Islamic philosophy 166162 224707540 2008-07-10T01:38:19Z Sa.vakilian 1293253 /* External links */ History of Islamic philosophy {{Islam}} {{unreferenced|date=December 2007}} {{rewrite|date=November 2007}} '''Islamic philosophy''' (الفلسفة الإسلامية) is a branch of [[Islamic studies]], and is a longstanding attempt to create harmony between [[philosophy]] ([[reason]]) and the religious teachings of [[Islam]] ([[faith]]). ==Definition== <!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:imam_SQ.jpg|thumb|280px|left|Imam Mosque, مسجد امام در اصفهان ايران ,One of the [[World Heritage]] in [[UNESCO]], located in [[Isfahan]], [[Iran]], illustrating the harmony of Islamic, Iranian and philosophical beliefs of the Iranian Theosopher [[Sheykh Bahaee]] شیخ بهائی..]] --> The attempt to fuse religion and philosophy is difficult because there are no clear preconditions. Philosophers typically hold that one must accept the possibility of truth from any source and follow the argument wherever it leads. On the other hand, classical religious believers have a set of religious principles that they hold to be unchallengeable fact. Given these divergent goals and views, some hold{{Fact|date=February 2007}} that one cannot simultaneously be a philosopher and a true adherent of [[Islam]], which is believed to be a [[Revelation|revealed religion]] by its adherents. In this view, all attempts at synthesis ultimately fail. However, others believe that a synthesis between Islam and philosophy is possible. One way to find a synthesis is to use philosophical arguments to prove that one's preset religious principles are true. This is a common technique found in the writings of many religious traditions, including [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]], but this is not generally accepted as true philosophy by philosophers {{Fact|date=March 2007}}. Another way to find a synthesis is to abstain from holding as true any religious principles of one's faith at all, unless one independently comes to those conclusions from a philosophical analysis. However, this is not generally accepted as being faithful to one's religion by adherents of that religion. A third, rarer and more difficult path is to apply analytical philosophy to one's own religion. In this case a religious person would also be a philosopher, by asking questions such as: *What is the nature of [[God]]? How do we know that God exists? *What is the nature of [[revelation]]? How do we know that God reveals his will to mankind? *What is the nature of divinely guided Messengers vis à vis philosophers? *What is the nature of ''Imamat'' or [[vicegerency]] of humans on earth? *Which of our religious traditions must be interpreted literally? *Which of our religious traditions must be interpreted allegorically? *What must one actually believe to be considered a true adherent of our religion? *How can one reconcile the findings of philosophy with religion? *How can one reconcile the findings of science with religion? *How can one reconcile the findings of math with religion? == Introduction == Islamic philosophy may be defined in a number of different ways, but the perspective taken here is that it represents the style of philosophy produced within the framework of Islamic culture. This description does not suggest that it is necessarily concerned with religious issues, nor even that it is exclusively produced by [[Muslim]]s. [Oliver Leaman, Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy] == Formative influences == Islamic philosophy as the name implies refers to philosophical activity within the Islamic milieu. The main sources of classical or early Islamic philosophy are the religion of Islam itself (especially ideas derived and interpreted from the [[Quran]]), [[Greek philosophy]] which the early Muslims inherited as a result of conquests when Alexandria, Syria and [[Academy of Gundishapur|Jundishapur]] came under Muslim rule, along with pre-Islamic [[Iranian philosophy|Iranian]] and [[Indian philosophy]]. Many of the early philosophical debates centered around reconciling religion and reason, the latter exemplified by Greek philosophy. One aspect which stands out in Islamic philosophy is that, the philosophy in Islam travels wide but comes back to conform it with the Quran and Sunna. ==Classical Islamic philosophy== {{main|Early Islamic philosophy}} In early Islamic thought, which refers to philosophy during the [[Islamic Golden Age]], two main currents may be distinguished. The first is [[Kalam]], that mainly dealt with [[Theology|theological]] questions, and the other is [[#Falsafa|Falsafa]], that was founded on interpretations of [[Aristotelianism]] and [[Neoplatonism]]. There were attempts by later philosopher-theologians at harmonizing both trends, notably by [[Avicenna]] who founded the school of [[Avicennism]], [[Averroes]] who founded the school of [[Averroism]], and others such as [[Ibn al-Haytham]] (Alhacen), [[Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]], [[Ibn Tufayl]] (Abubacer) and [[Ibn al-Nafis]]. ===Kalam=== {{main|Kalam}} Independent minds exploiting the methods of [[ijtihad]] sought to investigate the doctrines of the [[Qur'an]], which until then had been accepted in faith on the authority of divine revelation. One of first debates was that between partisan of the ''Qadar'' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: ''qadara'', to have power), who affirmed [[free will]], and the ''Jabarites'' (jabar, force, constraint), who maintained the belief in [[fatalism]]. At the second century of the [[Hijri year|Hijra]], a new movement arose in the theological school of [[Basra]], [[Iraq]]. A pupil, [[Wasil ibn Ata]], who was expelled from the school because his answers were contrary to then orthodox Islamic tradition and became leader of a new school, and systematized the radical opinions of preceding sects, particularly those of the Qadarites. This new school was called ''[[Mutazilite]]'' (from i'tazala, to separate oneself, to dissent). Its principal dogmas were three: #God is an absolute unity, and no attribute can be ascribed to Him. #Man is a free agent. It is on account of these two principles that the Mu'tazilites designate themselves the "Partisans of Justice and Unity". #All knowledge necessary for the [[salvation]] of man emanates from his reason; humans could acquire knowledge before, as well as after, Revelation, by the sole light of reason. This fact makes knowledge obligatory upon all men, at all times, and in all places. The Mutazilites, compelled to defend their principles against the orthodox Islam of their day, looked for support in [[philosophy]], and are one of the first to pursue a [[rational theology]] called ''Ilm-al-[[Kalam]]'' ([[Scholasticism|Scholastic theology]]); those professing it were called ''Mutakallamin''. This appellation became the common name for all seeking philosophical demonstration in confirmation of religious principles. The first Mutakallamin had to debate both the orthodox and the non-[[Muslims]], and they may be described as occupying the middle ground between those two parties. But subsequent generations were to large extent critical towards the Mutazilite school, especially after formation of the [[Asharite]] concepts. ===Falsafa=== {{seealso|Avicennism|Averroism}} [[Image:Avicenna Persian Physician.jpg|thumb|[[Ibn Sina]], From Iranian scientist and philosopher who founded the school of [[Avicennism]].]] From the ninth century onward, owing to [[Caliph]] [[al-Ma'mun]] and his successor, Greek philosophy was introduced among the [[Persians]] and [[Arab]]s, and the [[Peripatetic]] school began to find able representatives among them; such were [[Al-Kindi]], [[Al-Farabi]], [[Ibn Sina]] ([[Avicenna]]), and [[Ibn Rushd]] (Averroës), all of whose fundamental principles were considered as criticized by the Mutakallamin. During the [[Abbasid caliphate]] a number of thinkers and scientists, some of them [[Heterodoxy|heterodox]] Muslims or non-Muslims, played a role in transmitting Greek, [[Hindu]], and other pre-Islamic knowledge to the [[Christian]] [[Western world|West]]. They contributed to making [[Aristotle]] known in Christian [[Europe]]. Three speculative thinkers, the two [[Persians]] [[al-Farabi]] and [[Avicenna]] and the [[Arab]] [[al-Kindi]], combined [[Aristotelianism]] and [[Neoplatonism]] with other ideas introduced through Islam. They were considered by many as highly unorthodox and by some were even described as non-Islamic philosophers. From [[Spain]] Arabic philosophic literature was translated into [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Latin]], contributing to the development of modern European philosophy. The philosopher [[Maimonides|Moses Maimonides]] (a [[Jew]] born in [[Al Andalus|Muslim Spain]]) was also important. ===Some differences between ''Kalam'' and ''Falsafa''=== Aristotle attempted to demonstrate the unity of God; but from the view which he maintained, that matter was eternal, it followed that God could not be the [[Creator God|Creator]] of the world. To assert that God's knowledge extends only to the general laws of the universe, and not to individual and accidental things, is tantamount to denying [[prophecy]]. One other point shocked the faith of the Mutakallamin &mdash; the theory of intellect. The [[Peripatetics]] taught that the human [[soul]] was only an aptitude &mdash; a faculty capable of attaining every variety of passive perfection &mdash; and that through information and virtue it became qualified for union with the active intellect, which latter emanates from God. To admit this theory would be to deny the [[immortality]] of the soul. Wherefore the Mutakallamin had, before anything else, to establish a system of philosophy to demonstrate the creation of matter, and they adopted to that end the theory of atoms as enunciated by Democritus. They taught that atoms possess neither quantity nor extension. Originally atoms were created by God, and are created now as occasion seems to require. Bodies come into existence or die, through the aggregation or the sunderance of these atoms. But this theory did not remove the objections of philosophy to a creation of matter. For, indeed, if it be supposed that [[God]] commenced His work at a certain definite time by His "will," and for a certain definite object, it must be admitted that He was imperfect before accomplishing His will, or before attaining His object. In order to obviate this difficulty, the Motekallamin extended their theory of the atoms to [[Time]], and claimed that just as [[Space]] is constituted of atoms and vacuum, Time, likewise, is constituted of small indivisible moments. The creation of the world once established, it was an easy matter for them to demonstrate the existence of a Creator, and that God is unique, [[Omnipotence|omnipotent]], and [[Omniscience|omniscient]]. ===Main protagonists of falsafa and their critics=== The twelfth century saw the apotheosis of pure philosophy and the decline of the Kalam, which latter, being attacked by both the philosophers and the orthodox, perished for lack of champions. This supreme exaltation of philosophy may be attributed, in great measure, to Al-[[Ghazali]] (1005-1111) among the Persians, and to [[Judah ha-Levi]] (1140) among the Jews. It can be argued that the attacks directed against the philosophers by [[Ghazali]] in his work, "Tahafut al-Falasifa" (The Incoherence of the Philosophers), not only produced, by reaction, a current favorable to philosophy, but induced the philosophers themselves to profit by his criticism. They thereafter made their theories clearer and their logic closer. The influence of this reaction brought forth the two greatest philosophers that the Islamic Peripatetic school ever produced, namely, [[Ibn Bajjah]] (Avempace) and [[Ibn Rushd]] ([[Averroes]]), both of whom undertook the defense of philosophy. Since no idea and no literary or philosophical movement ever germinated on Persian or Arabian soil without leaving its impress on the Jews, the [[Persians|Persian]] [[Ghazali]] found an imitator in the person of Judah ha-Levi. This poet also took upon himself to free his religion from what he saw as the shackles of speculative philosophy, and to this end wrote the "Kuzari," in which he sought to discredit all schools of philosophy alike. He passes severe censure upon the Mutakallamin for seeking to support religion by philosophy. He says, "I consider him to have attained the highest degree of perfection who is convinced of religious truths without having scrutinized them and reasoned over them" ("Kuzari," v.). Then he reduced the chief propositions of the Mutakallamin, to prove the unity of God, to ten in number, describing them at length, and concluding in these terms: "Does the [[Kalam (islamic term)|Kalam]] give us more information concerning God and His attributes than the prophet did?" (Ib. iii. and iv.) Aristotelianism finds no favor in [[Judah ha-Levi]]'s eyes, for it is no less given to details and criticism; Neoplatonism alone suited him somewhat, owing to its appeal to his poetic temperament. [[Averroes|Ibn Rushd]] (or Ibn Roshd or Averroës), the contemporary of [[Maimonides]], closed the first great philosophical era of the Muslims. The boldness of this great commentator of Aristotle aroused the full fury of the orthodox, who, in their zeal, attacked all philosophers indiscriminately, and had all philosophical writings committed to the flames. The theories of Ibn Rushd do not differ fundamentally from those of [[Ibn Bajjah]] and [[Ibn Tufail]], who only follow the teachings of [[Ibn Sina]] and [[Al-Farabi]]. Like all Islamic Peripatetics, Ibn Rushd admits the hypothesis of the intelligence of the spheres and the hypothesis of universal emanation, through which motion is communicated from place to place to all parts of the universe as far as the supreme world&mdash;hypotheses which, in the mind of the Arabic philosophers, did away with the dualism involved in Aristotle's doctrine of pure energy and eternal matter. His ideas on the separation of philosophy and religion, further developed by the [[Averroism|Averroist]] school of philosophy, were later influential in the development of modern [[secularism]].<ref>Abdel Wahab El Messeri. [http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/tvtk/ch21.htm Episode 21: Ibn Rushd], ''Everything you wanted to know about Islam but were afraid to ask'', ''Philosophia Islamica''.</ref><ref>Fauzi M. Najjar (Spring, 1996). [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2501/is_n2_v18/ai_18627295/pg_13 The debate on Islam and secularism in Egypt], ''Arab Studies Quarterly (ASQ)''.</ref> Ibn Rushd is thus regarded as the founding father of [[secularism|secular thought]] in [[Western Europe]].<ref>Majid Fakhry (2001). ''Averroes: His Life, Works and Influence''. Oneworld Publications. ISBN 1851682694.</ref> But while [[Al-Farabi]], [[Ibn Sina]], and other Persian and Muslim philosophers hurried, so to speak, over subjects that trenched on religious dogmas, Ibn Rushd delighted in dwelling upon them with full particularity and stress. Thus he says, "Not only is matter eternal, but form is potentially inherent in matter; otherwise, it were a creation ''ex nihilo''" (Munk, "Mélanges," p. 444). According to this theory, therefore, the existence of this world is not only a possibility, as Ibn Sina declared&mdash;in order to make concessions to the orthodox&mdash; but also a necessity. Driven from the Islamic schools, Islamic philosophy found a refuge with the Jews, to whom belongs the honor of having transmitted it to the Christian world. A series of eminent men&mdash;such as the [[Ibn Tibbon]]s, [[Narboni]], [[Gersonides]]&mdash;joined in translating the Arabic philosophical works into Hebrew and commenting upon them. The works of Ibn Rushd especially became the subject of their study, due in great measure to Maimonides, who, in a letter addressed to his pupil [[Joseph ben Judah]], spoke in the highest terms of Ibn Rushd's commentary. It should be mentioned that this depiction of intellectual tradition in Islamic Lands is mainly dependent upon what West could understand (or was willing to understand) from this long era. In contrast, there are some historians and philosophers who do not agree with this account and describe this era in a completely different way. Their main point of dispute is on the influence of different philosophers on Islamic Philosophy, especially the comparative importance of eastern intellectuals such as Ibn Sina and of western thinkers such as Ibn Rushd. (For more discussion, refer to the ''History of Islamic Philosophy'' by [[Henry Corbin]].) ===Jewish philosophy in the Islamic world=== {{main|Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800 - 1400)}} The oldest Jewish religio-philosophical work preserved is that of [[Saadia Gaon]] (892-942), ''[[Emunoth ve-Deoth|Emunot ve-Deot]]'', "The Book of Beliefs and Opinions". In this work Saadia treats the questions that interested the Mutakallamin, such as the creation of matter, the unity of God, the divine attributes, the soul, etc. Saadia criticizes other philosophers severely. For Saadia there was no problem as to creation: God created the world ''[[ex nihilo]]'', just as the [[Bible]] attests; and he contests the theory of the Mutakallamin in reference to atoms, which theory, he declares, is just as contrary to reason and religion as the theory of the philosophers professing the eternity of matter. To prove the unity of God, Saadia uses the demonstrations of the Mutakallamin. Only the attributes of essence (''sifat al-dhatia'') can be ascribed to God, but not the attributes of action (''sifat-al-fi'aliya''). The soul is a substance more delicate even than that of the celestial spheres. Here Saadia controverts the Mutakallamin, who considered the soul an "accident" '''arad'' (compare [[Guide for the Perplexed]] i. 74), and employs the following one of their premises to justify his position: "Only a substance can be the substratum of an accident" (that is, of a non-essential property of things). Saadia argues: "If the soul be an accident only, it can itself have no such accidents as wisdom, joy, love," etc. Saadia was thus in every way a supporter of the Kalam; and if at times he deviated from its doctrines, it was owing to his religious views; just as the Jewish and Muslim Peripatetics stopped short in their respective Aristotelianism whenever there was danger of wounding orthodox religion. ==Post-classical Islamic philiosophy== The death of [[Averroes|Ibn Rushd]] (Averroes) effectively marks the end of a particular discipline of Islamic philosophy usually called the ''[[Peripatetic school|Peripatetic Arabic School]]'', and philosophical activity declined significantly in western Islamic countries, namely in [[Al-Andalus|Islamic Spain]] and [[North Africa]], though it persisted for much longer in the Eastern countries, in particular [[Iran]] and [[India]]. Since the political power shift in Western Europe ([[Spain]] and [[Portugal]]) from Muslim to Christian control, the Muslims naturally did not practice philosophy in Western Europe. This also led to some loss of contact between the 'west' and the 'east' of the Islamic world. Muslims in the 'east' continued to do philosophy, as is evident from the works of [[ottoman empire|Ottoman]] scholars and especially those living in Muslim kingdoms within the territories of present day Iran and India, such as [[Shah Waliullah]] and [[Ahmad Sirhindi]]. This fact has escaped most pre-modern historians of Islamic (or Arabic) philosophy. In addition, logic has continued to be taught in religious seminaries up to modern times. After Ibn Rushd, there arose many later schools of Islamic Philosophy. We can mention just a few, such as the those founded by [[Ibn Arabi]] and [[Mulla Sadra]]. These new schools are of particular importance, as they are still active in the Islamic world. The most important among them are: * [[Illuminationist philosophy|School of Illumination]] (''Hikmat al-Ishraq'') * [[Transcendent Theosophy]] (''Hikmat Muta'aliah'') * [[Sufi metaphysics]] * [[Traditionalist School]] ===Illuminationist school=== {{main|Illuminationist philosophy}} [[Illuminationist philosophy]] was a school of Islamic philosophy founded by [[Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi]] in the 12th century. This school is a combination of [[Avicenna]]’s philosophy and ancient [[Iranian philosophy]], along with many new innovative ideas of Suhrawardi. It is often described as having been influenced by [[Neoplatonism]]. ===Transcendent school=== {{main|Transcendent theosophy}} [[Transcendent Theosophy]] is the school of Islamic philosophy founded by [[Mulla Sadra]] in the 17th century. His philosophy and [[ontology]] is considered to be just as important to Islamic philosophy as [[Martin Heidegger]]'s philosophy later was to [[Western philosophy]] in the 20th century. Mulla Sadra bought "a new philosophical insight in dealing with the nature of [[reality]]" and created "a major transition from [[essentialism]] to [[existentialism]]" in Islamic philosophy, several centuries before this occurred in Western philosophy.<ref name=Kamal>{{citation|title=Mulla Sadra's Transcendent Philosophy|first=Muhammad|last=Kamal|year=2006|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=0754652718|pages=9 & 39}}</ref> The idea of "essence precedes existence" is a concept which dates back to [[Avicenna]]<ref name=Irwin>{{citation|first=Jones|last=Irwin|title=Averroes' Reason: A Medieval Tale of Christianity and Islam|date=Autumn 2002|journal=The Philosopher|volume=LXXXX|issue=2}}</ref> and his school of [[Avicennism]] as well as [[Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi]]<ref>{{Harv|Razavi|1997|p=129}}</ref> and his [[Illuminationist philosophy]]. The opposite idea of "[[Existence precedes essence]]" was thus developed in the works of [[Averroes]]<ref name=Irwin/> and [[Mulla Sadra]]<ref>{{Harv|Razavi|1997|p=130}}</ref> as a reaction to this idea and is a key foundational concept of [[existentialism]]. For Mulla Sadra, "existence precedes the essence and is thus principle since something has to exist first and then have an essence." This is primarily the argument that lies at the heart of Mulla Sadra's [[Transcendent Theosophy]]. Sayyid Jalal Ashtiyani later summarized Mulla Sadra's concept as follows:<ref>{{Harv|Razavi|1997|pp=129-30}}</ref> {{quote|"The existent being that has an essence must then be caused and existence that is pure existence ... is therefore a Necessary Being."}} Some scholars claim (without convincing evidence) that Mulla Sadra's philosophy and [[ontology]] is considered to be just as important to Islamic philosophy as [[Martin Heidegger]]'s philosophy later was to [[Western philosophy]] in the 20th century. They also note that Mulla Sadra bought "a new philosophical insight in dealing with the nature of [[reality]]" and created "a major transition from essentialism to existentialism" in Islamic philosophy, several centuries before this occurred in Western philosophy.<ref name=Kamal/> More careful approaches are needed in terms of thinking about philosophers (and theologians) in Islam in terms of phenomenological methods of investigation in [[ontology]] (or onto-theology), or by way of comparisons that are made with [[Heidegger]]'s thought and his critique of the history of metaphysics.<ref> For recent studies that engage in this line of research with care and thoughtful deliberation, see: Nader El-Bizri, ''The Phenomenological Quest between Avicenna and Heidegger'' (Binghamton, N.Y.: Global Publications SUNY, 2000)</ref> === Social philosophy === {{main|Early Muslim sociology}} [[Ibn Khaldun]] (1332-1406) was the last major Islamic philosopher from [[North Africa]]. In his ''[[Muqaddimah]]'' (the introduction to a seven volume analysis of [[universal history]]), he advanced [[social philosophy]] in formulating theories of [[social cohesion]] and [[social conflict]]. === Contemporary Islamic philosophy === {{main|Contemporary Islamic philosophy }} [[Image:Iqbal.jpg|thumb|right|Dr. [[Allama Muhammad Iqbal]] (1877-1938), a notable Muslim philosopher, poet and scholar from modern day [[Pakistan]] (then [[British Raj|British India]])]] The tradition of Islamic Philosophy is still very much alive today despite the belief in many Western circles that this tradition ceased after the golden ages of [[Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi|Suhrawardi]]’s ''Hikmat al-Ishraq'' (Illumination Philosophy) or, at the latest, [[Mulla Sadra]]’s ''Hikmat-e-Mota’aliye'' or Transcendent (Exalted) Philosophy. Another unavoidable name is [[Iqbal|Allama Muhammad Iqbal]] who reshaped and revitalized Islamic philosophy amongst the Muslims of the Indian sub-continent in the early 20th century[http://www.allamaiqbal.com/]. Beside his [[Urdu]] and [[Persian language|Persian]] poetical work, [[The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam]] [http://www.allamaiqbal.com/works/prose/english/reconstruction/] is a milestone in the modern political philosophy of Islam. In contemporary Islamic Lands, the teaching of ''hikmat'' or ''[[hikmah]]'' has continued and flourished. Among the traditional masters of Islamic philosophy most active during the past two decades may be mentioned *the Iranian علامه طباطبائى or ''[[Allameh Tabatabaei]]'', the author of numerous works including the twenty seven-volume Quranic commentary ''al-Mizan'' (الميزان), *[[Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi]], who is credited with creating modern [[Islamist]] political thought in the 20th century, and *[[Riaz Ahmed Gohar Shahi]] ([[25 November]], [[1941]] - [[25 November]], [[2001]]) author of "'''The Religion of God'''". Gohar Shahi was in favor of divine love and considers it most important for an approach to God and no discrimination of caste, creed, nation or religion is accepted for Divine Love of God as every human has been gifted with an ability to develop spiritual power to approach to the essence of God. *[[Muhammad Hamidullah]] ([[February 09]], [[1908]] - [[December 17]], [[2002]]) belonged to a family of scholars, [[jurist]]s, [[writer]]s and [[sufi]]s. He was a world-renowned [[scholar]] of [[Islam]] and [[International Law]] from [[Pakistan]], who was known for contributions to the research of the history of [[Hadith]], translations of the [[Qur'an]], the advancement of [[Islamic Golden Age|Islamic learning]], and to the dissemination of Islamic teachings in the [[Western world]]. * [[Fazlur Rahman]] was professor of Islamic thought at the [[University of Chicago]], and an expert in [[Islamic philosophy]]. *''[[Murtaza Motahhari]]'', the best student of Allamah Tabatabai, a martyr of the Iran Islamic Revolution; and *[[Seyyed Hossein Nasr]]. *[[Imran Nazar Hosein]].- Author of Jerusalem in the Quran * [[Javed Ahmad Ghamidi]] is a well-known [[Pakistan]]i [[Islamic scholar]], [[exegete]], and [[educator]]. A former member of the [[Jamaat-e-Islami]], who extended the work of his tutor, [[Amin Ahsan Islahi]]. *In [[Malaysia]], [[Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas]] is a prominent metaphysical thinker.; *In Southern/South East Europe the teachings of the skeptic ''Al-Ibn Theodorakis'' have found considerable favour. ==Criticism== Philosophy as such has not been without criticism amongst Muslims, both contemporary and past. [[Abu Hanifa an-Nu‘man|Abu Hanifa]], whom the [[Hanafi]] [[Madhhab|school of thought]] amongst Sunni Muslims takes its name from, stated when asked about the application of dialectic to issues such as nonessential characteristics and bodies that "these are the statements of philosophers. Stick to the [[Athari|athaar]] (narrations) and the path of the [[Salaf]], and beware of all newly invented affairs, for verily they are innovations."<ref>Dhammul-Kalaam (B/194)</ref> [[Malik ibn Anas]], for whom the [[Maliki]] school of thought is named, also rebuked philosophical discussion, once telling proponents of it that he was secure in his religion, but that they were "in doubt, so go to a doubter and argue with him (instead)."<ref>al-Hilyah (6/324)</ref> Today, Islamic philosophical thought has also been criticized by scholars of the modern [[Salafi]] movement. There would be many Islamic thinkers who were not as enthusiastic about its potential. But it would be incorrect to assume that they opposed philosophy simply because it was a "foreign science". [[Oliver Leaman]], an expert on Islamic philosophy, points out that the objections of notable theologians are rarely directed at philosophy itself, but rather at the conclusions the philosophers arrived at. Even [[al-Ghazali]], who is famous for his critique of the philosophers, was himself an expert in philosophy and [[logic]]. And his criticism was that they arrived at theologically erroneous conclusions. The three most serious of these, in his view, were believing in the co-eternity of the universe with God, denying the bodily resurrection, and asserting that God only has knowledge of abstract universals, not of particular things (but it should be noted that not all philosophers subscribed to these same views).<ref> Leaman, O. (1999). ''A Brief Introduction to Islamic Philosophy'' Polity Press. p21. </ref> == See also == *[[Early Islamic philosophy]] *[[Modern Islamic philosophy]] *[[List of Islamic studies scholars]] *[[Islamic Golden Age]] *[[Islamic science]] *[[Islam and modernity]] *[[Islamic Institute of Philosophy]] *The concept of [[Teleportation in Islam|Tai al-Ardh]] (teleportation) {{Islamic studies}} == Further reading == # {{cite book |last=Corbin |first=Henry |authorlink=Henry Corbin |others=Liadain Sherrard (trans) |title=History of Islamic Philosophy |publisher=Kegan Paul International |location=London and New York |month=April |year=1993 |isbn=0-710-30416-1 }} # ''History of Islamic Philosophy'' (Routledge History of World Philosophies) by [[Seyyed Hossein Nasr]] and Oliver Leaman [ed.] # ''History of Islamic Philosophy'' by [[Majid Fahkry]] # ''Islamic Philosophy'' by [[Oliver Leaman]] http://www.rep.routledge.com/article/H057 # ''The Study of Islamic Philosophy'' by Ibrahim Bayyumi Madkour # ''[[Falsafatuna]] (Our Philosophy) by [[Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr]] ==External links== *[http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/pd/index.html Dictionary of Islamic Philosophical Terms] *[http://majalla.org/souaiaia/ethics/dictionary/index.htm Islamic Ethics and Philosophy Dictionary] *[http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/nasr-ip1.htm The meaning and concept of philosophy in Islam] by [[Hossein Nasr]] *[http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ Islamic Philosophy Online] *[http://www.sacred-texts.com/isl/hpi/index.htm History of Philosophy in Islam] by T. J. De Boer(1903) *[http://www.al-islam.org/al-tawhid/study-philosophy.htm The Study of Islamic Philosophy] *[http://www.islamredefined.com History of Islamic Philosophy - The Parables of Sophism - Saqib Ahmed Zuberi] *[http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep.htm Islamic Philosophy From the Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy] *[http://www.academicinfoshare.com/cantheislamicintellectualberecovered.htm Can the Islamic Intellectual Heritage Be Recovered?] *[http://www.amiscorbin.com/textes/anglais/Hist_Iran_Phil_Corbin_part_I.pdf History of Islamic philosophy] by [[Henry Corbin]], part one *[http://www.amiscorbin.com/textes/anglais/Hist_Iran_Phil_Corbin_p2.pdf History of Islamic philosophy] by [[Henry Corbin]], part two == References == {{reflist}} {{Islamic philosophy}} [[Category:Islamic philosophy| ]] {{Link FA|ar}} [[ar:فلسفة إسلامية]] [[de:Islamische Philosophie]] [[dv:އިސްލާމީ ފަލްސަފާ]] [[es:Filosofía islámica]] [[fa:فلسفه اسلامی]] [[fr:Philosophie islamique]] [[hu:Arab filozófia]] [[nl:Arabische filosofie]] [[ja:イスラーム哲学]] [[pl:Filozofia świata islamu]] [[pt:Filosofia islâmica]] [[ru:Исламская философия]] [[sk:Arabská filozofia]] [[fi:Islamilainen filosofia]] [[sv:Muslimsk filosofi]] [[tr:İslâm felsefesi]] [[zh:伊斯兰哲学]]