Issues in anarchism 5773736 224736014 2008-07-10T05:07:13Z Skomorokh 1749684 /* Relations with the Left */ add quotation {{Cleanup|date=August 2007}} {{anarchism}} '''[[Anarchism]]''' is a heterogeneous philosophy with many different tendencies and [[anarchist schools of thought|schools of thought]];<ref>[[Peter Kropotkin|Kropotkin, Peter]], "Anarchism", ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' (1911).</ref><ref>[[Errico Malatesta|Malatesta, Errico]], ''Note to the Article “Individualism and Anarchism” by Adamas''</ref><ref>[[Murray Bookchin|Bookchin, Murray]], ''Anarchism: Past and Present.''</ref> differences on questions of ideology, values and tactics are common. Ideas about how an anarchist society might work vary considerably, especially with respect to [[Anarchist economics|economics]]. There are also disagreements about how such a society might be brought about, with some anarchists being committed to a strategy of nonviolence, while others advocate armed struggle. ==Definitional concerns== Anarchist schools of thought encompass not only a range of individual schools, but also a considerable divergence in the use of some key [[terminology|terms]]. Some terms, such as "[[socialism]]", have been subject to multiple definitions and ideological struggle throughout the period of the development of anarchism. Others, such as "[[capitalism]]" are used in in divergent, and often contradictory, ways by different schools within the tradition. In addition, terms such as "[[mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism]]" have changed their meanings over time, without spawning new schools. All of these terminological difficulties contribute to misunderstandings within and about anarchism. A central concern is whether the term "anarchism" is defined in opposition to [[hierarchy]], [[authority]] or the [[state]]. Debates over the meaning of the term emerge from the fact that it refers to both an abstract philosophical position and to intellectual, political and institutional traditions, all of which have been fraught with conflict. Some minimal, abstract definitions encourage the inclusion of figures, movements and philosophical positions which have historically positioned themselves outside, or even in opposition to, individuals and traditions that have identified themselves as "anarchist." ===The "Zaxlebax" Problem===<!-- please do not alter this section heading as it is linked to from elsewhere --> [[Image:RoderickLong2006.jpg|thumb|[[Roderick Long]], originator of the "zaxlebax" formulation of definitional concerns.]] [[Roderick T. Long]] addresses one of the key terminological difficulties—the "amalgamation of incompatible meanings" in common usage of key terms—with the example of the "zaxlebax": {{bquote|Suppose I were to invent a new word, "zaxlebax," and define it as "a metallic sphere, like the Washington Monument."}} He contends that, in ordinary usage, this sort of "package-deal term" is as much the rule as the exception, and that [[capitalism]] and [[socialism]] are both subject to this sort of usage. {{bquote|Now I think the word "capitalism," if used with the meaning most people give it, is a package-deal term. By "capitalism" most people mean neither the free market simpliciter nor the prevailing neomercantilist system simpliciter. Rather, what most people mean by "capitalism" is this free-market system that currently prevails in the western world. In short, the term "capitalism" as generally used conceals an assumption that the prevailing system is a free market. And since the prevailing system is in fact one of government favoritism toward business, the ordinary use of the term carries with it the assumption that the free market is government favoritism toward business.}} The term "socialism," he claims, is subject to a similar internal contradiction: "it conveys opposition to the [[free market]], and opposition to [[neomercantilism]], as though these were one and the same." Moreover, he suggests that the function of these terms is to "to blur the distinction between the free market and neomercantilism." Whether or not this is the case, the "package deal" aspect of these common usages creates significant problems when the terms are used in discussion or planning. Long's lecture "Rothbard's 'Left and Right': Forty Years Later" explores the ways in which different factions within [[market anarchism]] emphasize different elements within these "package deal" terms, and end up speaking different—apparently opposed—languages while advocating many of the same ends and projects.<ref>[[Roderick T. Long]]. [http://mises.org/story/2099 "Rothbard's 'Left and Right:' Forty Years Later."] </ref> [[Capitalism]] is one of the most hotly contested terms in anarchist theory. Anti-capitalism is considered a key element of anarchism by most social anarchists, while anarcho-capitalists quite naturally disagree. The conflict arises from some combination of genuine differences of opinion on the merits of market economies, differing definitions of "capitalism," and the "package deal" character of some definitions. Ultimately, the question arises as to whether [[socialism|socialists]] sell out and become just as extreme in their advocacy of governmental controls as the capitalists when it comes to the question of social or state control of key resources. Usages in political circles have varied considerably. In 1894, Richard Ely noted that the term had "already acquired a variety of meanings." These included, in its most general sense, the view that society is "a living, growing organism, the laws of which are something different from the laws of individual action."<ref>Richard Theodore Ely, ''Socialism: An Examination of Its Nature, Its Strength and Its Weakness'' (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1894), p.3</ref> Several years earlier, in 1888, the [[individualist anarchist]] [[Benjamin R. Tucker]] included the full text of a "Socialistic Letter" by [[Ernest Lesigne]] in his essay on "State Socialism and Anarchism." According to Lesigne, there are two socialisms, and "One is dictatorial, the other libertarian."<ref>Benjamin Tucker, ''State Socialism and Anarchism: How Far They Agree and Wherein They Differ''</ref> ==Ends and means== {{main|propaganda of the deed|direct action}} Among anarchists, there is no consensus on the legitimacy or utility of violence in revolutionary struggle. [[Mikhail Bakunin]] and [[Errico Malatesta]], for example, wrote of violence as a necessary and sometimes desirable force in revolutionary settings. At the same time, they denounced acts of individual terrorism. (Bakunin, "The Program of the International Brotherhood" (1869)<ref>[http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/bakunin/works/1869/program.htm Works of Mikhail Bakunin 1869<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> and Malatesta, "Violence as a Social Factor" (1895)). Other anarchists such as [[Leo Tolstoy]], [[Dorothy Day]] and [[Henry David Thoreau]] have been advocates of [[pacifism]]. Anarchists have often been portrayed as dangerous and violent, possibly due to a number of high-profile violent actions, including [[riot]]s, [[assassination]]s, [[insurrection]]s, and [[terrorism]] committed by some anarchists as well as persistently negative media portrayals.<ref>Albert, Michael [http://www.zmag.org/anarchism.htm Anarchism?!], Z Communications ''retrieved [[6 September]] [[2006]]</ref> Late 19th-century [[revolution]]aries encouraged acts of political violence, called "[[propaganda of the deed]]", such as [[bomb]]ings and the [[assassination]]s of [[head of state|heads of state]] to further anarchism. However, the term originally referred to exemplary forms of direct action meant to inspire the masses to revolution. Propaganda of the deed may be violent or nonviolent. While all anarchists consider [[antimilitarism]] (opposition to [[war]]) to be inherent to their philosophy,<ref>Anarchists see war as an activity in which the state seeks to gain and consolidate power, both domestically and in foreign lands, and subscribe to [[Randolph Bourne]]'s view that "war is the health of the state."[http://struggle.ws/hist_texts/warhealthstate1918.html War is the Health of the State]</ref> [[Anarcho-pacifism|anarcho-pacifists]] take this further, following Tolstoy's belief in [[pacifism]]. Although numerous anarchist initiatives have been based on the [[tactic (method)|tactic]] of [[nonviolence]] ([[Earth First!]], [[Food Not Bombs]], etc), many anarchists reject pacifism as an ideology, instead supporting a "diversity of tactics." Authors [[Ward Churchill]] (''[[Pacifism as Pathology]]'', 1986) and [[Peter Gelderloos]] (''How Nonviolence Protects the State'', 2005) have published influential books critical of pacifist doctrine, which they view as ineffectual and hypocritical. As a result of [[Private property#Critique and response|anarchism's critical view]] of certain types of [[private property]], many anarchists see the destruction of property as an acceptable form of violence or argue that it is not, in fact, violence at all. In her widely cited 1912 essay, ''Direct Action'', [[Voltairine de Cleyre]] drew on American historical events, including the destroying of revenue stamps and the [[Boston Tea Party]], as a defense of such activities.<ref>de Cleyre, Voltairine. ''[http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/bright/cleyre/direct.html Direct Action]'', 1912.</ref> Many anarchists participate in subversive organizations as a means to undermine the establishment, such as [[Food Not Bombs]], [[IWW|radical labor unions]], [[indymedia|alternative media]], and [[infoshop|radical social centers]]. This is in accordance with the anarchist ideal that governments are intrinsically evil: only by destroying the power of governments can individual freedoms and liberties be preserved. Some anarchist schools, however, in theory adopt the concept of [[Dual Power]]: creating the structures for a new anti-authoritarian society in the shell of the old, hierarchical one. ===Participation in statist democracy=== {{main|criticisms of electoralism|voluntaryism}} [[Image:Our dreams cannot fit in their ballot boxes.jpg|thumb|right|Anarchist [[street art]] in [[Madison, Wisconsin]], declaring "our dreams cannot fit in their [[ballot box]]es".]] While most anarchists firmly oppose voting, or otherwise participating in the State institution, there are a few that disagree. The prominent anarchist, Proudhon, stood for election to the French Constituent Assembly twice in [[Revolutions of 1848 in France|1848]]. [[Paul Brousse]] developed the concept of libertarian municipalism in [[Switzerland]] in the [[1890]]s which involved participating in local elections.<ref>[http://fuckthevote.org/TheEthicsofVoting The Ethics of Voting] by George H. Smith.</ref>{{Dead link|date=June 2008}} Many anarchists oppose voting for three reasons. First, they believe it to be ineffective, at best resulting in minor reforms.{{Fact|date=August 2007}} Second, taking part in elections has historically resulted in radicals becoming part of the system they oppose rather than ending it.<ref>[http://www.infoshop.org/faq/secJ2.html J.2 What is direct action?]</ref> Third, because some claim voting amounts to an acknowledgment of the state's legitimacy.<ref>*[[Joe Peacott|Peacott, Joe]], [http://world.std.com/~bbrigade/badbsd8.htm "Voting Anarchists: An Oxymoron or What?"] BAD Broadside #8, Boston Anarchist Drinking Brigade 1992 * [[Colin Ward|Ward, Colin]] [http://www.takver.com/history/elections/ward_on_voting.htm "The Case Against Voting"], originally published in New Society [[15 May]] [[1987]]; reprinted in Freedom Vol 48 No [[6 June]] [[1987]]. * [http://www.infoshop.org/voting.html Choose and Lose - The anarchist case against voting and electoralism] infoshop.org</ref> Most fundamental is the idea that democracy itself is fundamentally flawed. In essence, the state uses the theory that it is democratic to gain power over the populace, and then uses force to suppress any dissent. Nonetheless, the state in reality almost never serves the interests of the populace in general, but simply produces the illusion that it does this solely to gain power. Governments operate at the expense of the public good, and can serve no other purpose regardless of whatever form they take. During the [[2004 US Presidential election]], the anarchist [[collective]] [[CrimethInc.]] launched "[[Don't Just Vote, Get Active]]," a campaign promoting the importance of [[direct action]], rather than electoral change. Anarchists in other countries often engage in similar anti-voting campaigns. Others advocate a more pragmatic approach, including voting in referenda,<ref>[http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/ws/2002/ws69/referendum.html Thinking about anarchism - Referendums] Workers Solidarity No 69, published in March 2002 ''retrieved [[7 September]] [[2006]]''</ref> while other prominent anarchists like [[Howard Zinn]] and [[Noam Chomsky]] have pledged their support for [[progressivism|progressive]] candidates such as [[Ralph Nader]].<ref>[http://www.chomsky.info/onchomsky/20040526.htm Noam Chomsky and Howard Zinn Plan to Vote for Ralph Nader, by Greg Bates<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The individualist anarchist [[Lysander Spooner]] argued that voting was a legitimate means of self-defense against the state, and noted that many supporters of the state consider ''both'' voting and abstention to be acknowledgments of the state's legitimacy.<ref>Lysander Spooner, ''No Treason'', no. 2, part 1.</ref> Spooner's essay "No Treason"<ref>http://www.lysanderspooner.org/notreason.htm No Treason, Lysander Spooner, 1867</ref> offers an individualist anarchist rebuttal to the argument that existing democratic governments are justified by majority consent. ===Democracy in anarchism=== For individualist anarchists, "the system of democracy, of majority decision, is held null and void. Any impingement upon the natural rights of the person is unjust and a symbol of majority tyranny."<ref>[[Irving Louis Horowitz|Horowitz, Irving Louis]]. The Anarchists. Aldine Transaction 2005, p. 49</ref> Libertarian municipalist [[Murray Bookchin]] criticized individualist anarchists for opposing democracy,<ref>Bookchin, Murray. [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/anarchist_archives/bookchin/CMMNL2.MCW.html The Democratic Dimensions of Anarchism]</ref> and said "majority rule" is consistent with anarchism,<ref>Bookchin, Murray. [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/anarchist_archives/bookchin/soclife.html Social Anarchism or Lifestyle Anarchism: An Unbridgeable Chasm]</ref> but he also preferred the term assembly rather than democracy. Bookchin has in turn been accused of "municipal statism"; i.e., non-anarchism.<ref>http://lemming.mahost.org/library/municipalstatist.htm Anarchy after Leftism (chapter 5), Bob Black</ref> === Violence and non-violence === {{main|Anarchism and violence}} Anarchists have often been portrayed as dangerous and violent, due mainly to a number of high-profile violent acts including [[riot]]s, [[assassination]]s, and [[insurrection]]s involving anarchists. The use of [[terrorism]] and assassination, however, is condemned by most anarchist ideology, though there remains no [[consensus]] on the legitimacy or utility of violence. Some anarchists have opposed [[coercion]], while others have supported it, particularly in the form of violent revolution on the path to anarchy or utopia.<ref>Fowler, R.B. The Western Political Quarterly, Vol. 25, No. 4. (Dec., 1972), pp. 743-744</ref> Some anarchists share Leo Tolstoy's [[Christian anarchism|Christian anarchist]] belief in [[nonviolence]]. These [[anarcho-pacifists]] advocate [[nonviolent resistance]] as the only method of achieving a truly anarchist revolution. They often see violence as the basis of government and coercion and argue that, as such, violence is illegitimate, no matter who is the target. Some of Proudhon's [[France|French]] followers even saw [[strike action]] as coercive and refused to take part in such traditional socialist tactics. Other anarchists advocate [[Marshall Rosenberg]]'s non-violent communication that relates to peoples fundamental needs and feelings using strategies of requests, observations and empathy yet providing for the use of protective force while rejecting pacifism as a compromising strategy of the left that just perpetuates violence. Other anarchists, such as [[Mikhail Bakunin]] and [[Errico Malatesta]] saw violence as a necessary and sometimes desirable force. Malatesta took the view that it is "necessary to destroy with violence, since one cannot do otherwise, the violence which denies [the means of life and for development] to the workers" (''[[Umanità Nova]]'', number 125, September 6, 1921<ref>[http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/anarchists/malatesta/rev_haste.html The Revolutionary "Haste"]</ref>). Between 1894 and 1901, individual anarchists assassinated numerous heads of state, including: * [[President of France|French President]] [[Marie François Sadi Carnot|Sadi Carnot]] ([[1894]]); * Empress consort [[Elisabeth of Bavaria|Elisabeth of Austria]] ([[1898]]); * King [[Umberto I of Italy]] ([[1900]]); and * [[President of the United States|United States President]] [[William McKinley]] ([[1901]]). Such "[[propaganda of the deed]]" was not popular among anarchists, and many in the movement condemned the tactic. For example, McKinley's assassin, [[Leon Czolgosz]], claimed to be a disciple of [[Emma Goldman]], but she disavowed any association with him. Goldman included in her definition of anarchism the observation that all governments rest on violence, and this is one of the many reasons they should be opposed. Goldman herself didn't oppose tactics like assassination until she went to Russia, where she witnessed the violence of the Russian state and the [[Red Army]]. From then on she condemned the use of terrorism, especially by the state, and advocated violence only as a means of self-defense. Depictions in the press and popular fiction (for example, a malevolent bomb-throwing anarchist in [[Joseph Conrad]]'s ''[[The Secret Agent]]'') helped create a lasting public impression that anarchists are violent terrorists. This perception was enhanced by events such as the [[Haymarket Riot]], where anarchists were blamed for throwing a bomb at police who came to break up a public meeting in [[Chicago]]. More recently, anarchists have been involved in protests against World Trade Organization (WTO) and International Monetary Fund (IMF) meetings across the globe, which the media has described as violent or riots. Traditionally, [[May Day]] in [[London]] has also been a day of marching, but in recent years the [[Metropolitan Police]] have warned that a "hardcore of anarchists" are intent on causing violence. Anarchists often respond that it is the police who initiate violence at these demonstrations, with anarchists who are otherwise peaceful sometimes forced to defend themselves. The anarchists involved in such protests often formed ''[[black bloc]]s'' at these protests and some engaged in property destruction, [[vandalism]], or in violent conflicts with [[police]], though others stuck to [[Nonviolence|non-violent]] principles. Those participating in black blocs distinguish between "violence" and "property destruction": they claim that violence is when a person inflicts harm to another person, while property destruction or property damage is not violence, although it can have indirect harm such as financial harm. Most anarchists, do not consider the destruction of property to be violent, as do most activists who believe in non-violence. ====Pacifism==== [[Image:Fight the state, not wars.jpg|thumb|right|Anarchist protesters in [[Boston]] opposing state-waged [[war]].]] Some anarchists consider [[pacifism]] (opposition to [[war]]) to be inherent in their philosophy. Some anarchists take it further and follow [[Leo Tolstoy]]'s belief in non-violence (note, however, that these [[anarcho-pacifism|anarcho-pacifists]] are not necessarily [[Christian anarchism|Christian anarchists]] as Tolstoy was), advocating [[Nonviolent resistance|non-violent resistance]] as the only method of achieving a truly anarchist [[revolution]]. Anarchist literature often portrays war as an activity in which the state seeks to gain and consolidate power, both domestically and in foreign lands. Many anarchists subscribe to [[Randolph Bourne]]'s view that "war is the health of the state"<ref>[http://struggle.ws/hist_texts/warhealthstate1918.html War Is the Health of the State]</ref>. Anarchists believe that if they were to support a war they would be strengthening the state &mdash; indeed, [[Peter Kropotkin]] was alienated from other anarchists when he expressed support for the British in [[World War I]]. Just as they are critical and distrustful of most government endeavors, anarchists often view the stated reasons for war with a [[cynicism|cynical]] eye. Since the [[Vietnam War]] protests in [[North America]] and, most recently, the protests against the [[war in Iraq]], much anarchist activity has been [[anti-war]] based. Many anarchists in the current movement however, reject complete pacifism, (although groups like Earth First!, and [[Food Not Bombs]] are based on principles of non-violence), and instead are in favor of self-defense, and sometimes violence against oppressive and authoritarian forces which they in fact also consider as defensive violence.{{Fact|date=October 2007}} Anarchists are skeptical however of winning a direct armed conflict with the state, and instead concern themselves mostly with organizing. ===Individualism vs. collectivism=== While most anarchists favour collective property, some, such as [[individualist anarchists]] of historical note (e.g. Benjamin Tucker and [[Lysander Spooner]]) support [[private property]]. Tucker argues that collectivism in property is absurd: "That there is an entity known as the community which is the rightful owner of all land, Anarchists deny...I...maintain that ‘the community’ is a non-entity, that it has no existence..." He was particularly adamant in his opposition to "communism," even to the point of asserting that those who opposed private property were not anarchists: "Anarchism is a word without meaning, unless it includes the liberty of the individual to control his product or whatever his product has brought him through exchange in a free market &mdash; that is, private property. Whoever denies private property is of necessity an Archist." However, these individuals opposed property titles to unused land. == Identity politics == ===Gender=== [[Image:Portrait Emma Goldman.jpg|thumb|left|150px|[[Emma Goldman]]]] {{main|Anarcha-feminism|Ecofeminism}} Early [[French feminism|French feminists]] such as [[Jenny d'Héricourt]] and [[Juliette Adam]] criticised the [[misogyny]] in the anarchism of [[Proudhon]] during the 1850s. Anarcha-feminism is a kind of [[radical feminism]] that espouses the belief that [[patriarchy]] is a fundamental problem in society. However, it was not explicitly formulated as ''anarcha-feminism'' until early 1970s<ref>[http://www.anarcha.org/sallydarity/Anarcho-FeminismTwoStatements.htm Anarcho-Feminism - Two Statements - Who we are: An Anarcho-Feminist Manifesto]</ref>, during the [[second-wave feminism|second-wave]] feminist movement. Anarcha-feminism, views [[patriarchy]] as the first manifestation of hierarchy in human history; thus, the first form of oppression occurred in the dominance of male over female. Anarcha-feminists then conclude that if feminists are against patriarchy, they must also be against all forms of [[hierarchy]], and therefore must reject the authoritarian nature of the state and capitalism. {{Fact|date=February 2007}} Early first-wave feminist [[Mary Wollstonecraft]] held proto-anarchist views, and William Godwin is often considered a feminist anarchist precursor. While most anarchists of the period did not take these ideas seriously, others, such as [[Florence Finch Kelly]] and [[Moses Harman]] held gender equality as a topic of significant importance.<ref>Marsh, Margaret S. ''Anarchist Women, 1870-1920''. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1981.</ref> Anarcha-feminism garnered further attention through the work of early 20th-century authors and theorists including [[Emma Goldman]] and [[Voltairine de Cleyre]]. In the [[Spanish Civil War]], an anarcha-feminist group, "Free Women", organized to defend both anarchist and feminist ideas. Unlike [[marxist feminism]] and [[socialist feminism]], anarcha-feminism does not necessarily adopt the historical model of patriarchy put across by Engels in [[The Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State]]. Rather, anarcha-feminists are likely to view patriarchy as a component and symptom of interconnected systems of oppression.{{Fact|date=August 2007}} In such a model, opposition to patriarchy is not the sole means of opposing authoritarian repression, but instead becomes a key component of a movement opposing all interconnected forms of oppression. Anarcho-primitivists see the creation of gender roles and patriarchy as a creation of the start of [[civilization]], and therefore consider [[primitivism]] to also be an anarchist school of thought that addresses feminist concerns. [[Eco-feminism]], although not exclusively anarchist, is often considered a feminist variant of green anarchist feminist thought. In anarcha-feminist circles in the United States, the slang term "manarchist" is sometimes used, pejoratively, to describe male anarchists who are either inattentive to or dismissive of (anarcha)feminist concerns. === Race === [[Black anarchism]] opposes the existence of a state, capitalism, and subjugation and domination of people of color, and favors a non-hierarchical organization of society. Theorists include [[Ashanti Alston]], [[Lorenzo Komboa Ervin]], and [[Sam Mbah]]. Some of these theorists have had past experiences with the [[Black Panther Party]], and came to anarchism after they became critical of the Black Panther Party's brand of Marxist-Leninism. [[Anarchist People of Color]], (or APOC), was created as a forum for non-Caucasian anarchists to express their thoughts about racial issues within the anarchist movement, particularly within the United States. [[Anti-Racist Action]] is not an anarchist group, but many anarchists are involved. It focuses on publicly confronting racist agitators, such as the [[KKK]], [[neo-Nazi]] groups, etc. Most modern and historical anarchists describe themselves as anti-racists. Many early Anarchists, notably [[Lucy Parsons]] - a person of color and formerly an [[slavery|enslaved]] [[United States|American]] - viewed Racism as one of many negative side-effects of Capitalism and expected that it would vanish in a post-capitalist world. Among modern Anarchists, however, anti-racism plays a more prominent role and racism is typically viewed as one of several forms of social hierarchy and stratification which must be destroyed. No anarchist organizations has ever included racism as part of its platform, and many, particularly modern formations, include explicit anti-racism. For instance American Anarchists were alone in opposing racism against [[Anarchism_in_China#Anarchism_as_a_mass_movement|Chinese]] and Mexican workers in the early 1900s and late 1800s. Since the late 1970s anarchists have been involved in fighting the rise of [[neo-fascism|neo-fascist]] groups. In Germany and the United Kingdom some anarchists worked within [[militant anti-fascism|militant anti-fascist]] groups alongside members of the [[Marxist]] left. They advocated directly combating fascists with physical force rather than relying on the state. Since the late 1990s, a similar tendency has developed within US anarchism. ''See also: [[Anti-Racist Action]] (US), [[Anti-Fascist Action]] (UK/Europe), [[Antifa]]'' [[Anti-Racist Action]] is one of the largest grassroots anti-fascist and anti-racist organizations in North America today and counts many anarchists among its members. Their tactics, centered around directly confronting [[neo-fascist]] and [[white-supremacist]] groups, are considered controversial both within the anarchist movement (where they are sometimes portrayed as well-intentioned but ineffective) and in mainstream society (where they are often portrayed as violent and disruptive). Many anarchists are also involved in the [[New Abolitionist]] movement, which seeks to abolish the concept of race itself on that basis that it has no biological basis and is a social construction designed to divide the working class and preserve capitalism. [[Black anarchism]] opposes the existence of a state, capitalism, and subjugation and domination of people of African descent, and favours a non-hierarchical organization of society. Theorists include [[Ashanti Alston]], [[Lorenzo Komboa Ervin]], [[Sam Mbah]] and [[Martin Sostre]]. [[Anarchist People of Color]] emerged in the United States as a tendency which theorized anarchism in the broader context of race. Founded by writer and organizer [[Ernesto Aguilar]], an APOC email list became the basis for collectives composed of people of colour to form in several American cities. APOC held a conference in Detroit, Michigan in 2003. In 2005, the first APOC journal, Wildfire, was launched, but folded a few months later. In 2007, Roger White and the [[Oakland]], [[California]] APOC group founded Jailbreak Press. [http://www.jailbreakpress.org] A minority of historically prominent anarchists have been accused of racism: e.g. Proudhon<ref name="Schapiro">{{cite journal| author = [[J. Salwyn Schapiro|Schapiro, J. Salwyn]] | year = 1945 | title = Pierre Joseph Proudhon, Harbinger of Fascism | journal = [[American Historical Review]] | volume = 50 | issue = 4 | pages = 714–737 | doi = 10.2307/1842699}}</ref></blockquote> and Bakunin.<ref>Bakunin, quoted by [[Shlomo Avineri]], in ''Radical Theology, the New Left, and Israel'', p. 245-246 [an article in Auschwitz. Beginning of a New Era? Reflections on the Holocaust, edited by Eva Fleishner], KTAV Publishing House, Inc.; The Cathedral Church of St. John Divine; Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith, 1977, p. 241-254</ref> A major area of conflict amongst anarchists is how honest to be about the racism which has existed within the anarchist movement since the days of [[Proudhon]] and [[Bakunin]] who were both noted [[eurocentrism|Eurocentrist]]s and [[anti-semitism|anti-semites]].{{Fact|date=August 2007}} Some anarchists{{who?|date=August 2007}} dismiss this as being completely unimportant, suggesting for instance that racism was commonly accepted at the time. Other anarchists simply prefer to ignore the issue on the grounds that anarchism, unlike ideologies such as Marxism, is not defined by individual theorists, but by the concepts they developed, thus rendering perceived personal failings of individual theorists irrelevant to anarchism generally. ===Religion=== {{main|Anarchism and religion|Buddhist anarchism|Christian anarchism|Jewish anarchism|Islam and anarchism}} From Proudhon and Bakunin to the Spanish anarcho-syndicalists, most anarchists have questioned or opposed [[organized religion]], believing that most organized religions are [[hierarchy|hierarchical]] or [[authoritarianism|authoritarian]] and, more often than not, aligned with contemporary power structures like [[state]] and [[Capital (economics)|capital]]. Nonetheless, others reconcile anarchism with religion. [[Christian anarchism|Christian anarchists]] believe that there is no higher authority than [[God]], and oppose earthly authority such as [[government]] and established churches. They believe that Jesus' teachings and the practice of the [[early church]] were clearly anarchistic. Some of them feel that the teachings of the [[Nazarene]]s and other early groups of followers were corrupted by contemporary religious views - most notably when [[Constantine I]] declared "Christianity" to be the official religion of Rome. Christian anarchists, who follow Jesus' directive to "turn the other cheek", are usually strict [[pacifism|pacifists]], although some believe in a limited justification of defense, especially defense of others. The most famous advocate of Christian anarchism was [[Leo Tolstoy]], author of ''[[The Kingdom of God is Within You]]'', who called for a society based on compassion, nonviolent principles and freedom. Christian anarchists tend to form experimental communities (such as the [[Catholic Worker]]). They also occasionally [[tax resistance|resist taxation]]. [[Buddhist anarchism]] originated in the influential [[Chinese anarchism|Chinese anarchist]] movement of the 1920s. [[Taixu]], one of the leading thinkers and writers of this school, was deeply influenced by the work of Christian anarchists like [[Leo Tolstoy|Tolstoy]] and by the ancient Chinese [[well-field system]]. Buddhist anarchism was later revived in the 1960s by writers such as [[Gary Snyder]]; an incarnation of this school of thought was popularized by [[Jack Kerouac]] in his book ''[[The Dharma Bums]]''. [[Neopaganism]], with its focus on the environment and equality, along with its often decentralized nature, has led to a number of neopagan anarchists. One of the most prominent is [[Starhawk]], who writes extensively about both [[spirituality]] and [[activism]]. In the late 1800s the [[Ghadar]] movement in India (see [[Har Dayal]]), influenced by [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] thought and by [[Swami Dayananda Saraswati]] (founder of [[Arya Samaj]]), saw anarchism as a way of propagating the ancient culture of the [[Arya]] (not to be confused with the much later appropriation of "Aryan" identity by [[Germany|German]] [[Fascist]]s).<ref>''Ghadar Movement: Ideology, Organisation and Strategy'', Harish K. Puri, Guru Nanak Dev University Press, Amritsar: ''"The only account of Hardayal's short stay in that island [[Martinique]], comes from [[Bhai Parmanand]], a self exiled [[Arya Samaj]]ist missionary from [[Lahore]], who stayed a month with him there. Har Dayal used that time, says Parmanand, to discuss plans to found a new religion: his model was the Buddha. He ate mostly boiled grain, slept on the bare floor and spent his time in meditation in a secluded place. [[Guy Aldred]], a famous English radical and friend, tells us of Hardayal's proclaimed belief at that time in the coming republic "which was to be a Church, a religious confraternity . . . its motto was to be: atheism, cosmopolitanism and moral law' Parmamand says that Har Dayal acceded to his persuasion to go to the USA and decided to make New York a centre for the propagation of the ancient culture of the Aryan."'' (page 55) and ''"the ideal social order would be the one which approximated to the legendary Vedic period of Indian history because, as Har Dayal affirmed, practical equality existed only in that society, where there were no governors and no governed, no priests and no laymen, no rich and no poor."'' (page 112]], referencing ''The Social Conquest of the Hindu Race and Meaning of Equality''.</ref> Discussing the anarchist movement in Britain in 2002, Adam K. has argued that it "has an especially ignorant and hegemonistic perception of the Muslim community", which he attributed to "the anglo-centric nature of the movement". Quoting the statement that "[[Islam]] is an enemy of all freedom loving people" from an anarchist magazine, he argues that this is "no different to the bigoted rhetoric of [[George W. Bush|George Bush]] or even [[BNP]] leader [[Nick Griffin]]."<ref>[http://mostlywater.org/node/4205 Anarchist Orientalism and the Muslim Community in Britain] Accessed 3 May 2007.</ref> ==Capitalism== {{main|Anarchism and capitalism}} {{Original research|date=June 2008}} Throughout most of its history, anarchism has been defined by its proponents in opposition to [[capitalism]] - which they believe can be maintained only by state violence.<ref>Fernandez, Frank 'Cuban Anarchism: The History of a Movement' See Sharp Press (2001) p.6</ref> Most non-capitalist anarchists follow [[Proudhon]] in opposing ownership of workplaces by capitalists and aim to replace [[wage labour]] with workers' associations. These anarchists agree with Kropotkin's comment that ''"the origin of the anarchist inception of society… [lies in] the criticism… of the hierarchical organisations and the authoritarian conceptions of society"'' rather than in simple opposition to the state or government.<ref>'''Anarchism''', p. 158</ref> They argue that the wage system is hierarchical and authoritarian in nature and, consequently, capitalism cannot be anarchist.<ref>Morris, Brian, ''Anthropology and Anarchism,'' '''Anarchy: A Journal of Desire Armed''' (no. 45)"; Mckay, Iain, ''The legacy of Voltairine De Cleyre'', '''Anarcho-Syndicalist Review''', no. 44; L. Susan Brown, '''The Politics of Individualism'''</ref> [[Individualist anarchist]]s, have historically advocated markets essential to a free society.{{Fact|date=June 2008}} However, most early individualist anarchists considered themselves ''"fervent anti-capitalists… [who see] no contradiction between their individualist stance and their rejection of capitalism."''<ref>Brown, Susan Love, The Free Market as Salvation from Government: The Anarcho-Capitalist View, Meanings of the Market: The Free Market in Western Culture, edited by James G. Carrier, Berg/Oxford, 1997, p. 107 and p. 104)</ref> Many defined themselves as socialists. These early individualist-anarchists defined "capitalism" in various ways, but often it was discussed in terms of usury: "There are three forms of usury, interest on money, rent on land and houses, and profit in exchange. Whoever is in receipt of any of these is a usurer." [cited in Men against the State by James J. Martin, p. 208] Excluding these, however, they tended to support free trade, free competition, and varying levels of private property such as [[mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism]] and [[homesteading]].<ref name="Madison">{{cite journal | author = Madison, Charles A. | year = 1945 | title = Anarchism in the United States | journal = Journal of the History of Ideas | volume = 6 | issue = 1 | pages = 46–66 | doi = 10.2307/2707055}}</ref><ref name="Madison2">{{cite journal | author = Madison, Charles A. | year = 1943 | title = Benjamin R. Tucker: Individualist and Anarchist | journal = New England Quarterly | volume = 16 | issue = 3| pages = 444–467 | doi = 10.2307/361029}}</ref> <ref> Non-capitalist market anarchists support private ''possession'' along Warren's, Proudhon's, or similar lines. In contrast, anarcho-capitalists support private property along Lockean or similar lines.</ref> It is this distinction which has led to the rift between anarchism and anarcho-capitalism. The self-proclaimed descendents of such theorists<ref>Brown, Susan Love, The Free Market as Salvation from Government: The Anarcho-Capitalist View, Meanings of the Market: The Free Market in Western Culture, edited by James G. Carrier, Berg/Oxford, 1997, p. 107 and p. 103)</ref>, variously called anarcho-capitalists, free-market anarchists, or simply individualist anarchists, support laissez-faire free market capitalism. Historically, anarchists considered themselves socialists and opposed to capitalism. Thus, anarcho-capitalism is considered by many anarchists today as not being true anarchism. <ref>As [[Peter Marshall (author)|Peter Marshall]] notes in his history of anarchism ''"few anarchists would accept the 'anarcho-capitalists' into the anarchist camp since they do not share a concern for economic equality and social justice."'' - Demanding the Impossible, p. 565</ref> Anarchist organisations, for example the [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo|CNT]] (Spain) and the [[Anarchist Federation (British Isles)|Anarchist Federation]] (Britain and Ireland), generally take an explicitly anti-capitalist stance. In the 20th century, several economists began to formulate a form of radical American libertarianism known as [[anarcho-capitalism]]. This has met resistance from those who hold that capitalism is inherently oppressive or statist; many anarchists and scholars don't consider anarcho-capitalism to properly cohere with the spirit, principles, or history of anarchism. <ref>Peter Marshall, '''Demanding the Impossible'''; John Clark, '''The Anarchist Moment'''; Albert Meltzer, '''Anarchism: Arguments for and Against'''; Noam Chomsky, '''Understanding Power''', David Weick, ''Anarchist Justice''; Brian Morris, ''"Anthropology and Anarchism,"'' '''Anarchy: A Journal of Desire Armed''' (no. 45); Peter Sabatini, ''Libertarianism: Bogus Anarchy''; Donald Rooum, '''What is Anarchism?'''; Bob Black, ''Libertarian as Conservative''</ref> However, other "Anarchists" {{Fact|date=March 2008}} and scholars regard anarchism as referring only to opposition to the non-privatisation of all aspects of the state, and thus do consider anarcho-capitalism to be a form of anarchism.<ref>1) Perlin, Terry M. Contemporary Anarchism. Transaction Books, New Brunswick, NJ 1979, p. 7. 2) [[Richard Sylvan|Sylvan]], Richard. ''Anarchism''. A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy, editors Goodin, Robert E. and Pettit, Philip. Blackwell Publishing, 1995, p.231.</ref> ===Globalization=== Many anarchists are actively involved in the [[anti-globalization]] movement, seeing corporate [[globalization]] as a [[neocolonialism|neocolonialist]] attempt to use economic coercion on a global scale, carried out through state institutions such as the [[World Bank]], [[World Trade Organization]], [[G8|Group of Eight]], and the [[World Economic Forum]]. [[Globalization]] is an ambiguous term that has different meanings to different anarchist factions. Many anarchists use the term to mean neocolonialism and/or [[cultural imperialism]] (which they may see as related). Others, particularly anarcho-capitalists, use "globalization" to mean the worldwide expansion of the division of labor and trade, which they see as beneficial so long as governments do not intervene. Market anarchists and anarcho-capitalists see the worldwide expansion of the division of labor through trade ("globalization") as a boon, but oppose the regulation and cartelization imposed by the World Bank, WTO, etc. and "managed trade" agreements such as [[NAFTA]] and [[CAFTA]]. Many also object to [[fiat money]] issued by central banks and resulting debasement of money and confiscation of wealth. Groups such as [[Reclaim the Streets]],<ref>[http://www.rte.ie/news/features/new_world_disorder/reclaim.html Reclaim the Streets] Donnacha DeLong, RTÉ News Online 2002 ''retrieved [[5 September]] [[2006]]''</ref> were among the instigators of the so-called [[anti-globalization movement]].<ref>[http://newleftreview.org/A2368 The New Anarchists] David Graeber, New Left Review 13, January-February 2002 ''retrieved [[6 September]] [[2006]]''</ref> The [[Carnival Against Capitalism]] on [[18 June]] [[1999]] is generally regarded as the first of the major anti-globalization protests.<ref>[http://www.rte.ie/news/features/new_world_disorder/action2.html G8 Summit - J18: Global Carnival Against Corporate Tyranny, London, England] C. L. Staten, EmergencyNet News journalist, writing for [[RTÉ]]'s website in 2002 ''retrieved [[5 September]] [[2006]]''</ref> Anarchists, such as the [[WOMBLES]], have on occasion played a significant role in planning, organising, and participating in subsequent protests.<ref>[http://www.spiked-online.com/Articles/00000006D8CF.htm WOMBLES wandering free] Josie Appleton, spiked-politics, 2002 ''retrieved [[5 September]] [[2006]]''</ref> The protests tended to be organised on anarchist [[direct action]] principles with a general tolerance for a range of different activities ranging from those who engage in [[tactical frivolity]] to the [[black bloc]]s.<ref>[http://www.thrall.orcon.net.nz/21scapegoat.html Anarchism as a Scapegoat of the 21st century: violence, anarchism and anti-globalisation protests] Thrall issue #21, 2001 ''retrieved [[5 September]] [[2006]]''</ref> == Nationalism == {{See also|Nationalism and anarchism}} Anarchism has a long history of opposing [[imperialism]], both in the core nations (the colonizers) and the periphery nations (the colonized). In general, anarchists have preferred to focus on building revolutions at home and doing solidarity work for comrades in other countries, e.g. [[Guy Aldred]] was jailed for printing [[Shyamji Krishnavarma]]'s'''[[The Indian Sociologist]]''. Another example of this was [[Rudolf Rocker]], a prominent German anarchist and [[anti-fascist]], who was particularly active amongst [[Jewish]] workers. In his ''[[Nationalism and Culture]]'' he argued for a "federation of European peoples" which would include Jews. Rejecting biological theories of race, and rejecting the concept of nation, he argued that since it was European States that had conquered and colonized the rest of the world, successful libertarian organization amongst Europeans was "the first condition for the creation of a world federation, which will also secure the so-called [[colonialism|colonial]] peoples the same rights for the pursuit of happiness" (p554). Many modern anarchists and other anti-imperialists share this approach.<ref>[http://www.dailykos.com/story/2007/4/14/193155/440 Daily Kos], [http://euromayday.at/texte/middlesex.php Euromayday website] accessed 3 May 2007.</ref> [[Chinese Anarchism|Chinese anarchists]] were very active in the early Chinese nationalist movement and in the resistance to [[United Kingdom|British]] and later [[Empire of Japan|Japanese]] colonization of [[China]]. Anarchists were also deeply involved in anti-imperialist nationalist movements in [[Vietnamese Anarchism|Vietnam]], [[Korean Anarchism|Korea]], [[Cuban Anarchism|Cuba]], [[Ukrainian Anarchism|Ukraine]], [[Irish Anarchism|Ireland]], [[Mexican Anarchism|Mexico]], and all over [[African Anarchism|Africa]].{{Fact|date=May 2007}} Anarchism is also an influence in the modern [[Indigenist]] movement.{{Fact|date=May 2007}} ==The environment== {{seealso|Green anarchism|Social ecology|Anarcho-primitivism|Ecofeminism|Green syndicalism}} The environment and sustainability have been an issue for anarchists from at least as far back as Kropotkin's "[[Fields, Factories and Workshops]]", but since the late 1970s anarchists in [[Anglosphere]] and European countries have been agitating for the natural environment. [[Eco-anarchism|Eco-anarchists]] or [[Green anarchism|green anarchists]] often embrace [[deep ecology]]. This is a worldview that strives to cultivate [[biodiversity]] and [[sustainability]]. Eco-anarchists often use [[direct action]] against what they see as earth-destroying institutions. Of particular importance is the [[Earth First!]] movement, that takes action such as [[tree sitting]]. The more militant [[Earth Liberation Front]], which grew out of Earth First!, also has connections with the anarchist movement. Another important component is [[ecofeminism]], which sees the domination of nature as a metaphor for the domination of women. [[Murray Bookchin]]'s work on [[social ecology]], [[David Watson]]'s work with [[Fifth Estate]] magazine, [[Steve Booth]]'s work in the UK publication ''[[Green Anarchist]]'', and [[Graham Purchase]]'s writings on [[green syndicalism]] have all contributed to the broad variety and scope of green anarchist/eco-anarchist thought and action. Green anarchism also involves a critique of industrial capitalism, and, for some green anarchists, civilization itself. Most [[anarchist]]s see [[class society]] as being the root cause of pollution. They argue that a small [[Social class|class]] of owners or controllers have the wealth to avoid the worst repercussions of pollution while a very much larger class of workers without such wealth have no say in the running of the workplace. Thus under capitalism and other class societies those who control [[workplaces]] are also those with the least interest in minimising pollution - indeed as most anti-pollution measures add to costs that class will have an interest in minimising such measures. Under capitalism pollution is often a product of externalising costs - that is a transfer of a pollutant from the property of the owner to a public river transfers the cost from the capitalist to [[society]] at large. The anarchist communist solution is to ensure that all those working and living within the [[ecosystem]] of a plant have control over all its outputs, including pollutants.{{Fact|date=June 2007}} [[Anarcho-primitivism|Primitivism]] is a predominantly Western philosophy that advocates a return to a pre-industrial and usually pre-agricultural society. It develops a critique of industrial civilization. In this critique [[technology]] and [[development]] have [[Social alienation|alienated]] people from the natural world. This philosophy develops themes present in the political action of the [[Luddites]] and the writings of [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]. Primitivism developed in the context of the [[Reclaim the Streets]], Earth First! and the [[Earth Liberation Front]] movements. [[John Zerzan]] wrote that [[civilization]] &mdash; not just the state &mdash; would need to fall for anarchy to be achieved.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Anarcho-primitivists point to the anti-authoritarian nature of many 'primitive' or hunter-gatherer societies throughout the world's history as examples of anarchist societies. == Relations with the Left == {{see also|Anarchism and Marxism}} {{Quote box | quote =On May 1937 the President of [[Republican Spain]], [[Manuel Azaña]], then living in the parliament house in Exposition Park, talked by telephone to the President of Catalonia, [[Luis Companys]], who was in his office in the Palace of the Generalitat. The conversation had been going on for some time, when it was sharply interrupted by an anarchist in the Telefónica who said: "''This conversation will have to stop. We have more interesting things to do than listen to your stupid conversations.''" The line was then broken. | source =[[Jaume Miravitlles]]<ref>{{cite book | editor = [[Clifford Harper]] | title = Prolegomena: To a Study of the Return of the Repressed in History | publisher = [[Rebel Press]] | location = London | year = 1994 | isbn = 0946061130 }}</ref> | width =30% | align =right }} While many anarchists (especially those involved in the [[anti-globalization movement]]) continue to see themselves as a leftist movement, some thinkers and activists believe it is necessary to re-evaluate anarchism's relationship with the traditional [[left-wing politics|Left]]. Like many radical ideologies, most [[anarchist schools of thought]] are, to some degree, [[sectarian]]. There is often a difference of opinion ''within'' each school about how to react to, or interact with, other schools. Many anarchists however, draw from a wide range of political perspectives, such as the [[Zapatista Army of National Liberation]], the [[Situationist International|Situationists]], "[[Ultra leftism|ultra leftists]]", the [[autonomen]], [[Autonomist Marxism]], various [[indigenous culture]]s. A movement called [[post-left anarchy]] seeks to distance itself from the traditional "left" - [[Communists]], [[socialists]], [[social democrats]], etc. - and to escape the confines of [[ideology]] in general. Post-leftists argue that anarchism has been weakened by its long attachment to contrary "leftist" movements and single issue causes ([[anti-war]], [[anti-nuclear]], etc.). It calls for a synthesis of anarchist thought and a specifically anti-authoritarian revolutionary movement outside of the leftist milieu. Important groups and individuals associated with post-left anarchy include: [[CrimethInc.]], the magazine ''[[Anarchy: A Journal of Desire Armed]]'' and its editor [[Jason McQuinn]], [[Bob Black]], [[Hakim Bey]] and others. The term [[postanarchism]] was originated by [[Saul Newman]], first receiving popular attention in his book ''[[From Bakunin to Lacan]]'', a synthesis of classical anarchist theory and [[poststructuralist]] thought. Subsequent to Newman's use of the term, however, it has taken on a life of its own and a wide range of ideas including [[autonomism]], [[post-left anarchy]], [[Situationist International|situationism]], [[post-colonialism]] and [[Zapatismo]]. By its very nature post-anarchism rejects the idea that it should be a coherent set of doctrines and beliefs. Nonetheless key thinkers associated with post-anarchism include [[Saul Newman]], [[Todd May]], [[Gilles Deleuze]] and [[Félix Guattari]].<ref>[http://www.postanarchism.org/ Post anarchist clearing house]</ref> Some activists, calling themselves "[[insurrectionary anarchists]]", are critical of formal anarchist labor unions and federations, and advocate informal organization, carrying out acts of resistance in various struggles. Proponents include [[Wolfi Landstreicher]] and [[Alfredo M. Bonanno]], author of works including "Armed Joy" and "The Anarchist Tension". This tendency is represented in the US in magazines such as ''[[Willful Disobedience]]'' and [[Killing King Abacus]]. ====Communism==== While communism is proposed as a form of social and economic organisation by many anarchists, other anarchists consider it a danger to the liberty and free development of the individual.<ref>[[Peter Kropotkin|Kropotkin, Peter]], ''[http://www.zabalaza.net/texts/txt_com&anok_pk.htm Communism and Anarchy]'' </ref> Most [[Anarchist schools of thought|schools of anarchism]] have recognized a distinction between libertarian and authoritarian forms of communism.<ref>''Liberty (Not the Daughter but the Mother of Order) (1881-1908)''; [[3 September]] [[1881]]; 1, 3; APS Online, pg. 3; Tucker uses the terms "voluntary" and "compulsory" communisms. Some market anarchists reject the distinction.</ref> [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon|Proudhon]] said of communism, "whether of the utopian or the Marxist variety, that it destroyed freedom by taking away from the individual control over his means of production"<ref> ''[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]'' [http://www.britannica.com/ebi/article-9276558 "Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph"] (2006)</ref> and "Communism is exploitation of the strong by the weak."<ref>Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. "What Is Property?" ISBN 1419193538 p.221</ref> [[Mikhail Bakunin]] stated "I hate Communism because it is the negation of liberty and because for me humanity is unthinkable without liberty. I am not a Communist, because Communism concentrates and swallows up in itself for the benefit of the State all the forces of society, because it inevitably leads to the concentration of property in the hands of the State."<ref>quoted in Paul Thomas, ''Karl Marx and the Anarchists'', Routledge (1980), p.303</ref> Bakunin was speaking of 'state communism' (authoritarian Marxism) as verified by the last line which mentions state property; anarcho-communists explicitly reject state property and authority, especially centralized authority. Although [[Peter Kropotkin]], one of the leading proponents of [[anarchist communism]], while also opposing 'state communism', argued for an economic model of free distribution between all individuals, many individualist anarchists oppose communism in all its forms, on the grounds that voluntary communism is not practicable. Individualist such as Benjamin Tucker, Victor Yarros, and Henry Appleton have denied that [[anarcho-communism]] is a genuine form of anarchism.<ref>For instance,[[Benjamin Tucker]] says, "Yes, genuine Anarchism is consistent [[Manchesterism]], and Communistic or pseudo-Anarchism is inconsistent Manchesterism." (Tucker, Benjamin. [http://flag.blackened.net/daver/anarchism/tucker/tucker37.html Labor and Its Pay], from Individual Liberty: Selections from the Writings of Benjamin T. Tucker); [[Victor Yarros]] says, "There is no logical justification, no rational explanation, and no scientific reasoning has been, is, will be, or can be advanced in defence of that unimaginable impossibility, Communistic Anarchism." (Yarros, Victor S. [http://www.againstpolitics.com/market_anarchism/yarros_princely.html A Princely Paradox], Liberty, Vol 4. No. 19, Saturday, [[April 9]] [[1887]], Whole Number 97) [[Henry Appleton]] says, "All Communism, under whatever guise, is the natural enemy of Anarchism, and a Communist sailing under the flag of Anarchism is as false a figure as could be invented." (Appleton, Henry. [http://praxeology.net/HA-ATF.htm Anarchism, True and False], Liberty 2.24, no. 50, [[6 September]] [[1884]], p. 4.); [[Clarence Lee Swartz]] says, ""One of the tests of any reform movement with regard to personal liberty is this: Will the movement prohibit or abolish private property? If it does, it is an enemy of liberty. For one of the most important criteria of freedom is the right to private property in the products of ones labor. State Socialists, Communists, Syndicalists and Communist-Anarchists deny private property." (Swartz, Clarence Lee. [http://www.panarchy.org/swartz/mutualism.index.html What is Mutualism?])</ref> They rejected its strategies and argued that it is inherently authoritarian.<ref name="Brooks">Brooks, Frank H. (ed) (1994) ''The Individualist Anarchists: An Anthology of Liberty (1881-1908)'', Transaction Publishers, p.76</ref> In the opinion of individualist Henry Appleton, "Communism, being opposed to natural law, must necessarily call upon unnatural methods if it would put itself into practice" and employ "pillage, brute force, and violence."<ref>Appleton, Henry. [http://www.againstpolitics.com/market_anarchism/appleton_boston.htm The Boston Anarchists]. Liberty, Vol. 4, No. 3, [[May 26]] [[1886]], Whole No. 81</ref> Anarcho-communists reject the criticism, pointing to the principle of [[voluntary association]] that underpins their theory and differentiates it from state communism.<ref>[http://www.infoshop.org/faq/secA3.html#seca31 ''An Anarchist FAQ: A.3.1 What are the differences between individualist and social anarchists?'']</ref> Some individualist anarchists are also willing to recognize anarchist communism as a legitimate form. Kevin Carson writes that "free market, libertarian communist, syndicalism, and other kinds of collectivist anarchists must learn to coexist in peace and mutual respect today, in our fight against the corporate state, and tomorrow, in the [[panarchy]] that is likely to succeed it."<ref>[[Kevin A. Carson|Carson, Kevin]], [http://mutualist.org/id107.html ''Mutualist FAQ: Getting There'']</ref> ==Notes and references== {{reflist|2}} [[Category:Issues in anarchism| ]]