had successfully treated many cases of AIDS. In twenty cases, al-Zandani said that the virus had vanished completely without any side effects and called on the [[UN]], which "spends enormous amounts of money to fight the disease," to send "its senior scientists to review [the university's] findings.”
No study of these claims have been done since 2005 when initially announced and according to doctors in Saudi Arabia, the patients who were told of being viral free tested positive for HIV.
===Biomedical research in space===
In 2007, Malaysian scientist [[Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor]], who is both an [[astronaut]] and [[orthopedic surgeon]], became the first to perform [[biomedical research]] in [[outer space]]. His medical experiments on board the [[International Space Station]] were related to the characteristics and growth of liver [[cancer]] and [[leukemia]] cells, and the crystallisation of various [[protein]]s and [[microbe]]s in space.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2007/10/11/nation/19136025&sec=nation|title=Mission in space|accessyear=2007|accessmonth=October 13|publisherTheStar|year=2007|author=theStar|language=English}}</ref> His experiments relating to liver cancer, leukemia cells and microbes will benefit general science and medical research, while his experiments relating to the crystallisation of proteins, lipases in this case, will directly benefit local Malaysian industries.<ref name="star1">{{Cite web|url=http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2007/9/22/nation/18514133&sec=nation|title=Tapping into space research|accessyear=2007|accessmonthday=September 22|publisher=TheStar|year=2007|author=theStar|language=English}}</ref>
==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}
==References==
*{{Harvard reference
|last1=Morelon
|first1=Régis
|last2=Rashed
|first2=Roshdi
|year=1996
|title=[[Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science]]
|volume=3
|publisher=[[Routledge]]
|isbn=0415124107
}}
==Further reading ==
<div class="references-2column">
* {{cite book|first=Edward G.|last=Browne|authorlink=Edward Granville Browne|title=Islamic Medicine|year=2002|publisher=Goodword Books|id=ISBN 81-87570-19-9}}
* {{cite book|first=Michael W.|last=Dols|title=Medieval Islamic Medicine: Ibn Ridwan's Treatise "On the Prevention of Bodily Ills in Egypt"|series=Comparative Studies of Health Systems and Medical Care|publisher=University of California Press|year=1984|id=ISBN 0520048369}}
* {{cite book|first=Peter E.|last=Pormann|coauthors=Emilie Savage-Smith|title=Medieval Islamic Medicine|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|year=2007|id=ISBN 0748620664}}
* {{cite book|first=Roy|last=Porter|title=The Cambridge Illustrated History of Medicine|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2001|id=ISBN 0521002524}}
* {{cite book|first=Manfred|last=Ullmann|title=Islamic Medicine|series=Islamic Surveys|volume=11|year=1978|id=ISBN 0852243251}}
</div>
==External links==
*[http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/chome.html Manuscripts] at the [[National Library of Medicine]].
*[http://www.levity.com/alchemy/ Influence On the Historical Development of Medicine] by Prof. Hamed Abdel-reheem Ead.
*[http://www.islamicmedicine.org Islamic Medicine on Line] by Dr.Sharif Kaf Al-Ghazal
*[http://www.ishim.net/ishimj/3/08.pdf Al-Zahrawi (Albucasis) - A light in the Middle Ages in Europe] by Dr. Sharif Kaf Al-Ghazal
*[http://www.muslimheritage.com/uploads/The_Influence_of_Islamic_Philosophy_on_Development_of_Medicine.pdf The Influence of Islamic Philosophy and Ethics on The Development of Medicine During the Islamic Renaissance] by Dr. Sharif Kaf Al-Ghazal
*[http://www.survivorsareus.com/index.cfm/Islamic_Medicine All about Islamic Medicine for magic, possession and more]
*[http://www.macalester.edu/~cuffel/contagionislam2.htm Contagion - Perspectives from Pre-Modern Societies]
*[http://www.islamset.com/bioethics/vision/salami.html The Islamic Vision of Some Medical Practices]
==See also==
*''[[Medical Encyclopedia of Islam and Iran]]''
*''[[De Gradibus]]
*''[[Al-Tasrif]]''
*''[[The Canon of Medicine]]''
*[[Bimaristan]]
*[[Unani]]
*[[Islamic Golden Age]]
*[[Islamic science]]
*[[Inventions in the Islamic world]]
{{Islamic studies}}
[[Category:Islamic medicine| ]]
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