Józef Piłsudski 66951 223567197 2008-07-04T17:31:26Z Piotrus 59002 please provide proof on talk of the unreliability of that source {{redirect|Pilsudski}} {{Infobox Officeholder | name = Józef Klemens Piłsudski | image = Jozef Pilsudski1.jpg | imagesize = | smallimage = | caption = | order = [[Naczelnik państwa|Chief of State of the Republic of Poland]] | term_start = [[November 18]], [[1918]] | term_end = [[December 9]], [[1922]] | vicepresident = | viceprimeminister = | deputy = | president = | primeminister = [[Ignacy Daszyński]], [[Jędrzej Moraczewski]], [[Ignacy Jan Paderewski]], [[Leopold Skulski]], [[Władysław Grabski]], [[Wincenty Witos]], [[Antoni Ponikowski]], [[Artur Śliwiński]], [[Julian Nowak]] | predecessor = Independence | successor = President [[Gabriel Narutowicz]] | order2 = [[Prime Minister of the Republic of Poland]]<br><small>19th Prime Minister of the [[Second Polish Republic]]</small> | term_start2 = [[October 2]], [[1926]] | term_end2 = [[June 27]], [[1928]] | president2 = [[Ignacy Mościcki]] | predecessor2 = [[Kazimierz Bartel]] | successor2 = [[Kazimierz Bartel]] | order3 = [[Prime Minister of the Republic of Poland]]<br><small>24th Prime Minister of the [[Second Polish Republic]]</small> | term_start3 = [[August 15]], [[1930]] | term_end3 = [[December 4]], [[1930]] | president3 = [[Ignacy Mościcki]] | predecessor3 = [[Walery Sławek]] | successor3 = [[Walery Sławek]] | order4 = 1st [[General Inspector of the Armed Forces]] | term_start4 = [[August 27]], [[1926]] | term_end4 = [[May 12]], [[1935]] | predecessor4 = N/A (Post Created) | successor4 = [[Edward Śmigły-Rydz]] | birth_date = {{birth date|1867|12|5|mf=y}} | birth_place = [[Zalavas]] ([[Polonisation|polonized]] Zułów), [[Lithuania]], [[occupation|occupied]] by the [[Russian Empire]] | death_date = {{death date and age|1935|5|12|1867|12|5|mf=y}} | death_place = [[Warsaw]], [[Poland]] | constituency = | party = None (formerly [[Polska Partia Socjalistyczna|PPS]]) | spouse = [[Maria Piłsudska]];<br>[[Aleksandra Piłsudska]] | profession = | religion = | signature = | footnotes = }} '''Józef Klemens Piłsudski'''{{Ref_label|a|a|none}} ({{Audio|Pilsudski.ogg|['juzɛf piw'sutski]}}, [[December 5]], [[1867]] &ndash; [[May 12]], [[1935]]) was [[Naczelnik Państwa|Chief of State]] (1918&ndash;22), "First Marshal" (from 1920), and later (1926&ndash;35) the authoritarian ruler of the [[Second Polish Republic]]. From mid-[[World War I]] he was a major influence in Poland's politics, and an important figure on the broader European political scene.<ref name="Plach">[[#refPlach2006|Plach 2006]], p. 14.</ref> He is considered largely responsible for Poland regaining [[independence]] in 1918, after a hundred and twenty-three years of [[partitions of Poland|partitions]].<ref name="Pozeg9–11"/><ref>[[#refLieven1994|Lieven 1994]], [http://books.google.com/books?id=iz3NACNOpCAC&pg=PA159&dq=Pilsudski+Polish+independence&as_brr=3&ei=7cZmR9X2G6SEjAGuoZ2nAw&sig=UF1oPw56pneIbaUzKQLxTtZkGb0 p. 159].</ref><ref name="HD2">[[#refLerski1996|Lerski 1996]], [http://books.google.com/books?id=FPxhOu_n1VYC&pg=PA441&vq=chief+restorer&dq=Pilsudski+Polish+independence&lr=&as_brr=3&sig=iJxuE4j82fjQgvWGYI-kkEwkYB0 p. 441].</ref><ref>[[#refHeld1992|Held 1992]], [http://books.google.com/books?id=5O5NkwX-NnYC&pg=PA249&dq=Pilsudski+Polish+independence&lr=&as_brr=3&ei=e8hmR7D1LI7-igHz5eCdAw&sig=EXRmOzUfwHMrgjxeBne9BLQj7Jk p. 249].</ref> Early in his political career, Piłsudski became a leader of the [[Polish Socialist Party]]. Concluding, however, that Poland's independence would have to be won by force of arms, he created the [[Polish Legions in World War I|Polish Legions]]. In 1914 he anticipated the outbreak of a European war, the [[Russian Empire]]'s defeat by the [[Central Powers]], and the Central Powers' defeat by the western powers.<ref>[[#refRoos1966|Roos 1966]], p. 14; [[#refRothschild1990|Rothschild 1990]], p. 45.</ref> When World War I broke out, he and his Legions fought alongside the [[Austro-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian]] and [[German Empire]]s to ensure Russia's defeat. Subsequently in 1917, with Russia faring badly in the war, he withdrew his support from the Central Powers. From November 1918, when Poland regained independence, until 1922, Piłsudski was Poland's "[[Naczelnik Państwa|Chief of State]]." In 1919–21 he commanded Poland's forces in the [[Polish-Soviet War]]. In 1923, with the [[Polish government]] dominated by his opponents, particularly the [[National Democratic Party (Poland)|National Democrats]], he withdrew from active politics. Three years later he returned to power in the [[May Coup|May 1926 ''coup d'état'']], becoming ''[[de facto]]'' dictator of Poland. From then until his death in 1935, he concerned himself primarily with [[military]] and [[foreign affairs]]. For at least thirty years until his death, Piłsudski pursued, with varying degrees of intensity, two complementary strategies, intended to enhance Poland's security: "[[Prometheism]]," which aimed at breaking up, successively, [[Imperial Russia]] and the [[Soviet Union]] into their constituent nations; and the creation of an "[[Międzymorze|Intermarum]]" federation, comprising Poland and several of her neighbors. Though a number of his political acts remain controversial, Piłsudski is held in high esteem by his compatriots.<ref name="TT_NGP"/><ref name="Goldfarb"/><ref name="Pozeg6"/><ref name="Roshwald">[[#refRoshwald2002|Roshwald 2002]], [http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0521013240&id=uteV3ytfmqQC&pg=PA60&lpg=PA60&dq=Pilsudski+hero&sig=pUTn7o9EK83j--_aOWyiwKGkgPQ p. 60].</ref> ==Biography== [[Image:Herb Piłsudski.PNG|thumb|right|[[Piłsudski coat of arms]]]] ===Early life=== Józef Piłsudski was born on [[December 5]], [[1867]], at his family's manor in the village of Zulovo ({{lang-pl|Zułów}}), then part of the Russian Empire (now [[Zalavas]], [[Lithuania]]). The area had been part of the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]], itself a component of the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]], before the latter had been [[partitions of Poland|partitioned]].<ref name="Poland.gov">{{cite web | title=Józef Piłsudski (1867–1935) | work=Poland.gov | url=http://poland.gov.pl/Jozef,Pilsudski,(1867-1935),1972.html | language = Polish | accessmonthday=April 23 | accessyear=2006}}</ref> [[Piłsudski (family)|The impoverished ''szlachta'' family]]<ref name=Pidl>[[#refPidlutskyi2004|Pidlutskyi 2004]].</ref> cherished Polish patriotic traditions,<ref name="Poland.gov"/><ref name="Urb 13-15">[[#refUrbankowski1997|Urbankowski 1997]], vol. 1, pp. 13–15.</ref> and has been characterized either as Polish<ref name="HD">[[#refLerski1996|Lerski 1996]], [http://books.google.com/books?id=S6aUBuWPqywC&pg=PA439&dq=pilsudski+Polish+noble&ei=01QNR_SuO6jA7AKop8CuBg&sig=Bldt8emkmGuNNIdY6sjE2dEWZMg p. 449].</ref><ref name="Davies40">[[#refDavies2005|Davies 2005]], [http://books.google.com/books?id=9Tbed6iMNLEC&pg=PA41&vq=Pilsudski+Polish&dq=editions:ISBN0231053533&sig=-_sGmCIqDuKvauBCXo8AD1oZElg#PPA40,M1 p. 40].</ref> or as [[Polonized]]-[[Lithuanians|Lithuanian]].<ref>[[#refBideleux1998|Bideleux 1998]], [http://books.google.com/books?id=6Eh9KQTrOckC&pg=PA186&dq=pilsudski+lithuanian+polonized&sig=4d0UM_aagBPKUskM4yxR-g4ZQ84 p. 186].</ref><ref name=Pidl/>{{Ref_label|b|b|none}} Young Józef was the second son born to the family. [[Image:Piludski w szkole.jpg|thumb|left|Piłsudski as a schoolboy]] Józef, when he attended the Russian ''[[Gymnasium (school)|gymnasium]]'' at Vilna (now [[Vilnius]]), was not an especially diligent student.<ref name="Aviel">[[#refRoshwald2001|Roshwald 2001]], p. 36.</ref> Along with his brothers [[Adam Piłsudski|Adam]], [[Bronisław Piłsudski|Bronisław]] and [[Jan Piłsudski|Jan]], he was introduced by his mother Maria, ''[[née]]'' Bilewicz, to Polish history and literature, which were suppressed by the Russian authorities.<ref name="MM-208">[[#refMacMillan2003|MacMillan 2003]], p. 208.</ref> His father, likewise named Józef, had fought in the [[January Uprising|January 1863 Uprising]] against the Russian occupation of Poland.<ref name="Poland.gov"/> The family resented the Russian government's [[Russification]] policies. Young Józef profoundly disliked having to attend [[Russian Orthodox Church]] service<ref name="MM-208"/> and left school with an aversion not only for the [[Russian Tsar]] and the Russian Empire, but for the culture, which he knew well.<ref name=Pidl/> In 1885 Piłsudski embarked on medical studies at the [[University of Kharkov]] ([[Kharkiv]], [[Ukraine]]), where he became involved with ''[[Narodnaya Volya]]'', part of the Russian ''[[Narodnik]]i'' revolutionary movement.<ref name="PWN">{{cite web |last=Chojnowski|first=Andrzej|url=http://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/haslo.php?id=3957301|language=Polish|title=Piłsudski Józef Klemens|work=[[Internetowa encyklopedia PWN]]|accessmonthday=January 15|accessyear=2008|publisher=PWN}}</ref> In 1886 he was suspended for participating in student demonstrations.<ref name="Poland.gov"/> He was rejected by the [[University of Dorpat]] ([[Tartu]], [[Estonia]]), whose authorities had been informed of his political affiliation.<ref name="Poland.gov"/> On [[March 22]], [[1887]], he was arrested by Tsarist authorities on a false<ref name="Encarta">{{cite web|url = http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761558833/Pilsudski.html|title = Józef Piłsudski|work = [[Encarta]]|publisher=Microsoft|accessmonthday = May 30|accessyear = 2006}}</ref> charge of plotting with [[Vilna]] [[socialists]] to assassinate [[Tsar]] [[Alexander III of Russia|Alexander III]]. In fact Piłsudski's main connection to the plot was the involvement in it of his elder brother, Bronisław.<ref name="BronPił">{{cite web |url = http://www.icrap.org/pl/cv.html|title = Kalendarium wydarzeń życia Bronisława Piłsudskiego (Calendar of events in the life of Bronisław Piłsudski)|work = ICRAP: wersja polska|language = Polish|accessmonthday = August 2|accessyear = 2007}}</ref> Bronisław was sentenced to fifteen years' [[hard labor]] (''[[katorga]]'') in eastern Siberia.<ref name="BronPił"/><ref name="Urb 50">[[#refUrbankowski1997|Urbankowski 1997]], vol. 1, p. 50.</ref> Józef received a milder sentence: five years' exile in [[Siberia]], first at [[Kirensk]] on the [[Lena River]], then at [[Tunka]].<ref name="Poland.gov"/><ref name="Urb 50"/> While being transported in a prisoners' convoy to Siberia, Piłsudski was held for several weeks at a prison in [[Irkutsk]]<ref>{{cite book | last = Landau | first = Rom | coathours=Geoffrey Dunlop | title = Pilsudski, Hero of Poland | publisher = [[Jarrolds]] | year = 1930 | pages=pp. 30 &ndash; 32 | edition=1}}</ref>. There he took part in what the authorities viewed as a revolt: after one of the inmates had insulted a guard and refused to apologize, he and other political prisoners were beaten by the guards for their defiance;<ref name="Urb 62–66">[[#refUrbankowski1997|Urbankowski 1997]], vol. 1, pp. 62–66.</ref> Piłsudski lost two teeth and took part in a subsequent hunger strike until the authorities reinstated political prisoners' privileges that had been suspended after the incident.<ref name="Urb 62–66"/> For his involvement, he was sentenced in 1888 to six months' imprisonment.<ref name="Urb 68–69">[[#refUrbankowski1997|Urbankowski 1997]], vol. 1, pp. 68–69.</ref> He had to spend the first night of his incarceration in 40-degree-below-zero Siberian cold; this led to an illness that nearly killed him and to health problems that would plague him throughout life.<ref name="Urb 68–69"/> During his years of exile in Siberia, Piłsudski met many ''[[Sybiraks]]'', including [[Bronisław Szwarce]], who had almost become a leader of the [[January Uprising|January 1863 Uprising]].<ref name="Urb 74–77">[[#refUrbankowski1997|Urbankowski 1997]], vol. 1, pp. 74–77.</ref> He was allowed to work in an occupation of his own choosing, and earned his living tutoring local children in mathematics and foreign languages<ref name=Pidl/> (he knew French, German and Lithuanian<ref>{{cite web |last = Šimelionis |first = Izidorius |url = http://www.lrytas.lt/?id=11846508871183494575&view=4 |title = Maršalas J. Pilsudskis lietuviukus kalbino lietuviškai (Marshal J. Piłsudski spoke to little Lithuanians in Lithuanian) |date = 2007-07-17 |work = [[Lietuvos rytas]] |language = Lithuanian |accessmonthday = December 8 |accessyear = 2007 }}</ref> in addition to Russian and, of course, his native Polish; he would later learn English).<ref name="Jedrz13">[[#refJedrzejewicz1994|Jędrzejewicz 1994]], p. 13.</ref> Local officials decided that as a Polish noble he was not entitled to the 10-[[Russian ruble|ruble]] pension received by most other exiles.<ref name="Urb 71">[[#refUrbankowski1997|Urbankowski 1997]], vol. 1 p. 71.</ref> [[Image:Pilsudski wanted.jpg|thumb|right|1928 reproduction of an 1887 [[Tsarist Russia]]n [[wanted poster]] for Piłsudski, distributed (presumably by his political enemies) "on the 10th anniversary of Poland's independence":<br> {{hidden|Translation|"State criminal<br> <u>JÓZEF PIŁSUDSKI,</u> nobleman<br> '''DESCRIPTION''':<br> '''Age''' 19 (1887)<br> '''Height''' 1 meter, 75 cm.<br> '''Face''' clear<br> '''Eyes''' grey<br> '''Hair''' dark-blond<br> '''Sideburns''' light-blond, sparse<br> '''Eyebrows''' dark-blond, fused<br> '''Beard''' dark-blond<br> '''Mustache''' light-blond<br> '''Nose''' normal<br> '''Mouth''' normal<br> '''Teeth''' missing some<br> '''Chin''' round<br> '''Distinctive marks:'''<br> 1) clear face, with eyebrows fused over nose,<br> 2) wart at the end of right ear"}}]] In 1892 Piłsudski returned from exile. In 1893 he joined the Polish Socialist Party (''PPS'')<ref name="Poland.gov"/> and helped organize its Lithuanian branch.<ref name="Urb 88">[[#refUrbankowski1997|Urbankowski 1997]], vol. 1, p. 88.</ref> Initially he sided with the Socialists' more radical wing, but despite the socialist movement's ostensible [[internationalism]] he remained a Polish [[nationalist]].<ref name="MM-209">[[#refMacMillan2003|MacMillan 2003]], p. 209.</ref> In 1894, as its [[chief editor]], he began publishing an [[bibuła|underground]] socialist newspaper, ''[[Robotnik (1894–1939)|Robotnik]]'' (The Worker); he would also be one of its chief writers, and, initially, a [[typesetter]].<ref name="Poland.gov" /><ref name="PWN" /><ref name="Urb 93">[[#refUrbankowski1997|Urbankowski 1997]], vol. 1, p. 93.</ref><ref name="Piłsudski12">[[#refPilsudski1989|Piłsudski 1989]], p. 12.</ref> In 1895 he became a PPS leader, and took the position that doctrinal issues were of minor importance and that socialist ideology should be merged with nationalist ideology, since that combination offered the greatest chance of restoring Polish independence.<ref name="PWN"/> [[Image:Jozef Pilsudski in 1899.jpg|thumb|left|Piłsudski in 1899]] On [[July 15]], 1899, while an underground organizer, Piłsudski married a fellow socialist organizer, [[Maria Piłsudska|Maria Juszkiewiczowa, ''née'' Koplewska]]<ref name="Alabrudzinska99">[[#refAlabrudzinska1999|Alabrudzińska 1999]], p. 99.</ref><ref name="Garlicki63">[[#refGarlicki1995|Garlicki 1995]], p. 63.</ref><ref name="Pobog-Malinowski07">[[#refPobog-Malinowski1990|Pobóg-Malinowski 1990]], p. 7.</ref>. The marriage deteriorated when, several years later, Piłsudski began an affair with a younger socialist,<ref name="MM-209"/>[[Aleksandra Piłsudska|Aleksandra Szczerbińska]]. Maria died in 1921, and in October that year Piłsudski married Aleksandra. By then the pair had two little daughters, [[Wanda Piłsudska|Wanda]] and [[Jadwiga Piłsudska|Jadwiga]]. This marriage, too, was troubled.<ref name="Aleksandra">{{cite web|url =http://www.genealogiapolska.pl/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1239&Itemid=1|title = Aleksandra Piłsudska|work = Biografie Geneaologia Polska|language = Polish|accessmonthday = January 15|accessyear = 2008}}</ref> In February 1900, after Russian authorities found ''Robotnik'''s underground printing press in [[Łódź]], Piłsudski was imprisoned at the [[Warsaw Citadel]]. But, after feigning mental illness in May 1901, he managed to escape from a mental hospital at [[Saint Petersburg]] with the help of a Polish physician, [[Władysław Mazurkiewicz (1871 - 1933)|Władysław Mazurkiewicz]], and others, fleeing to [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicia]], then part of [[Austro-Hungary]].<ref name="Poland.gov"/> At the time, when almost all parties in Russian Poland and Lithuania took a conciliatory position toward the Russian Empire and aimed at negotiating within it a limited autonomy for Poland, Piłsudski's PPS was the only political force that was prepared to fight the Empire for Polish independence and to resort to violence in order to achieve that goal.<ref name=Pidl/> On the outbreak of the [[Russo-Japanese War]] (1904&ndash;1905), in the summer of 1904, Piłsudski traveled to [[Tokyo]], [[Japan]], where he tried unsuccessfully to obtain that country's assistance for an uprising in Poland. He offered to supply Japan with [[intelligence (information gathering)|intelligence]] in support of its war with Russia and proposed the creation of a [[Polish Legion]] from Poles,<ref name="Urb 109–111">[[#refUrbankowski1997|Urbankowski 1997]], vol. 1, pp. 109–111.</ref> conscripted into the Russian Army, who had been captured by Japan. He also suggested a [[Prometheism#Sources of Prometheism|"Promethean" project]] directed at liberating non-Russian ethnic communities living in the Russian Empire&mdash;a goal that he later continued to pursue.<ref>[[#refCharaszkiewicz2000|Charaszkiewicz 2000]], p. 56.</ref> Another notable Pole, [[Roman Dmowski]], also traveled to Japan, where he argued against Piłsudski's plan, endeavoring to discourage the Japanese government from supporting at this time a Polish revolution which Dmowski felt would be doomed to failure.<ref name="Zamoyski-330"/><ref name="Urb 109–111"/> Dmowski, himself a Polish patriot, would remain Piłsudski's political arch-enemy to the end of Piłsudski's life.<ref name="Zamoyski-332">[[#refZamoyski1987|Zamoyski 1987]], p. 332.</ref> In the end, the Japanese offered Piłsudski much less than he had hoped for; he received Japan's help in purchasing weapons and ammunition for the PPS and its combat organisation, while the Japanese declined the Legion proposal.<ref name="Urb 109–111"/><ref name="Poland.gov"/> In the fall of 1904, Piłsudski formed a [[paramilitary]] unit (the [[Combat Organization of the Polish Socialist Party]], or ''bojówki'') aiming to create an armed [[resistance movement]] against the Russian authorities.<ref name="Zamoyski-330">[[#refZamoyski1987|Zamoyski 1987]], p. 330.</ref> The PPS organized an increasing numbers of demonstrations, mainly in [[Warsaw]]; on [[October 28]], [[1904]], Russian [[Cossack]] [[cavalry]] attacked a demonstration, and in reprisal, during a demonstration on November 13, Piłsudski's paramilitary opened fire on Russian police and military.<ref name="Urb 113–116">[[#refUrbankowski1997|Urbankowski 1997]], vol. 1, pp. 113–116.</ref><ref name="Zamoyski-330"/> Initially concentrating their attention on spies and informers, in March 1905 the paramilitary began using bombs to assassinate selected Russian police officers.<ref name="Urb 117–118">[[#refUrbankowski1997|Urbankowski 1997]], vol. 1, pp. 117–18.</ref> During the [[Russian Revolution of 1905|1905 Russian Revolution]], Piłsudski played a leading role in events in [[Congress Poland]].<ref name="Zamoyski-330"/> In early 1905, he ordered the PPS to launch a general strike there; it involved some 400,000 workers and lasted two months until it was broken by the Russian authorities.<ref name="Zamoyski-330"/> In June 1905, Piłsudski ordered to aid an uprising in [[Łódź]].<ref name="Zamoyski-330"/> During the "[[Łódź insurrection (1905)|June Days]]," as the Łódź uprising came to be known, armed clashes broke out between Piłsudski's paramilitaries and gunmen loyal to Dmowski and his [[National Democracy|National Democrats]].<ref name="Zamoyski-330"/> On [[December 22]], [[1905]], Piłsudski called for all Polish workers to rise up; the call went largely unheeded.<ref name="Zamoyski-330"/> Unlike the National Democrats, Piłsudski instructed the PPS to boycott the elections to the [[First Duma]].<ref name="Zamoyski-330"/> This decision, and his resolve to try to win Polish independence through uprisings, caused tensions within the PPS, and in November 1906 the party fractured over Piłsudski's leadership.<ref name="Zamoyski-332"/> His faction came to be called the "Old Faction" or "Revolutionary Faction" ("''Starzy''" or "''[[Polska Partia Socjalistyczna - Frakcja Rewolucyjna|Frakcja Rewolucyjna]]''"), while their opponents were known as the "Young Faction," "Moderate Faction" or "Left Wing" ("''Młodzi''," "''Frakcja Umiarkowana''," "''[[Polska Partia Socjalistyczna - Lewica|Lewica]]''"). The "Young" sympathized with the [[Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania|Social Democrats of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania]] and believed that priority should be given to cooperation with Russian revolutionaries in toppling the Tsarist regime and creating a socialist [[utopia]] that would facilitate negotiations for independence.<ref name="PWN"/> Piłsudski and his supporters in the Revolutionary Faction continued to plot a revolution against Tsarist Russia that would secure Polish independence.<ref name="Poland.gov"/> By 1909 his faction would again be the majority in the PPS, and Piłsudski would remain one of the most important PPS leaders up to the outbreak of the First World War.<ref name="Urb 131">[[#refUrbankowski1997|Urbankowski 1997]], vol. 1, p. 131.</ref> Piłsudski anticipated a coming European war<ref name="Roos"/><ref name="JR45">[[#refRothschild1990|Rothschild 1990]], [http://books.google.com/books?id=ytc-muwFT_IC&pg=PA45&dq=Pilsudski+anticipated+war&lr=&as_brr=3&ei=WzB0R-_AFpjSigGyjOCIAg&sig=GmHznLgdZljDVVJRjbplooWSJ0w p. 45].</ref> and the need to organize the nucleus of a future Polish Army which could help win Poland's independence from the three empires that had partitioned her out of political existence in the late 18th century. In 1906, Piłsudski, with the connivance of Austrian authorities, founded a military school in [[Kraków]] for the training of paramilitary units.<ref name="Zamoyski-332"/> In 1906 alone, the 800-strong paramilitaries, operating in five-man teams in Congress Poland, killed 336 Russian officials; in subsequent years, the number of their casualties declined, while the paramilitaries' numbers increased to some 2,000 in 1908.<ref name="Urb 121–122">[[#refUrbankowski1997|Urbankowski 1997]], vol. 1, pp. 121–122.</ref><ref name="Zamoyski-332"/> The paramilitaries also held up Russian [[currency]] transports leaving Polish territories. On the night of September 26–27, 1908, they robbed a Russian [[mail train]] carrying tax revenues from Warsaw to Saint Petersburg.<ref name="Zamoyski-332"/> Piłsudski, who took part in this [[Bezdany raid]] near Vilna, used the funds thus "expropriated" to finance his secret military organization<ref name="Britannica" />. The take from that single raid (200,812 rubles) was a fortune for the time and equaled the paramilitaries' entire takes of the two preceding years.<ref name="Urb 121–122"/> In 1908 Piłsudski transformed his paramilitary units into an "Association for Active Struggle" (''[[Związek Walki Czynnej]]'', or ''ZWC''), headed by three of his associates, [[Władysław Sikorski]], [[Marian Kukiel]] and [[Kazimierz Sosnkowski]].<ref name="Zamoyski-332"/> One of the ''ZWC'''s main purposes was to train officers and [[noncommissioned officer]]s for a future Polish Army.<ref name="PWN"/> In 1910 two legal paramilitary organizations were created in the Austrian zone of Poland&mdash;one in [[Lwów]] and one in Kraków&mdash;to conduct training in [[military science]]. With the permission of the Austrian authorities, Piłsudski founded a series of "sporting clubs," then the [[Związek Strzelecki|Riflemen's Association]], which served as cover to train a Polish military force. In 1912 Piłsudski (using the ''[[nom de guerre]]'', "''Mieczysław''") became commander-in-chief of a Riflemen's Association (''Związek Strzelecki'') that grew by 1914 to 12,000 men.<ref name="Zamoyski-332"/><ref name="Poland.gov"/> In 1914, Piłsudski declared that "Only the sword now carries any weight in the balance for the destiny of a nation."<ref name="Zamoyski-332"/> ===World War I=== [[Image:Jozef Pilsudski3.jpg|thumb|right|Piłsudski in uniform]] {{main|World War I}} At a meeting in [[Paris]] in 1914, Piłsudski presciently declared that in the impending war, for Poland to regain independence, Russia must be beaten by the Central Powers (the Austro-Hungarian and German Empires), and the latter powers must in their turn be beaten by [[French Third Republic|France]], [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]] and the [[United States]].<ref name="Roos">[[#refRoos1966|Roos 1966]], p. 14.</ref><ref name="JR45"/> By contrast, [[Roman Dmowski]], Piłsudski's rival, believed that the best way to achieve a unified and independent Poland was to support the [[Triple Entente]] against the [[Triple Alliance (1882)|Triple Alliance]].<ref name="Zamoyski-333">[[#refZamoyski1987|Zamoyski 1987]], p. 333.</ref> [[Image:Jozef Pilsudski2.jpg|thumb|left|Piłsudski in World War I (1914)]] At the outbreak of World War I, on [[August 3]], in [[Kraków]], Piłsudski formed a small [[cadre]] military unit, the [[First Cadre Company]], from members of the [[Riflemen's Association]] and [[Polish Rifle Squads]].<ref name="Urb 171–172">[[#refUrbankowski1997|Urbankowski 1997]], vol. 1, pp. 171–172.</ref><ref name="PolPrzem">{{cite web|url = http://www.polityka.pl/polityka/index.jsp?place=Lead30&news_cat_id=1409&news_id=193189&layout=16&forum_id=6303&fpage=Threads&page=text|title = Przemówienie do I kompanii kadrowej, Kraków, Oleandry, 3 sierpnia 1914|date = 2006-09-26|work = [[Polityka]]|language = Polish|accessmonthday = January 15|accessyear = 2008}}</ref> That same day, a cavalry unit under [[Władysław Belina-Prażmowski]] was sent to [[reconnoiter]] across the Russian border, even before the official [[declaration of war]] between Austro-Hungary and Russia, which ensued on [[August 6]].<ref name="Urb 168">[[#refUrbankowski1997|Urbankowski 1997]], vol. 1, p. 168.</ref> Piłsudski's strategy was to send his forces north across the border into [[Congress Poland|Russian Poland]], into an area which the [[Military history of Imperial Russia|Russian Army]] had evacuated, in the hope of breaking through to Warsaw and sparking a national uprising.<ref name="PWN"/><ref name="Cienciala">{{cite web | last = Cienciala | first = Anna M. | authorlink=Anna M. Cienciala | url = http://web.ku.edu/~eceurope/hist557/lect11.htm | title = The Rebirth of Poland (lecture notes) | year = 2002, rev. 2007 | accessmonthday = June 2 | accessyear = 2006 }}</ref> Using his limited forces, in those early days he backed his orders with the sanction of a fictitious "National Government in Warsaw,"<ref name="Urb 174–175">[[#refUrbankowski1997|Urbankowski 1997]], vol. 1, pp. 174–175.</ref> and bent and stretched Austrian orders to the utmost, taking initiatives, moving forward and establishing Polish institutions in liberated towns, while the Austrians saw his forces as good only for scouting or for supporting main Austrian formations.<ref name="Urb 178–179">[[#refUrbankowski1997|Urbankowski 1997]], vol. 1, pp. 178–179.</ref> On [[August 12]], [[1914]], Piłsudski's forces took the town of [[Kielce]], of [[Kielce Governorate]], but Piłsudski found the populace less supportive than he had expected.<ref name="Urb 170–171 and 180–182">[[#refUrbankowski1997|Urbankowski 1997]], vol. 1, pp. 170–171 and 180–182.</ref> Soon afterward he officially established the [[Polish Legions in World War I|Polish Legions]], taking personal command of their [[I Brigade of the Polish Legions|First Brigade]],<ref name="Poland.gov"/> which he would lead successfully into several victorious battles.<ref name="PWN"/> He also secretly informed the British government in the fall of 1914 that his Legions would never fight France or Britain, only Russia.<ref name="Cienciala"/> [[Image:Pilsudski and officers 1915.jpg|thumb|left|Piłsudski and his officers, 1915]] Piłsudski decreed that Legions personnel were to be addressed by the [[French Revolution|French-Revolution]]-inspired "Citizen" (''Obywatel''), and he himself was referred to as "the Commandant" ("''Komendant''").<ref name="Zamoyski-333">[[#refZamoyski1987|Zamoyski 1987]], p. 333.</ref> Piłsudski enjoyed extreme respect and loyalty from his men<ref name="Zamoyski-333"/> which would remain for years to come. The Polish Legions fought against Russia at the side of the Central Powers until 1917. Soon after forming the Legions, also in 1914, Piłsudski set up another organization, the [[Polish Military Organisation]] (''Polska Organizacja Wojskowa''), which served as a precursor [[Polish intelligence]] agency and was designed to perform espionage and sabotage missions.<ref name="PWN"/><ref name="Cienciala"/> [[Image:MalczewskiJacek.1916.PortretJozefaPilsudskiego.jpg|thumb|Piłsudski. Painting by [[Jacek Malczewski]], 1916]] In mid-1916, after the [[Battle of Kostiuchnówka]] (July 4&ndash;6, 1916), where the Polish Legions delayed a Russian offensive at a cost of over 2,000 casualties,<ref>[[#refMatuszak2006|Matuszak 2006]], p. 12.</ref> Piłsudski demanded that the Central Powers issue a guarantee of independence for Poland. He backed this demand with his own proffered [[resignation]] and that of many of the Legions' officers.<ref name="Urb 251–252">[[#refUrbankowski1997|Urbankowski 1997]], vol. 1, pp. 251–252.</ref> On [[November 5]], [[1916]], the Central Powers proclaimed the "independence" of Poland, hoping to increase the number of Polish troops that could be sent to the [[Eastern Front (World War I)|eastern front]] against Russia, thereby relieving German forces to bolster the [[Western Front (World War I)|western front]].<ref name="Biskupski">[[#refBiskupski2000|Biskupski 2000]].</ref><ref name="Britannica" /> Piłsudski agreed to serve in the "[[Kingdom of Poland (1916–1918)|Kingdom of Poland]]" created by the Central Powers, and acted as [[minister of war]] in the newly formed [[Polish Regency government]].<ref name="Zamoyski-333"/> In the wake of the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]] and in view of the worsening situation of the Central Powers, Piłsudski took an increasingly uncompromising stance, insisting that his men not be treated as "German [[colonial troops]]" and only be used to fight Russia. Anticipating the Central Powers' defeat in the war, he did not wish to be allied with the losing side.<ref name="Urb 253">[[#refUrbankowski1997|Urbankowski 1997]], vol. 1, p. 253.</ref><ref name="JR45"/> In the aftermath of a July 1917 "[[Oath Crisis]]" when Piłsudski forbade Polish soldiers to swear an [[loyalty oath|oath of loyalty]] to the Central Powers, he was arrested and imprisoned at [[Magdeburg]]; the Polish units were disbanded, and the men were incorporated into the [[Austro-Hungarian Army]],<ref name="Poland.gov"/><ref name="Cienciala"/> while the [[Polish Military Organization]] began attacking German targets.<ref name="PWN"/> Piłsudski's arrest greatly enhanced his reputation among Poles, many of whom began to see him as the most determined Polish leader, willing to take on ''all'' the partitioning powers.<ref name="PWN"/> On [[November 8]], [[1918]], Piłsudski and his comrade, Colonel [[Kazimierz Sosnkowski]], were released from Magdeburg and soon—like [[Vladimir Lenin]] before them—placed on a private train, bound for their national capital, as the increasingly desperate Germans hoped that Piłsudski would gather forces friendly to them.<ref name="Cienciala"/> ===Rebuilding Poland=== [[Image:Ulica Mokotowska 50, Warsaw.JPG|thumb|right|''Ulica Mokotowska 50'', Warsaw, where Piłsudski stayed November 13–29, 1918, after release from [[Magdeburg]]]] On [[November 11]], [[1918]], in Warsaw, Piłsudski was appointed [[Commander in Chief]] of Polish forces by the [[Regency Council]] and was entrusted with creating a national government for the newly independent country. On that very day (which would become [[Poland's Independence Day]]), he proclaimed an independent Polish state.<ref name="Cienciala"/> That week, too, Piłsudski also negotiated the evacuation of the German garrison from Warsaw and of other German troops from the "[[Ober Ost]]" authority. Over 55,000 Germans would peacefully depart Poland, leaving their weapons to the Poles. In coming months, over 400,000 total would depart Polish territories.<ref name="Cienciala"/><ref name="Urb 256 and 277–278">[[#refUrbankowski1997|Urbankowski 1997]], vol. 1, p. 256 and pp. 277–278.</ref> On [[November 14]], [[1918]], Piłsudski was asked to provisionally supervise the running of the country. On November 22 he officially received, from the new government of [[Jędrzej Moraczewski]], the title of Provisional Chief of State (''Naczelnik Państwa'') of renascent Poland.<ref name="Poland.gov"/> Various Polish military organizations and provisional governments (the [[Regency Council]] in Warsaw; [[Ignacy Daszyński]]'s government in [[Lublin]]; and the [[Polish Liquidation Committee]] in [[Kraków]]) bowed to Piłsudski, who set about forming a new coalition government. It was predominantly socialist and introduced many reforms long proclaimed as necessary by the Polish Socialist Party, such as the [[eight-hour day]], free school education, and [[women's suffrage]]. This was necessary to avoid major unrest. However, Piłsudski believed that as head of state he must be above partisan politics.<ref name="PWN"/><ref name="Cienciala"/> The day after his arrival in Warsaw, he met with old colleagues from underground days, who addressed him socialist-style as "[[Comrade]]" ("''Towarzysz''") and asked his support for their revolutionary policies; he refused it and answered: "Comrades, I took the red [[tram]] of socialism to the stop called Independence, and that's where I got off. You may keep on to the final stop if you wish, but from now on let's address each other as '[[Mr.|Mister]]' [rather than continue using the socialist term of address, 'Comrade']!"<ref name="Poland.gov"/> He declined to support any one party and did not form any political organization of his own; instead, he advocated creating a coalition government.<ref name="PWN"/><ref name="Suleja202>[[#refSuleja2004|Suleja 2004]], p. 202.</ref> He also set about organizing a Polish army out of Polish veterans of the German, Russian and Austrian armies. In the days immediately after World War I, Piłsudski attempted to build a government in a shattered country. Much of former Russian Poland had been destroyed in the war, and systematic looting by the Germans had reduced the region's wealth by at least 10%.<ref name="MM-210">[[#refMacMillan2003|MacMillan 2003]], p. 210.</ref> A British diplomat who visited Warsaw in January 1919 reported: "I have nowhere seen anything like the evidences of extreme poverty and wretchedness that meet one's eye at almost every turn".<ref name="MM-210"/> In addition, the country had to unify the disparate systems of law, economics, and [[administration (government)|administration]] in the former German, Austrian and Russian sectors of Poland. There were nine legal systems, five currencies, 66 types of rail systems (with 165 models of locomotives), which all had to be consolidated on an expedited basis.<ref name="MM-210"/> [[Image:Warszawaid4.jpg|thumb|Statue of Piłsudski before Warsaw's [[Belweder|Belweder Palace]], Piłsudski's official residence during his years in power]] [[Wacław Jędrzejewicz]], in ''Piłsudski: A Life for Poland'', describes Piłsudski as very deliberate in his decision-making. He collected all available pertinent information, then took his time weighing it before arriving at a final decision. Piłsudski drove himself hard, working all day and all night.<ref name="MM-210"/> He maintained a [[sparta]]n lifestyle, eating plain meals alone at an inexpensive restaurant.<ref name="MM-210"/> Though Piłsudski was popular with much of the Polish public, his reputation as a loner (the result of many years' underground work), as a man who distrusted almost everyone, led to strained relations with other Polish politicians.<ref name="MM-209"/> Piłsudski and the first Polish government were distrusted in the West because Piłsudski had cooperated with the Central Powers in 1914–17 and because the governments of Daszyński and Jędrzej Moraczewski were primarily socialist.<ref name="Cienciala"/> It was not until January 1919, when the world-famous pianist and composer [[Ignacy Jan Paderewski|Ignacy Paderewski]] became [[Prime Minister of Poland|prime minister]] and foreign minister of a new government, that it was recognized in the West.<ref name="Cienciala"/> That still left two separate governments claiming to be Poland's legitimate government: Piłsudski's in Warsaw, and Dmowski's in Paris.<ref name="MM-210"/> To ensure that Poland had a single government and to avert civil war, Paderewski met with Dmowski and Piłsudski and persuaded them to join forces, with Piłsudski acting as Provisional Chief of State and [[Commander-in-Chief]] while Dmowski and Paderewski represented Poland at the [[Paris Peace Conference of 1919|Paris Peace Conference]].<ref name="MM-213–214">[[#refMacMillan2003|MacMillan 2003]], pp. 213–214.</ref> Articles 87–93 of the [[Treaty of Versailles|Versailles Treaty]]<ref>See articles 87–93, {{cite web|url = http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/imt/partiii.htm|title = The Versailles Treaty June 28, 1919: Part III|year = 2008|work = The Avalon Project|accessmonthday = January 15|accessyear = 2008}}</ref> and the [[Little Treaty of Versailles]], signed on [[June 28]], [[1919]], formally established Poland as an independent and sovereign state in the international arena.<ref>[[#refGrant1999|Grant 1999]], [http://books.google.com/books?id=GAQ8vIJE8_QC&pg=PA114&dq=Poland+recognition+1919+versailles&as_brr=3&ei=ET9cR__8G6butAPi0NDvAw&sig=uc8xW0mfzxTFUDYohdfCEG5t81Q p. 114].</ref> Piłsudski often clashed with Dmowski, at variance with the latter's vision of the Poles as the dominant nationality in renascent Poland, and irked by Dmowski's attempt to send the [[Blue Army]] to Poland through Danzig, [[Germany]] (now [[Gdańsk]], Poland).<ref name="MM-211 and 214">[[#refMacMillan2003|MacMillan 2003]], pp. 211 and 214.</ref><ref name="BFG">[[#refBoemeke1998|Boemeke ''et al.'' 1998]], [http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0521621321&id=zqj-oHp4KsgC&pg=RA1-PA314&lpg=RA1-PA314&q=Kingdom+of+Poland&vq=Kingdom+of+Poland&dq=eastern+marches+poles&sig=yCDNar7HfvJokGQ9LbFcG4-UGd4 p. 314].</ref> On [[January 5]], [[1919]], some of Dmowski's supporters ([[Marian Januszajtis-Żegota]] and [[Eustachy Sapieha]]) attempted [[Polish Coup (1919)|a coup]] against Piłsudski and Prime Minister Moraczewski, but failed.<ref name="Urb 499–501">[[#refUrbankowski1997|Urbankowski 1997]], vol. 1, pp. 499–501.</ref> On [[February 20]], [[1919]], Piłsudski declared that he would return his powers to the newly elected Polish parliament (''[[Sejm]]''). However, the ''Sejm'' reinstated his office in the [[Little Constitution of 1919]]. The word "Provisional" was struck from his title, and Piłsudski would hold the office until [[December 9]], [[1922]], when [[Gabriel Narutowicz]] was elected the first [[president of Poland]].<ref name="Poland.gov"/> Piłsudski's major foreign-policy initiative at this time was a proposed [[federation]] (to be called "''[[Międzymorze]]''," [[Polish language|Polish]] for "Between-Seas," and also known from the [[Latin]] as "''[[Intermarum]]''," stretching from the [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]] to the [[Black Sea]]) of Poland with the independent [[Baltic states]] and [[Belarus]] and [[Ukraine]],<ref name="Cienciala"/> somewhat in emulation of the [[partitions of Poland|pre-partition]] [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]].<ref>[[#refJedrzejewicz1991|Jędrzejewicz 1991]].</ref><ref name="PWN"/> Piłsudski's plan met with opposition from most of the prospective member states—who refused to relinquish any of their hard-won independence—as well as from the Allied powers, for whom it would be too bold a change to the existing [[balance of power|balance-of-power]] structure.<ref>{{cite web |last = Szymczak |first = Robert |url = http://www.historynet.com/wars_conflicts/20_21_century/3038436.html?featured=y&c=y |title = Polish-Soviet War: Battle of Warsaw |work = TheHistoryNet |accessmonthday = October 10 |accessyear = 2007 }}</ref> According to historian [[George Sanford (scholar)|George Sanford]], around 1920 Piłsudski came to realize the infeasibility of this version of his ''[[Intermarum]]'' project.<ref name="Sanford">[[#refSanford2002|Sanford 2002]], [http://books.google.com/books?id=tOaXi0hX1RAC&pg=PA6&dq=democratic+government+in+poland+unworkable&as_brr=3&sig=eJkvVGt5pFMi3eleXtFEXWcVOWw pp. 5–6].</ref> Instead of a Central- and East-European alliance, there soon appeared a series of border conflicts, including the [[Polish-Ukrainian War]] (1918–19), the [[Polish-Lithuanian War]] (1920, culminating in [[Żeligowski's Mutiny]]), [[Polish-Czechoslovak border conflicts]] (beginning in 1918), and most notably the Polish-Soviet War (1919–21).<ref name="PWN"/> [[Winston Churchill]] commented: "The war of giants has ended, the wars of the pygmies begin."<ref name="AHP">[[#refHyde-Price2001|Hyde-Price 2001]], [http://books.google.com/books?id=M-2Obqk-VZUC&pg=PA75&lpg=PA75&sig=DUUDt60sddDtfNR-_h3dt41z5x4 p. 75].</ref> ===Polish-Soviet War=== {{main|Polish-Soviet War}} [[Image:Jozef Pilsudski w Poznaniu.jpg|thumb|right|Piłsudski in [[Poznań]]]] In the [[aftermath of World War I]], there was unrest on all Polish borders. Regarding Poland's future frontiers, Piłsudski said, "All that we can gain in the west depends on the Entente—on the extent to which it may wish to squeeze Germany", while in the east "there are doors that open and close, and it depends on who forces them open and how far."<ref name="MM-211">[[#refMacMillan2003|MacMillan 2003]], p. 211.</ref> In 1918 in the east, Polish forces clashed with Ukrainian forces in the Polish-Ukrainian War, and Piłsudski's first orders as Commander-in-Chief of the Polish Army, on [[12 November]], [[1918]], were to provide support for the [[Battle of Lwów (1918)|Polish struggle in Lwów]].<ref name="Urb 281">[[#refUrbankowski1997|Urbankowski 1997]], vol. 1, p. 281.</ref> However, while Ukrainians were the first clear enemy, it soon became apparent that the various Ukrainian factions were not the real power in that region. Coming months and years would show that the [[Bolshevik]]s were in fact the most dangerous enemy not only of renascent Poland, but of the Ukrainians. Piłsudski was aware that the Bolsheviks were no friends of independent Poland, and that war with them was inevitable.<ref name="Urb 90–2">[[#refUrbankowski1997|Urbankowski 1997]], vol. 2, p. 90.</ref> He viewed their advance west as a major problem, but also considered the Bolsheviks less dangerous for Poland than their [[White movement|Russian-civil-war contenders]].<ref name="Kenez">[[#refKenez1999|Kenez 1999]], [http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&vid=ISBN0521311985&id=aIY9qb6iIEcC&pg=PA37&lpg=PA37&dq=%22Peace+of+Riga%22&sig=DOZgge7R-dNB7KTNOVV_QWrE8KI p. 37].</ref> These "White Russians"—representative of the old Russian Empire—were willing to accept only limited independence for Poland, probably within borders similar to those of the former [[Congress Poland]], and clearly objected to Ukrainian independence, which was crucial for Piłsudski's ''[[Intermarum]]'' project.<ref name="Urb 83–2">[[#refUrbankowski1997|Urbankowski 1997]], vol. 2, p. 83.</ref> This was in contrast to the Bolsheviks, who proclaimed the partitions of Poland null and void.<ref name="Urb 291">[[#refUrbankowski1997|Urbankowski 1997]], vol. 1, p. 291.</ref> Piłsudski thus speculated that Poland would be better off with the Bolsheviks, alienated from the Western powers, than with a restored Russian Empire.<ref name="Kenez"/><ref name="Urb 45–2">[[#refUrbankowski1997|Urbankowski 1997]], vol. 2, p. 45.</ref> By ignoring the strong pressures from the [[Entente Cordiale]] to join the attack on [[Vladimir Lenin]]'s struggling [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] government, Piłsudski probably saved the Bolshevik government in the summer and fall of 1919.<ref name="Urb 92–2">[[#refUrbankowski1997|Urbankowski 1997]], vol. 2, p. 92.</ref> [[Image:Jozef Pilsudski5.jpg|thumb|left|In March 1920, Piłsudski was made "First [[Marshal of Poland]]."]] In the wake of the [[Russian westward offensive of 1918–1919]] and of a series of escalating battles which resulted in the Poles advancing eastward, on [[April 21]], [[1920]], [[Marshal]] Piłsudski (as his rank had been since March 1920) signed a military alliance (the [[Treaty of Warsaw (1920)|Treaty of Warsaw]]) with Ukrainian leader [[Symon Petliura]] to conduct joint operations against [[Russian SFSR|Soviet Russia]]. The goal of the Polish-Ukrainian treaty was to establish an independent Ukraine in alliance with Poland.<ref name="Davies_WERS-99-103pl">[[#refDavies1997|Davies 1997]], p. 99–103.</ref> In return, Petliura gave up Ukrainian claims to [[Galicia (Central Europe)|eastern Galicia]], for which he was denounced by eastern-Galician Ukrainian leaders.<ref name="Cienciala"/> The Polish and Ukrainian armies, under Piłsudski's command, launched [[1920 Kiev Offensive|a successful offensive]] against the Russian forces in Ukraine. On [[May 7]], [[1920]], with remarkably little fighting, they captured [[Kiev]].<ref name="Davies_WERS">[[#refDavies2003|Davies 2003]].</ref> [[Image:Pilsudski and Rydz-Smigly.jpg|thumb|right|Piłsudski ''(left)'' and [[Edward Rydz-Śmigły]] ''(right)'', 1920, during Polish-Soviet War]] The Bolshevik leadership framed the Polish actions as an invasion; in response, thousands of officers and deserters joined the army, and thousands of civilians volunteered for war work.<ref>[[#refFiges1996|Figes 1996]], p. 699. "Within weeks of Brusilov's appointment, 14,000 officers had joined the army to fight the Poles, thousands of civilians had volunteered for war-work, and well over 100,000 deserters had returned to the Red Army on the Western Front."</ref> The Soviets launched a counter-offensive from [[Belarus]] and [[counter-attack]]ed in Ukraine, advancing into Poland<ref name="Davies_WERS"/> in a drive toward Germany to encourage the [[Communist Party of Germany|German Communist Party]] in its struggle to take power. Soviet confidence soared.<ref name=LeninSpeach>See Lenin's speech, English translation quoted from [[#refPipes1993|Pipes 1993]], pp. 181–182, with some stylistic modification in paragraph 3, line 3, by [[Anna M. Cienciala]]. This document was first published in a Russian historical periodical, {{citation |periodical=Istoricheskii Arkhiv|volume=1|issue=1|location=Moscow|date=1992}}, and is cited through lecture notes by Cienciala 2002.</ref> The Soviets announced their plans to invade western Europe; Soviet communist theoretician [[Nicholas Bukharin|Nikolai Bukharin]], writing in ''[[Pravda]]'', hoped for the resources to carry the campaign beyond Warsaw "straight to London and Paris."<ref name="Cohen">[[#refCohen1980|Cohen 1980]], [http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0195026977&id=BUg-lWpZcsIC&pg=RA1-PA101&lpg=RA1-PA101&q=Paris+and+London&vq=Paris+and+London&dq=Bukharin&sig=XDCGVZcc6Gn_kyaGX0F3OJvrm3U p. 101].</ref> Soviet General [[Mikhail Tukhachevsky]]'s order of the day for [[July 2]], [[1920]], read: "To the West! Over the corpse of White Poland lies the road to world-wide conflagration. March upon [[Vilna]], [[Minsk]], Warsaw!"<ref name="Lawrynowicz">{{cite web |last=Lawrynowicz |first=Witold |title=Battle of Warsaw 1920 |url = http://www.hetmanusa.org/engarticle1.html |accessmonthday = November 5 |work=Polish Militaria Collector’s Association in memory of Andrzej Zaremba |accessyear = 2006 }}</ref> and "onward to [[Berlin]] over the corpse of Poland!"<ref name="Cienciala"/> On [[July 1]], [[1920]], in view of the rapidly advancing Soviet offensive, Poland's parliament, the ''[[Sejm]]'', formed a [[Council for Defense of the Nation]]. It was chaired by Piłsudski and was to provide expeditious decision-making and temporarily supplant the fractious [[Sejm]].<ref name="Urb 341–346 and 357–358">[[#refUrbankowski1997|Urbankowski 1997]], vol. 1, pp. 341–346 and 357–358.</ref> The [[National Democracy|National Democrats]], however, contended that the string of Bolshevik victories had been Piłsudski's fault<ref name="Suleja265">[[#refSuleja2004|Suleja 2004]], p. 265.</ref> and demanded that he resign; some even accused him of treason.<ref name="Urb 341–346">[[#refUrbankowski1997|Urbankowski 1997]], vol. 1, pp. 341–46.</ref> Their July 19 failure to carry a [[vote of no-confidence]] in the council led to [[Roman Dmowski]]'s withdrawal from it.<ref name="Urb 341–346"/> On August 12 Piłsudski tendered his resignation to Prime Minister [[Wincenty Witos]], offering to be the scapegoat if the military solution failed, but Witos refused to accept his resignation.<ref name="Urb 341–346"/> The [[Triple Entente|Entente]] pressured Poland to surrender and enter into negotiations with the Bolsheviks. Piłsudski, however, was a staunch advocate of continuing the fight.<ref name="Urb 341–346"/> As [[Norman Davies]] noted, at that time, especially abroad, "Piłsudski had nothing of his later prestige. As a pre-war revolutionary he led his party to splits and quarrels; as a general in the WWI he led his legions to internment and disbanding; as a marshal of the Polish Army he led it to Kiev and Vilnius, both now lost to Poles. He left the Polish Socialist Party and his Austro-German allies; refused to ally himself with Entente. In France and England he was considered a treasonous ally who leads Poland into destruction; in Russia he was seen as a false servant of the allies, who will lead imperialism to ruin. All - from [[Lenin]] to [[Lloyd George]], from [[Pravda]] to [[Morning Star]] - considered him a military and political failure. In August 1920 all were in agreement that his catastrophic career will be crowned with the fall of Warsaw."<ref name="Davies_WERS229">[[#refDavies1997|Davies 1997]], p. 229.</ref> [[Image:Jozef Pilsudski with Kasztanka.jpg|thumb|left|Piłsudski with his favorite horse, ''[[Kasztanka|Chestnut]]'' (''Kasztanka'')]] Yet over the next few weeks, Poland's risky, unconventional strategy at the August 1920 [[Battle of Warsaw (1920)|Battle of Warsaw]] halted the Soviet advance.<ref name="Davies_WERS"/> The Polish plan was developed by Piłsudski and others, including [[Tadeusz Rozwadowski]].<ref name="Eric">[[#refErickson2001|Erickson 2001]], [http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0714651788&id=rgkSxFpKmIsC&pg=PA95&lpg=PA95&dq=Rozwadowski&sig=su5WRVqT6chSv5mAxfGlK9reOvE p. 95.]</ref> Later, some supporters of Piłsudski would seek to portray him as the sole author of the Polish strategy, while opponents would seek to minimize his role.<ref name="Nobel">[[#refLonnroth1994|Lönnroth, ''et al.'' 1994]], [http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN3110135043&id=uIVvQoxIHQkC&pg=PA230&lpg=PA230&dq=Tadeusz+Rozwadowski&sig=f-l2avIzG75kde4WHBxeWatjRS0 p. 230].</ref> In the West for a long time a myth persisted that it was General [[Maxime Weygand]] of the [[French military mission to Poland]] who had saved Poland; modern scholars, however, are in agreement that Weygand's role was minimal at best.<ref name="Cienciala"/><ref name="Szczep">{{cite web |last = Szczepański |first = Janusz |url = http://www.mowiawieki.pl/artykul.html?id_artykul=404 |title = Kontrowersje Wokół Bitwy Warszawskiej 1920 Roku (Controversies surrounding the Battle of Warsaw in 1920) |work = [[Mówią Wieki]] online |language = Polish |accessmonthday = January 15 |accessyear = 2008 }}</ref><ref name="Nobel"/> Piłsudski's plan called for Polish forces to withdraw across the [[Vistula River]] and defend the bridgeheads at Warsaw and on the [[Wieprz River]], while some 25% of available [[division (military)|divisions]] concentrated to the south for a strategic counter-offensive. The plan next required two armies under General [[Józef Haller de Hallenburg|Józef Haller]], facing Soviet frontal attack on Warsaw from the east, to hold their [[trench|entrenched]] positions at all costs. At the same time, an army under General [[Władysław Sikorski]] was to strike north from outside Warsaw, cutting off Soviet forces that sought to envelope the Polish capital from that direction. The most important role, however, was assigned to a relatively small, approximately 20,000-man, newly assembled "Reserve Army" (also known as the "Strike Group," "''Grupa Uderzeniowa''"), comprising the most determined, battle-hardened Polish units and commanded personally by Piłsudski. Their task was to spearhead a lightning northward offensive, from the Vistula-Wieprz triangle south of Warsaw, through a weak spot identified by Polish intelligence between the Soviet Western and Southwestern [[Front (Soviet Army)|Fronts]]. That offensive would separate the Soviet Western Front from its reserves and disorganize its movements. Eventually, the gap between Sikorski's army and the "Strike Group" would close near the [[East Prussia]]n border, bringing about the destruction of the encircled Soviet forces.<ref name="Cisek">[[#refCisek2002|Cisek 2002]], [http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0786412402&id=hNuGZOGk6UoC&pg=PA140&lpg=PA140&q=Rozwadowski&vq=Rozwadowski&dq=Rozwadowski&sig=Gzm5trogxhMjygu0qBKsACesExw pp. 140–141].</ref><ref name="Urb 346–441">[[#refUrbankowski1997|Urbankowski 1997]], vol. 1, pp. 346–441 and 357–358.</ref> [[Image:Pilsudski Jews bread and salt.jpg|thumb|right|[[Dęblin]]'s [[Polish Jews|Jews]] present [[Marshal of Poland|Marshal]] Piłsudski with traditional [[bread and salt]] on the town's 1920 liberation from the [[Bolshevism|Bolsheviks]]]] At the time, Piłsudski's plan was strongly criticized, and only the desperate situation of the Polish forces persuaded other commanders to go along with it. Though based on reliable intelligence, including [[decryption|decrypted]] Soviet radio communications, the plan was termed "amateurish" by high-ranking army officers and military experts who were quick to point out Piłsudski's lack of formal military education. When a copy of the plan fell into Soviet hands, Soviet commander [[Mikhail Tukhachevsky]] thought it a ruse and disregarded it.<ref name="Davies_WERS_197">[[#refDavies2003|Davies 2003]], p. 197.</ref> Days later, the Soviets paid dearly for this when, during the [[Battle of Warsaw (1920)|Battle of Warsaw]], the overconfident [[Red Army]] suffered one of its greatest defeats ever.<ref name="Davies_WERS"/><ref name="Urb 346–441"/> A [[National Democracy|National Democrat]] ''[[Sejm]]'' deputy, [[Stanisław Stroński]], coined the phrase, "Miracle at the Vistula" ("''Cud nad Wisłą''"),<ref name="Głos">{{cite journal|last=Frątczak|first=Sławomir Z.|language=Polish|url=http://web.archive.org/web/20070708173639/http://www.glos.com.pl/Archiwum_nowe/Rok+2005/032/strona/Cud.html|journal=[[Głos]]|issue=32/2005|year=2005|title=Cud nad Wisłą|accessmonthday=June 18|accessyear=2006|format={{dead link|date=June 2008}} &ndash; <sup>[http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?hl=en&lr=&q=author%3AFr%C4%85tczak+intitle%3ACud+nad+Wis%C5%82%C4%85&as_publication=%5B%5BG%C5%82os%5D%5D&as_ylo=2005&as_yhi=2005&btnG=Search Scholar search]</sup>}}</ref> to express his disapproval of Piłsudski's "Ukrainian adventure." Stroński's phrase was adopted as praise for Piłsudski by some patriotically or piously minded Poles, who were unaware of Stroński's ironic intent. A junior member of the French military mission, [[Charles de Gaulle]], would later adopt some lessons from the Polish-Soviet War as well as from Piłsudski's career.<ref name="Davies_E">[[#refDavies1998|Davies 1998]], [http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0060974680&id=7zN4crdeEWoC&pg=PA935&lpg=PA935&dq=Charles+de+Gaulle+Pilsudski&sig=8MgVNDO2YBQhsudBY_UvgNWvsJE p. 935].</ref><ref name="Urb 346–441"/> In February 1921, Piłsudski visited Paris, where in negotiations with French president [[Alexandre Millerand]] he laid the foundations for the [[Franco-Polish Military Alliance]] that would be signed later that year.<ref name="Urb 484">[[#refUrbankowski1997|Urbankowski 1997]], vol. 1, p. 484.</ref> The [[Treaty of Riga]], which ended the Polish-Soviet War in March 1921, partitioned [[Belarus]] and [[Ukraine]] between Poland and Russia. Piłsudski called the treaty an "act of cowardice."<ref name="Davies_GP2-399">[[#refDavies1982|Davies 1982]], [http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&vid=ISBN0231053525&id=DMoPXktGwiUC&pg=PA399&lpg=PA399&dq=Riga+an+act+of+cowardice&sig=i3vknEXAKsMRzbdbyuxKdq9e1XE p. 399]).</ref> The treaty, and Piłsudski-approved General [[Lucjan Żeligowski]]'s [[Żeligowski's Mutiny|capture of Vilna]] from the Lithuanians, marked an end to this incarnation of Piłsudski's federalist ''[[Intermarum]]'' plan.<ref name="PWN"/> On [[September 25]], [[1921]], when Piłsudski visited [[Lwów]] for the opening of the first [[Eastern Trade Fair]] (''Targi Wschodnie''), he was the target of an unsuccessful assassination attempt by [[Stepan Fedak]], acting on behalf of Ukrainian-independence organizations, including the [[Ukrainian Military Organization]].<ref name="Urb 485">[[#refUrbankowski1997|Urbankowski 1997]], vol. 1, p. 485.</ref> {{Unicode|}} ===Retirement and coup=== [[Image:Narutowicz Pilsudski.jpg|thumb|left|At [[Belweder|Belweder Palace]], Chief of State Piłsudski (''left'') transferred his powers to President-elect [[Gabriel Narutowicz]] (''right''). Two days later, the President would be dead.]] After the Polish [[March Constitution|Constitution of March 1921]] severely limited the powers of the [[presidency]] (intentionally, to prevent a President Piłsudski from waging war), Piłsudski declined to run for the office.<ref name="PWN"/> On [[December 9]], [[1922]], the Polish [[National Assembly of the Republic of Poland|National Assembly]] elected [[Gabriel Narutowicz]] of ''[[Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe Wyzwolenie|PSL Wyzwolenie]]''; his election, opposed by the right-wing parties, caused public unrest.<ref name="Urb 487-488">[[#refUrbankowski1997|Urbankowski 1997]], vol. 1, pp. 487–488.</ref> On [[December 14]], at the [[Belweder|Belweder Palace]], Piłsudski officially transferred his powers as Chief of State to his friend Narutowicz; the ''Naczelnik'' was replaced by the President.<ref name="Urb 488">[[#refUrbankowski1997|Urbankowski 1997]], vol. 1, p. 488.</ref><ref> {{cite encyclopedia | encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia Britannica]] | title=Piłsudski, Józef (Klemens) | edition=15th ed. | year=2005 | volume=9 | pages=p. 445 }}</ref> [[Image:Pilsudski in Bristol.jpg|thumb|right|At Warsaw's [[Hotel Bristol]], [[July 3]], [[1923]], Piłsudski announced his [[retirement]] from active [[politics]].]] Two days later, on [[December 16]], [[1922]], Narutowicz was shot dead by a [[right-wing]], painter and art critic, [[Eligiusz Niewiadomski]], who had originally wanted to kill Piłsudski but had changed his target, influenced by [[National Democracy|National-Democrat]] anti-Narutowicz propaganda.<ref name="Urb 489">[[#refUrbankowski1997|Urbankowski 1997]], vol. 1, p. 489.</ref> For Piłsudski this was a major shock, an event that shook his belief that Poland could function as a democracy<ref name="Suleja300>[[#refSuleja2004|Suleja 2004]], p. 300.</ref> and made him favor government by a strong hand.<ref>[[#refDavies1986|Davies 1986]], p. 140.</ref> He became [[Chief of the General Staff (Poland)|Chief of the General Staff]] and, together with [[Polish Minister of Military Affairs|Minister of Military Affairs]] [[Władysław Sikorski]], managed to stabilize the situation, quelling unrest with a brief [[state of emergency]].<ref name="Urb 489–490">[[#refUrbankowski1997|Urbankowski 1997]], vol. 1, pp. 489–490.</ref> [[Stanisław Wojciechowski]] of ''[[Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe Piast|PSL Piast]]'', another of Piłsudski's old colleagues, was elected the new president, and [[Wincenty Witos]], also of ''PSL Piast'', became prime minister. But the new government—pursuant to the [[Lanckorona Pact]], an alliance among the centrist ''PSL Piast'' and the right-wing [[National Populist Union]] and [[Polskie Stronnictwo Chrześcijańskiej Demokracji|Christian Democrat]] parties—contained right-wing enemies of Piłsudski, people whom he held morally responsible for Narutowicz's death and whom he found it impossible to work with.<ref name="Urb 490–491">[[#refUrbankowski1997|Urbankowski 1997]], vol. 1, pp. 490–491.</ref> On [[May 30]], [[1923]], Piłsudski resigned as Chief of the General Staff. [[Image:Dworek w Sulejówku.jpg|thumb|right|Piłsudski in front of his [[Sulejówek]] house, with his former soldiers, before the 1926 coup]] After General [[Stanisław Szeptycki]] proposed that the military should be more closely supervised by civilian authorities, Piłsudski criticized this as an attempt to politicize the army, and on June 28 he resigned his last political appointment. The same day, the Sejm's left-wing deputies voted a resolution thanking him for his past work.<ref name="Urb 490">[[#refUrbankowski1997|Urbankowski 1997]], vol. 1, p. 490.</ref> Piłsudski went into retirement in [[Sulejówek]], outside Warsaw, at his country manor, ''"Milusin"'', which had been presented to him by his former soldiers.<ref>[[#refWatt1979|Watt 1979]], p. 210.</ref> There he settled down to supporting his family by writing a series of political and military memoirs, including ''Rok 1920'' (The Year 1920).<ref name="Poland.gov"/> [[Image:Piłsudski on Poniatowski's Bridge.jpg|thumb|left|Piłsudski on Warsaw's [[Poniatowski Bridge]] during the [[May Coup|May 1926 Coup d'État]]. At right is General [[Gustaw Orlicz-Dreszer]].]] Meanwhile Poland's economy was in shambles. [[Hyperinflation]] fueled public unrest, and the government was unable to find a quick solution to the mounting unemployment and economic crisis.<ref name="Urb 502">[[#refUrbankowski1997|Urbankowski 1997]], vol. 1, p. 502.</ref> Piłsudski's allies and supporters repeatedly asked him to return to politics, and he began to create a new power base, centered around former members of the [[Polish Legions]] and the [[Polish Military Organization]] as well as some [[left-wing]] and [[intelligentsia]] parties. In 1925, after several governments had resigned in short order and the political scene was becoming increasingly chaotic, Piłsudski became more and more critical of the government, eventually issuing statements demanding the resignation of the Witos cabinet.<ref name="Poland.gov"/><ref name="PWN"/> When the [[Chjeno-Piast]] coalition, which Piłsudski had strongly criticized, formed a new government,<ref name="PWN"/> on May 12–14, 1926, Piłsudski returned to power in a ''[[coup d'état]]'' (the [[May Coup]]), supported by the Polish Socialist Party, [[PSL Wyzwolenie|Liberation]], the [[Stronnictwo Chłopskie|Peasant Party]], and even the [[Communist Party of Poland|Polish Communist Party]].<ref name="Urb 515">[[#refUrbankowski1997|Urbankowski 1997]], vol. 1, 515.</ref> Piłsudski had hoped for a bloodless coup, but the government had refused to back down;<ref name="Suleja343">[[#refSuleja2004|Suleja 2004]], p. 343.</ref> 215 soldiers and 164 civilians had been killed, and over 900 persons had been wounded.<ref>[[#refRoszkowski1992|Roszkowski 1992]], p. 53, section 5.1.</ref> On May 31, the ''[[Sejm]]'' elected Piłsudski president of the Republic. Piłsudski, however, aware of the presidency's limited powers, refused the office. Another of his old friends, [[Ignacy Mościcki]], was elected in his stead. Piłsudski's formal offices—apart from two terms as prime minister in 1926–28 and 1930—would for the most part remain limited to those of [[Ministry of National Defence of the Republic of Poland|minister of defense]] and [[General Inspector of the Armed Forces]]. He also served as minister of military affairs and chairman of the war council.<ref name="Poland.gov"/> ===Dictatorship=== Piłsudski had no plans for major reforms; he quickly distanced himself from the most radical of his left-wing supporters, declaring that his coup was to be a "revolution without revolutionary consequences."<ref name="PWN"/> His goals were to stabilize the country, reduce the influence of political parties, which he blamed for corruption and inefficiency, and strengthen the army.<ref name="Urb 528–529">[[#refUrbankowski1997|Urbankowski 1997]], vol. 1, pp. 528–529.</ref><ref name="PWN"/> ====Internal politics==== [[Image:5 Warszawa 083.jpg|thumb|right|[[Belweder|Belweder Palace]], Warsaw, Piłsudski's official residence during his years in power]] In internal politics, Piłsudski's coup entailed sweeping limitations on parliamentary government, as his [[Sanacja|Sanation]] regime (1926–1939)—at times employing authoritarian methods—sought to "restore public life to moral health." From 1928, the Sanation authorities were represented in the sphere of practical politics by the [[Non-partisan Bloc for Cooperation with the Government]] (''BBWR''). Popular support and an effective propaganda apparatus allowed Piłsudski to maintain his authoritarian powers, which could not be overruled by the president, who was appointed by Piłsudski, not by the ''[[Sejm]]''.<ref name="Poland.gov"/> The powers of the ''Sejm'' were curtailed by [[August Novelization|constitutional amendments]] introduced soon after the coup, on [[August 2]], [[1926]].<ref name="Poland.gov"/> From 1926 to 1930, Piłsudski relied chiefly on [[propaganda]] to weaken the influence of opposition leaders.<ref name="PWN"/> The culmination of his dictatorial and supralegal policies came in 1930 with the imprisonment and trial of certain political opponents (the [[Brest trial]]s) on the eve of the 1930 [[Polish legislative election, 1930|legislative elections]], and with the 1934 establishment of a [[Bereza Kartuska Detention Camp|prison]] for political prisoners at Bereza Kartuska (today [[Biaroza]]),<ref name="PWN"/> where some prisoners were brutally mistreated.<ref> {{cite web |last=Śleszyński |first=Wojciech |language=Polish |work=Białoruskie Zeszyty Historyczne nr 20 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20050325004142/http://kamunikat.net.iig.pl/www/czasopisy/bzh/20/15.htm |archivedate=2005-03-25 |url=http://kamunikat.net.iig.pl/www/czasopisy/bzh/20/15.htm |title=Aspekty prawne utworzenia obozu odosobnienia w Berezie Kartuskiej i reakcje środowisk politycznych. Wybór materiałów i dokumentów 1}} Published in Беларускі Гістарычны Зборнік no. 20 (Belarusian history journal).</ref> After the ''[[Non-partisan Bloc for Cooperation with the Government|BBWR]]'''s 1930 victory, Piłsudski left most internal matters in the hands of his "colonels," while he himself concentrated on military and foreign affairs.<ref name="PWN"/> He came under considerable criticism for his treatment of political opponents, and their 1930 arrest and imprisonment was internationally condemned and damaged Poland's reputation.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite web|url = http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-28214/Poland|title = Poland: The Second Republic|work = [[Encyclopedia Britannica]]|accessmonthday = January 15|accessyear = 2008}}</ref><ref name="Biskupski" /> [[Image:Aleksandra Piłsudska.JPG|thumb|left|The Marshal and his second wife, [[Aleksandra Piłsudska]], in later life]] Piłsudski became increasingly disillusioned with democracy in Poland.<ref name="Cohen2">[[#refCohen1989|Cohen 1989]], [http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0791400182&id=aN96TB0RUB8C&pg=PA65&lpg=PA65&dq=Pilsudski+hero&sig=R2BZgP-C0yJ9fPlugHuXsGYLvrU p. 65].</ref> His intemperate public utterances – he called the ''[[Sejm]]'' a prostitute – and his sending ninety armed officers into the ''Sejm'' building in response to an impending vote of no-confidence, caused concern in contemporary observers, who saw his actions as a precedent for authoritarian responses to political challenges.<ref>{{cite web |date=1930-04-07 |url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,787573,00.html |title = Pilsudski Bros. |work = [[Time (magazine)|Time]] |accessmonthday = January 15 |accessyear = 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,737985,00.html |date=1929-11-11 |title = Pilsudski v. Daszynski |work = [[Time (magazine)|Time]] |accessmonthday = January 15 |accessyear = 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last = Perlez |first = Jane |authorlink=Jane Perlez |url = http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F0CEFD61430F931A2575AC0A965958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=1 |title = Visions of the Past Are Competing for Votes in Poland |date=1993-09-12 |work = [[The New York Times]] |accessmonthday = January 15 |accessyear = 2008}}</ref> One of Piłsudski's main goals was to transform the [[parliamentary system]] into a [[presidential system]]; however, he opposed the introduction of [[totalitarianism]].<ref name="PWN"/> The adoption of a new Polish constitution in April 1935, tailored by Piłsudski's supporters to his specifications—providing for a strong presidency—came too late for Piłsudski to seek that office; but this [[April Constitution]] would serve Poland up to the outbreak of [[World War II]] and would carry its [[Polish Government in Exile|Government in Exile]] through to the end of the war and beyond. Nonetheless, Piłsudski's government depended more on his [[charismatic authority]] than on [[rational-legal authority]].<ref name="PWN"/> None of his followers could claim to be his legitimate heir, and after his death the [[Sanacja|Sanation]] structure would quickly fracture, returning Poland to the pre-Piłsudski era of parliamentary political contention.<ref name="PWN"/> Piłsudski's regime began a period of national stabilization and improvements in the situation of [[ethnic minorities]], which formed about a third of the Second Republic's population.<ref name="Britannica" /><ref>[[#refStachura2004|Stachura 2004]], [http://books.google.com/books?id=BkKuir9oQYMC&pg=PA79&vq=%22one+in+three%22&dq=ethnic+minorities+Poland&sig=eK8N4FZvEBIahhqfaKXsFO8k2Sk p. 79].</ref><ref name="Columbia">{{cite web |url=http://encyclopedia2.tfd.com/Poland |title=Poland |accessdaymonth=December 29 |accessyear=2007 |work=[[Columbia Encyclopedia]]}}</ref> <ref name="Electronicmuseum">{{cite web |url=http://www.electronicmuseum.ca/Poland-WW2/ethnic_minorities_occupation/emo_intro.html |title=Poland's ethnic minorities and the Nazi-Soviet occupation of Poland |accessdaymonth=December 29 |accessyear=2007 |work=Poland's Holocaust||last=Piotrowski|first=Tadeusz|authorlink=Tadeusz Piotrowski}}</ref> Piłsudski replaced the National Democrats' "[[polonization|ethnic-assimilation]]" with a "state-assimilation" policy: citizens were judged by their loyalty to the state, not by their nationality.<ref name="Snyder">[[#refSnyder2004|Snyder 2004]], [http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN030010586X&id=xSpEynLxJ1MC&pg=PA144&lpg=PA144&dq=stanislaw+grabski&sig=5kSKOnXipwsTitk7w_hotRTooPQ p. 144].</ref> The years 1926–35, and Piłsudski himself, were favorably viewed by many [[Polish Jews]], whose situation improved especially under the Piłsudski-appointed prime minister [[Kazimierz Bartel]].<ref name="Cieplinski">{{cite web |last = Cieplinski |first = Feigue |url = http://www.binghamton.edu/history/resources/bjoh/PolesAndJews.htm |title = Poles and Jews: The Quest For Self-Determination 1919–1934 |year = 2002 |work = History Department at Binghamton University |accessmonthday = June 2 |accessyear = 2006 }}</ref><ref>[[#refPaulsson2003|Paulsson 2003]], [http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0300095465&id=vjJimC--9-kC&pg=PA37&lpg=PA37&dq=Pilsudski,+Jews&sig=LiJGKRzy0dm5BA9pqohB8gmvq5U p. 37].</ref> However, a combination of developments, from the [[Great Depression]]<ref name="Snyder"/> to the [[vicious spiral]] of ''[[Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists|OUN]]'' terrorist attacks and government [[pacification]]s, caused government relations with the national minorities to deteriorate.<ref name="Snyder"/><ref name="Davies_GP2-407">[[#refDavies1982|Davies 1982]], [http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0231053525&id=DMoPXktGwiUC&pg=PA407&lpg=PA407&dq=Davies+OUN+terrorism&sig=n2yftCtdccp3U4rPQL8OcBtH9_8 p. 407].</ref> Unrest among national minorities was also related to foreign policy. Troubles followed the suppression of largely-Ukrainian-populated eastern Galicia, where nearly 1,800 people were arrested. Tension also arose between the government and Poland's German minority, particularly in [[Upper Silesia]]. The government did not yield to calls for antisemitic measures; but the Jews (ten percent of Poland's population) grew discontented for economic reasons connected to the depression. Overall, by the end of Piłsudski's life, his government's relations with national minorities were increasingly problematic.<ref>[[#refLeslie1983|Leslie 1983]], p. 182.</ref> In the military sphere, Piłsudski, who had shown himself an accomplished military strategist in engineering the "[[Miracle at the Vistula]]," has been criticized by some for subsequently concentrating on personnel management and allegedly neglecting modernization of military strategy and equipment.<ref name="PWN"/><ref name="Garlicki178">[[#refGarlicki1995|Garlicki 1995]], p. 178.</ref> His experiences in the Polish-Soviet War (1919–21) may have led him to overestimate the importance of cavalry and to neglect the development of armored forces and air force.<ref name="Garlicki178"/> Others, however, contend that, particularly from the late 1920s, he did support the development of those military branches.<ref name="Urb 330–337-2">[[#refUrbankowski1997|Urbankowski 1997]], vol. 2, pp. 330–337.</ref> The limitations on Poland's military modernization in this period may have been less doctrinal than financial. ====Foreign policy==== [[Image:Pilsudski by Kossak portrait.jpg|thumb|right|Marshal Piłsudski, painted by [[Wojciech Kossak]], 1928.]] Under Piłsudski, Poland maintained good relations with neighboring [[Kingdom of Romania|Romania]], [[Hungary]] and [[Latvia]]. Relations were strained with [[Czechoslovakia]], however, and were still worse with [[Lithuania]].<ref name="Goldstein-29">[[#refGoldstein2002|Goldstein 2002]], [http://books.google.com/books?id=H5WzZoCYAjoC&pg=PA29&vq=%22Poland+also+fought+a+war+with+Lithuania%22+%22the+struggle+with+Czechoslovakia%22&dq=Poland+Lithuania+Czechoslovakia+World+War+Pilsudski&as_brr=3&sig=oth2u2gZVp8EQRB0s1tHRKPL8lQ p. 29].</ref> Relations with [[Weimar Republic|Weimar Germany]] and the [[Soviet Union]] varied over time, but during Piłsudski's tenure could for the most part be described as neutral.<ref name="Urb 538">[[#refUrbankowski1997|Urbankowski 1997]], p. 538.</ref><ref name="Ilya Prizel"/><ref name="Urb 539–540"/> Piłsudski's [[Prometheism|Promethean]] program, designed to weaken the Russian Empire and its [[successor state]], the [[Soviet Union]], by supporting nationalist independence movements of major non-Russian peoples dwelling in Russia and the Soviet Union, was coordinated from 1927 to the 1939 outbreak of [[World War II]] in Europe by the [[military intelligence]] officer, [[Edmund Charaszkiewicz]]. In the [[Interbellum]], the Prometheist movement yielded few tangible results.<ref name="Char">[[#refCharaszkiewicz2000|Charaszkiewicz 2000]], pp. 56–87.</ref> Piłsudski sought to maintain his country's independence in the international arena. Assisted by his protégé, [[Minister of Foreign Affairs|Foreign Minister]] [[Józef Beck]], he sought support for Poland in alliances with western powers such as France and the [[United Kingdom]], and with friendly, if less powerful, neighbors such as Romania and Hungary.<ref name="Urb 539–540"/> A supporter of the Franco-Polish Military Alliance and the [[Polish-Romanian Alliance]] (part of the [[Little Entente]]), Piłsudski was disappointed by the French and British policy of [[appeasement]] evident in those countries' signing of the [[Locarno Treaties]].<ref name="Ilya Prizel">[[#refPrizel1998|Prizel 1998]], [http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0521576970&id=fE2quB852jcC&pg=PA71&lpg=PA71&dq=Pilsudski+wealth&sig=MmY_fMN0nBIs5qFavD_godqa-0Q p. 71].</ref><ref name="JLu">[[#refLukacs2001|Lukacs 2001]], [http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0300089155&id=5wktT0vEYgkC&pg=PA30&lpg=PA30&dq=Pilsudski+France+1933&sig=Lp1a7st1SGuMJfKpvFWzLqOtm0w p. 30].</ref><ref name="NJ">[[#refJordan2002|Jordan 2002]], [http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0521522420&id=4iQQrESpA48C&pg=PA23&lpg=PA23&dq=Pilsudski+France+1933&sig=La39fTfAVC8dXNTUcbufCrapDTk p. 23].</ref> Piłsudski therefore aimed also to maintain good relations with the Soviet Union and Germany; hence Poland signed [[non-aggression pact]]s with both its powerful neighbors: the 1932 [[Soviet-Polish Non-Aggression Pact]], and the 1934 [[German-Polish Non-Aggression Pact]].<ref name="Urb 539–540"/> The two treaties were meant to strengthen Poland's position in the eyes of its allies and neighbors.<ref name="Poland.gov"/> Piłsudski himself was acutely aware of the shakiness of the pacts, and commented: "Having these pacts, we are straddling two stools. This cannot last long. We have to know from which stool we will tumble first, and when that will be."<ref>[[#refKipp1993|Kipp 1993]], [http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0714645451&id=__zem3Mlm8AC&pg=PA95&lpg=PA95&dq=Pilsudski,+which+of+the+stools&sig=5tsX1PsM3c8El1ttH3LM2tGvuJ8 p. 95].</ref> Critics of the two non-aggression pacts have accused Piłsudski of underestimating Hitler's aggressiveness<ref>[[#refHehn2005|Hehn 2005]], [http://books.google.com/books?id=nOALhEZkYDkC&pg=PA76&lpg=PA76&dq=pilsudski+pact+rearmament&source=web&ots=bQ-2N6F4eD&sig=wmpce0ZjtuZRnt6Dk4y8FhUgCDc p. 76].</ref> and of giving Germany time to rearm;<ref>[[#refKershaw2001|Kershaw 2001]].</ref><ref>[[#refDavidson2004|Davidson 2004]], [http://books.google.com/books?id=qncE3wy3TTsC&pg=PA25&lpg=PA25&dq=league+of+nations+pilsudski+vilna&source=web&ots=hOtNjtvzr2&sig=vmhhugowu7JX_1Cd9LyOlytLDp4 p. 25].</ref> and of allowing Stalin to eliminate opposition—primarily in Ukraine—that had been supported by Piłsudski's [[Prometheism|Promethean]] program.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=events.event_summary&event_id=169084 |title = A Cold War in Miniature: The Polish-Soviet Secret War for Ukraine, 1926-1939 |work = Woodrow Wilson Center |language = |accessmonthday = January 15 |accessyear = 2008 }}</ref> After [[Adolf Hitler]] [[Machtergreifung|came to power]] in January 1933, Piłsudski is rumored to have proposed to France a [[preventive war]] against Germany. It has been argued that Piłsudski may have been sounding out France regarding possible joint military action against Germany, which had been openly rearming in violation of the [[Versailles Treaty]].<ref name="Urb 317–326-2">[[#refUrbankowski1997|Urbankowski 1997]], vol. 2, pp. 317–326.</ref> French disinterest may have been a reason why Poland signed the [[German-Polish Non-Aggression Pact]] of January 1934.<ref name="TT_NGP">[[#refTorbus1999|Torbus 1999]], [http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN3886180883&id=xH6iEYILvuYC&pg=PA25&lpg=PA25&dq=Pilsudski+France+1933&sig=hV7b1WHEJzrnGCt0vGkG_Bp_OtM p. 25].</ref><ref name="GQH">[[#refQuester2000|Quester 2000]], [http://books.google.com/books?id=h5ApNEq4L0IC&vid=ISBN0765800225&dq=Pilsudski+France+1933&pg=PA27&lpg=PA27&sig=fM9iFIR5xh2lOBxSNayasiih6uc&q=14 p. 27]. Note that author gives a source: [[#refWatt1979|Watt 1979]].</ref><ref name="Urb 539–540">[[#refUrbankowski1997|Urbankowski 1997]], vol. 1, pp. 539–540.</ref><ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica">{{cite web | first=Kazimierz Maciej |last=Smogorzewski | title=Józef Piłsudski | work=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] | url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-5721 | accessdaymonth = 3 June | accessyear=2006}}</ref> Little evidence has, however, been found in French or Polish diplomatic archives that such a proposal for preventive war was ever actually advanced.<ref name="Bel">{{cite journal |language=Polish |last=Baliszewski |first=Dariusz |authorlink=Dariusz Baliszewski |url=http://www.wprost.pl/ar/?O=70406 |title=Ostatnia wojna marszałka |journal=[[Wprost]] |issue=48/2004; 1148 |publisher=Agencja Wydawniczo-Reklamowa "Wprost" |date=2004-11-28 |accessmonthday=March 24 |accessyear=2005}}</ref> Hitler repeatedly suggested a German-Polish alliance against the Soviet Union, but Piłsudski declined, instead seeking precious time to prepare for potential war with Germany or with the Soviet Union.<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica"/><ref name="Hildebrand">[[#refHildebrand1973|Hildebrand 1973]], [http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0520025288&id=bJWegl8wnF8C&pg=PA33&lpg=PA32&dq=Pilsudski+France+1933&sig=2AztWI0oGOImsxOscknyLP4GdJ8 p. 33].</ref> Hitler also kept hoping to meet personally with Piłsudski, but again was rebuffed.<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica"/> Just before his death, Piłsudski told [[Józef Beck]] that it must be Poland's policy to maintain neutral relations with Germany and keep up the Polish alliance with France, and to improve relations with the [[United Kingdom]].<ref name="Urb 539–540"/> ===Death=== [[Image:Rossa-MATKA I SERCE SYNA.jpg|thumb|right|Grave of Piłsudski's mother in [[Vilnius]], [[Lithuania]]. The huge black tombstone is inscribed: "''Matka i serce syna''"<br /> ("A mother and the heart of her son") and bears evocative lines from a poem by [[Juliusz Słowacki|Słowacki]].]] By 1935, unbeknown to the public, Piłsudski had for several years been in declining health. On [[May 12]], [[1935]], he died of [[Hepatocellular carcinoma|liver cancer]] at Warsaw's [[Belweder|Belweder Palace]]. The celebration of his life had begun spontaneously within half an hour after his death had been announced.<ref name="Pozeg5">[[#refDrozdowski1995|Drozdowski & Szwankowska 1995]], p. 5.</ref> It was led by military personnel—former [[Polish Legions in World War I|Legionnaires]], members of the [[Polish Military Organization]], veterans of the wars of 1919–21, and his political collaborators from his time as Chief of State and, later, prime minister.<ref name="Pozeg9–11">[[#refDrozdowski1995|Drozdowski & Szwankowska 1995]], pp. 9–11.</ref> The [[Communist Party of Poland|Polish Communist Party]] immediately attacked Piłsudski as a [[fascist]] and [[capitalism|capitalist]].<ref name="Pozeg9–11"/> Other opponents of the [[sanacja|Sanation]] regime, however, were more civil; socialists (such as [[Ignacy Daszyński]] and [[Tomasz Arciszewski]]) and [[Polish Christian Democratic Party|Christian Democrats]] (represented by Ignacy Paderewski, [[Stanisław Wojciechowski]] and [[Władysław Grabski]]) expressed condolences. The peasant parties split in their reactions ([[Wincenty Witos]] voicing criticism of Piłsudski, but [[Maciej Rataj]] and [[Stanisław Thugutt]] being supportive), while [[Roman Dmowski]]'s [[National Democracy|National Democrats]] expressed a toned-down criticism.<ref name="Pozeg9–11"/> Condolences were expressed by Polish [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] clergy—by [[primate of Poland|Poland's Primate]] [[August Hlond]]—as well as by [[Pope Pius XI]], who called himself a "personal friend" of the Marshal.<ref name="Pozeg9–11"/> Notable appreciation for Piłsudski was expressed by Poland's ethnic and religious minorities. [[Eastern Orthodox]], [[Greek Orthodox]], [[Protestant]], [[Judaism|Judaic]] and [[Islam]]ic organizations expressed condolences, praising Piłsudski for his policies of religious tolerance.<ref name="Pozeg9–11"/> Mainstream organizations of ethnic minorities similarly expressed their support for his policies of ethnic tolerance, though he was criticized, similarly to the communists, by Jewish ([[General Jewish Labor Union|BUND]]), Ukrainian, German and Lithuanian extremists.<ref name="Pozeg9–11"/> On the international scene, Pope Pius XI held a special ceremony May 18 in the [[Holy See]], a commemoration was conducted at [[League of Nations]] [[Geneva]] headquarters, and dozens of messages of condolence arrived in Poland from [[head of state|heads of state]] across the world, including Germany's Adolf Hitler, the Soviet Union's [[Joseph Stalin]], Italy's [[Benito Mussolini]] and King [[Victor Emmanuel III of Italy|Victor Emmanuel III]], France's [[Albert Lebrun]] and [[Pierre-Étienne Flandin]], Austria's [[Wilhelm Miklas]], Japan's Emperor [[Hirohito]], and Britain's King [[George V of the United Kingdom|George V]].<ref name="Pozeg9–11"/> Ceremonies, [[mass (liturgy)|masses]] and an enormous funeral were held; a [[funeral train]] toured Poland<ref>[[#refHumphrey1936|Humphrey 1936]], [http://books.google.com/books?id=BNkwAAAAIAAJ&q=Pi%C5%82sudski+%22funeral+train%22&dq=Pi%C5%82sudski+%22funeral+train%22&hl=pl&pgis=1 p. 295].</ref>. The Polish mint issued a silver 10-''[[złoty]]'' commemorative coin featuring the Marshal's profile. A series of postcards, stamps and postmarks was also released. After a two-year display at [[St. Leonard's Crypt]] in [[Kraków]]'s [[Wawel Cathedral]], Piłsudski's body was laid to rest in the Cathedral's Crypt under the Silver Bells, except for his brain, which he had willed for study to [[Vilnius University|Stefan Batory University]], and his heart, which was interred in his mother's grave at [[Vilnius]]' [[Rasos Cemetery]], where it remains.<ref name="Poland.gov"/><ref>[[#refWatt1979|Watt 1979]], p. 338.</ref> ==Legacy== {{cquote|I am not going to dictate to you what you write about my life and work. I only ask that you not make me out to be a "whiner and sentimentalist." Piłsudski, 1908.<ref name="Urb 133–141">[[#refUrbankowski1997|Urbankowski 1997]], vol. 1, pp. 133–141.</ref>}} On [[May 13]], [[1935]], in accordance with Piłsudski's last wishes, [[Edward Rydz-Śmigły]] was named by Poland's president and government to be [[Inspector-General]] of the [[Polish Armed Forces]], and on [[November 10]], [[1936]], he was elevated to [[Marshal of Poland]].<ref name="JabStaw13">[[#refJablonowski1998|Jabłonowski & Stawecki 1998]], p. 13.</ref> Rydz was now one of the most powerful people in Poland—the "second man in the state after the President."<ref name="JabStaw5">[[#refJablonowski1998|Jabłonowski & Stawecki 1998]], p. 5.</ref> While many saw Rydz-Śmigły as a successor to Piłsudski, he never became as influential.<ref name="JabStaw14">[[#refJablonowski1998|Jabłonowski & Stawecki 1998]], p. 14.</ref> As the Polish government became increasingly [[authoritarian]] and [[conservatism|conservative]], the Rydz-Śmigły faction was opposed by that of the more moderate [[Ignacy Mościcki]], who remained President.<ref name="JabStaw14"/> After 1938 Rydz-Śmigły reconciled with the President, but the ruling group remained divided into the "President's Men," mostly civilians (the "Castle Group," after the President's official residence, Warsaw's [[Royal Castle (Warsaw)|Royal Castle]]), and the "Marshal's Men" ("Piłsudski's Colonels"), professional military officers and old comrades-in-arms of Piłsudski's. After the [[Invasion of Poland (1939)|German invasion of Poland in 1939]], some of this political division would survive within the [[Polish government in exile]]. [[Image:Naczelnik.JPG|thumb|right|Statue of Piłsudski on Warsaw's [[Piłsudski Square]], one of many statuary tributes throughout Poland]] Piłsudski had given Poland something akin to what [[Henryk Sienkiewicz]]'s [[Onufry Zagłoba]] had mused about: a Polish [[Oliver Cromwell]]. As such, the Marshal had inevitably drawn both intense loyalty and intense vilification.<ref name="TT_NGP"/><ref name="Goldfarb">[[#refGoldfarb1992|Goldfarb 1992]], [http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0226300986&id=7aHEDQ0HbyIC&pg=PA152&lpg=PA152&dq=Pilsudski+hero&sig=HyAJCU-pvFO3L3CYoCtisFxjflc p. 152].</ref><ref name="Pozeg6">[[#refDrozdowski1995|Drozdowski & Szwankowska 1995]], p. 6.</ref> In 1935, at Piłsudski's funeral, President Mościcki had [[eulogy|eulogized]] the Marshal: "He was the king of our hearts and the sovereign of our will. During a half-century of his life’s travails, he captured heart after heart, soul after soul, until he had drawn the whole of Poland within the purple of his royal spirit... He gave Poland freedom, boundaries, power and respect."<ref name="Mość">Translation of Mościcki's speech from 1935. For Polish original online, see {{cite web |last=Kobos |first=Piotr M. |url=http://www.zwoje-scrolls.com/zwoje43/text02p.htm |title=Skazuję Was Na Wielkość: Legenda Józefa Piłsudskiego |work=Zwoje (The Scrolls) no. 2 (43) |year=1992 |accessmonthday=January 15 |langauge=Polish |accessyear=2008}}</ref> After [[World War II]], little of Piłsudski's thought influenced the policies of the [[Polish People's Republic]], a ''de facto'' [[satellite state|satellite]] of the [[Soviet Union]]. In particular, Poland was in no position to resume Piłsudski's mutually complementary strategies for ensuring Poland's [[national security]]: the effort to build an [[Międzymorze|''Intermarum'' federation]] of Poland and some of its neighbors; and a "[[Prometheism|Promethean]]" endeavor to "break up the Russian state into its main constituents and emancipat[[e]] the countries that have been forcibly incorporated into that empire."<ref>Quoted in [[#refCharaszkiewicz2000|Charaszkiewicz 2000]], p. 56.</ref> For a decade after World War II, Piłsudski was either ignored or condemned by Poland's communist government, along with the entire interwar [[Second Polish Republic]]. This began to change, however, particularly after [[destalinization]] and the [[Polish October]] (1956), and historiography in Poland gradually moved away from a purely negative view of Piłsudski toward a more balanced and neutral assessment.<ref name="nalamach">[[#refWladyka2005|Władyka 2005]], pp. 285–311; [[#refZulawnik2005|Żuławnik 2005]].</ref> After the [[Revolutions of 1989|fall of communism]] and the 1991 disintegration of the [[Soviet Union]], Piłsudski once again came to be publicly acknowledged as a Polish national hero.<ref name="Roshwald"/> On the sixtieth anniversary of his death, on [[May 12]], [[1995]], Poland's ''[[Sejm]]'' adopted a resolution: "Józef Piłsudski will remain, in our nation's memory, the founder of its independence and the victorious leader who fended off a foreign assault that threatened the whole of Europe and its civilization. Józef Piłsudski served his country well and has entered our history forever."<ref name="Sejm1995">Translation of ''Oświadczenie Sejmu Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej z dnia 12 maja 1995 r. w sprawie uczczenia 60 rocznicy śmierci Marszałka Józefa Piłsudskiego.'' ([[Monitor Polski|M.P.]] z dnia 24 maja 1995 r.). For Polish original online, see [http://www.bankier.pl/firma/narzedzia/akty-prawne/monitor-polski-1995/pozycja-0297.html here].</ref> While some of Piłsudski's political moves remain controversial—particularly the [[May Coup|May 1926 Coup d'état]], the [[Brest trial]]s (1931–32), the 1934 establishment of the [[Bereza Kartuska detention camp]], and successive Polish governments' failure to formulate consistent, constructive policies toward the [[national minorities]]<ref>[[#refCharaszkiewicz2000|Charaszkiewicz 2000]], pp. 66–67.</ref>—Piłsudski continues to be viewed by most Poles as a providential figure in the country's 20th-century history. [[Image:Pilsudski carricature by Szwajcer.PNG|thumb|left|Contemporary [[caricature]] of Józef Piłsudski by [[Jerzy Szwajcer]]]] Piłsudski has lent his name to several military units, including the [[Polish 1st Legions Infantry Division|1st Legions Infantry Division]] and [[armored train]] No. 51 ("''I Marszałek''"—"the First Marshal").<ref name="PIBWL">{{cite web |url = http://derela.republika.pl/marszal.htm |title = Polish Armoured Train Nr. 51 ("I Marszałek") |work = PIBWL (Prywatny Instytut Badawczy Wojsk Lądowych) |accessmonthday = May 30 |accessyear = 2006 }}</ref> Also named for Piłsudski have been [[Piłsudski's Mound]], one of four man-made [[mound]]s at [[Kraków]];<ref name="mound">{{cite web |url = http://www.wsp.krakow.pl/geo/krakow/kopiec_p.html |title = Kopiec Józefa Piłsudskiego |work = Pedagogical University of Kraków |language = Polish |accessmonthday = September 18 |accessyear = 2007 }}</ref> the [[Józef Piłsudski Institute of America]], a [[New York City]] research center and museum on the modern [[history of Poland]];<ref name="Institute">{{cite web |url = http://www.pilsudski.org/English/Institute/Welcome.htm |title = Józef Piłsudski Institute of America Welcome Page |work = Józef Piłsudski Institute of America |accessmonthday = May 26 |accessyear = 2006 }}</ref> the [[Józef Piłsudski University of Physical Education in Warsaw]];<ref name="MON">{{cite web |last = |first = |url = http://www.menis.gov.pl/menis_en/higher_education/f_wawa.php |title = Józef Piłsudski Academy of Physical Education in Warsaw |work = Polish Ministry of Education and Science |archivedate=2005-09-23 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20050923063522/http://www.menis.gov.pl/menis_en/higher_education/f_wawa.php |accessmonthday = May 30 |accessyear = 2006 }}</ref> a passenger ship, ''[[MS Piłsudski]]''; a gunboat, ''[[ORP Komendant Piłsudski]]''; and a racehorse, ''[[Pilsudski (horse)|Pilsudski]]''. Virtually every Polish city has its "Piłsudski Street." (There are, by contrast, few if any streets named after Piłsudski's [[National Democracy|National-Democrat]] arch-rival, [[Roman Dmowski]]—even in Dmowski's old [[Greater Poland|Greater-Poland]] political stronghold). There are statues of Piłsudski in many Polish cities; the highest density of such [[statuary]] memorials is found in Warsaw, which has three over the span of little more than a mile joining the [[Belweder|Belweder Palace]], Piłsudski's residence, with [[Piłsudski Square]]. He was the subject of paintings by renowned artists such as [[Jacek Malczewski]] (1916) and [[Wojciech Kossak]] (leaning on his sword, 1928; and astride his horse, ''[[Kasztanka]]'', 1928), as well as the subject of numerous caricatures and photos. Piłsudski has been a character in numerous works of fiction, such as the 1922 novel ''Generał Barcz'' (General Barcz) by [[Juliusz Kaden-Bandrowski]] and the 2007 novel ''[[Ice (Dukaj novel)|Ice]]'' (''Lód'') by [[Jacek Dukaj]]. Poland's [[National Library of Poland|National Library]] lists over 500 publications related to Piłsudski;<ref>{{cite web |url = http://alpha.bn.org.pl/search*pol/d?SEARCH=pi%B3sudski |title = Piłsudski (keyword) |work = National Library Of Poland |accessmonthday = January 15 |accessyear = 2008 }}</ref> the [[U.S.]] [[Library of Congress]], over 300.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://catalog.loc.gov |title = Library of Congress Online Catalog |accessmonthday = December 20 |accessyear = 2007 }}</ref> Piłsudski's life was the subject of a 2001 Polish television documentary, ''Marszałek Piłsudski'', directed by Andrzej Trzos-Rastawiecki.<ref name="IMDb">{{cite web |last = |first = |url = http://imdb.com/title/tt0498138/ |title = "Marszalek Pilsudski" (2001) (mini) |year = |work = [[Internet Movie Database|IMDb]] |language = |accessmonthday = May 30 |accessyear = 2006 }}</ref> Plans are being considered to turn Piłsudski's official residence, the [[Belweder|Belweder Palace]], which currently houses a small exhibit about him, into a full-fledged museum devoted to his memory. ==See also== * [[Piłsudski (family)]] * [[Piłsudskiite]] (''Piłsudczyk'') ==Notes== <div class="references-small"> '''a.''' {{Note_label|a|a|none}} Józef Klemens Piłsudski was commonly referred to without his middle name, as "Józef Piłsudski." A few English sources translate his first name as "Joseph," but this is not the common practice. As a young man, he belonged to underground organizations and used various pseudonyms, including "''Wiktor''," "''Mieczysław''" and "''Ziuk''" (the latter also being his family nickname). Later he was often affectionately called "''Dziadek''" ("Grandpa" or "the Old Man") and "''Marszałek''" ("the Marshal"). His ex-soldiers from the [[Polish Legions in World War I|Legions]] also referred to him as "''Komendant''" ("the Commandant"). '''b.''' {{Note_label|b|b|none}}Piłsudski sometimes spoke of being a Lithuanian of Polish culture.<ref>[[#refDavies1986|Davies 1986]], p. 139.</ref> The question of his ethnicity and culture is not a simple one. [[Timothy Snyder]], who calls him a "Polish-Lithuanian," notes that Piłsudski did not think in terms of 20th-century nationalisms and [[ethnicity|ethnicities]]; he considered himself ''both'' a Pole and a Lithuanian, and his homeland was the historic [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]].<ref>[[#refSnyder2004|Snyder 2004]], p. 70.</ref> Discussing his role in Lithuania, ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' describes him as a [[Polonized]] Lithuanian;<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-460674/Jozef-Klemens-Pilsudski |title = Józef Klemens Pilsudski (president of Poland)—Role in Lithuania: Baltic states. Lithuanian liberation |work = [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |accessmonthday = December 17 |accessyear = 2007 }}</ref> however, in the introduction to his biography it simply calls him "Polish."<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9060041/Jozef-Pilsudski |title = Józef Pilsudski |work = [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |accessmonthday = December 17 |accessyear = 2007 }}<br />{{cite web |url = http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9375283/J%C3%B3zef-Pilsudski |title = Pilsudski, Józef |work = Britannica Concise Encyclopedia |accessmonthday = December 17 |accessyear = 2007 }}</ref> He is also described simply as "Polish" by the ''[[Columbia Encyclopedia]]''<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-Pilsudsk.html |title = Joseph Piłsudski |work = [[Columbia Encyclopedia]], Sixth Edition |accessmonthday = December 17 |accessyear = 2007 }}</ref> and ''[[Encarta]]''.<ref name="Encarta" /> </div> ==Citations== {{reflist|3}} ==References== <div style="font-size:95%;"> * <cite id=refAlabrudzinska1999> {{cite book | last=Alabrudzińska | first=Elżbieta | title=Kościoły ewangelickie na Kresach Wschodnich II Rzeczypospolitej | year=1999 | publisher=Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika | location=Toruń | language=Polish | isbn=8323110875 }}</cite> * <cite id=refBideleux1998> {{cite book | last=Bideleux | first=Robert | coauthors=Jeffries, Ian | title=A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change | year=1998 | publisher=Routledge | location=London; New York | isbn=0415161118 }}</cite> * <cite id=refBiskupski2000> {{cite book | last=Biskupski | first=Mieczysław B. | title=The History of Poland | year=2000 | publisher=Greenwood Press | location=Westport, Conn. | isbn=0313305714 | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=QDgaX6q9tycC }}</cite> * <cite id=refBoemeke1998> {{cite book | last=Boemeke | first=Manfred F. | coauthors=Feldman, Gerald D.; Glaser, Elisabeth | title=The Treaty of Versailles: A Reassessment After 75 Years | year=1998 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | location=Cambridge | isbn=0521621321 }}</cite> * <cite id=refCharaszkiewicz2000> {{cite book | last=Charaszkiewicz | first=Edmund | authorlink=Edmund Charaszkiewicz | editor=Grzywacz, Andrzej; Kwiecień, Marcin; Mazur, Grzegorz (eds.) | title=Zbiór dokumentów ppłk. Edmunda Charaszkiewicza (A Collection of Documents by Lt. Col. Edmund Charaszkiewicz) | year=2000 | publisher=Fundacja Centrum Dokumentacji Czynu Niepodległościowego—Księgarnia Akademicka | location=Kraków | language=Polish | isbn=8371884494 }}</cite> * <cite id=refCisek2002> {{cite book | last=Cisek | first=Janusz | title=Kościuszko, We Are Here: American Pilots of the Kościuszko Squadron in Defense of Poland, 1919–1921 | year=2002 | publisher=McFarland & Company | location=Jefferson, N.C. | isbn=0786412402 }}</cite> * <cite id=refCohen1980> {{cite book | last=Cohen | first=Stephen F. | authorlink=Stephen F. Cohen | title=Bukharin and the Bolshevik Revolution: A Political Biography, 1888–1938 | year=1980 | publisher=Oxford University Press | location=Oxford | isbn=0195026977 }}</cite> * <cite id=refCohen1989> {{cite book | last=Cohen | first=Yohanan | authorlink=Yohanan Cohen | title=Small Nations in Times of Crisis and Confrontation | year=1989 | publisher=State University of New York Press | location=Albany | isbn=0791400182 }}</cite> * <cite id=refDavies1997> {{cite book | last=Davies | first=Norman | authorlink=Norman Davies | title=Orzeł biały, czerwona gwiazda: Wojna polsko-bolszewicka, 1919–1920 ([[White Eagle, Red Star|White Eagle, Red Star: The Polish-Soviet War, 1919–1920]]) | year=1997 | language=Polish | publisher=Wydawnictwo ZNAK | location=Kraków | isbn=8370067611 | origyear=1972 }}</cite> * <cite id=refDavies2003> {{cite book | last=Davies | first=Norman | title=White Eagle, Red Star: The Polish-Soviet War, 1919–1920 | year=2003 | publisher=Pimlico | location=London | isbn=0712606947 | edition=New Pimlico ed | origyear=1972 }}</cite> * <cite id=refDavies1982> {{cite book | last=Davies | first=Norman | title=[[God's Playground|God's Playground: A History of Poland in Two Volumes]], vol. 2: 1795 to the Present | year=1982 | publisher=Columbia University Press | location=New York | isbn=0231053525 | origyear=1981 }}</cite> * <cite id=refDavies2005> {{cite book | last=Davies | first=Norman | title=God's Playground: A History of Poland in Two Volumes, vol. 2: 1795 to the Present | year=2005 | publisher=Oxford University Press | location=Oxford; New York | isbn=0199253404 | origyear=1981 }}</cite> * <cite id=refDavies1986> {{cite book | last=Davies | first=Norman | title=Heart of Europe: A Short History of Poland | year=1986 | publisher=Oxford University Press | location=Oxford | isbn=0192851527 | origyear=1984 }}</cite> * <cite id=refDavies1998> {{cite book | last=Davies | first=Norman | title=[[Europe: A History]] | year=1998 | publisher=HarperCollins | location=New York | origyear=1996 | isbn=0060974680 }}</cite> * <cite id=refDavidson2004> {{cite book | last=Davidson | first=Eugene | title=The Unmaking of Adolf Hitler | year=2004 | publisher=University of Missouri Press | location=Columbia | isbn=0826215297 }}</cite> * <cite id=refDrozdowski1995> {{cite book | last=Drozdowski | first=Marian Marek | coauthors=Szwankowska, Hanna | chapter=Przedmowa | title=Pożegnanie Marszałka: Antologia tekstów historycznych i literackich | publisher=Towarzystwo Miłośników Historii—Komisja Badań Dziejów Warszawy Instytutu Historii PAN: Oficyna Wydawnicza "Typografika" | location=Warsaw | date=1995 | language=Polish | isbn=8386417188 }}</cite> * <cite id=refErickson2001> {{cite book | last=Erickson | first=John | authorlink=John Erickson (historian) | title=The Soviet High Command: A Military-Political History, 1918–1941 | year=2001 | edition=3rd edition | publisher=Routledge | location=Portland, OR | isbn=0714651788 }}</cite> * <cite id=refFiges1996> {{cite book | last=Figes | first=Orlando | authorlink=Orlando Figes | title=A People's Tragedy: The Russian Revolution 1891–1924 | year=1996 | publisher=Pimlico | location=London | isbn=071267327X }}</cite> * <cite id=refGarlicki1995> {{cite book | last=Garlicki | first=Andrzej | title=Józef Piłsudski. 1867–1935 | year=1995 | publisher=Scolar Press | location=London | language=Polish | isbn=1859280188 }}</cite> * <cite id=refGoldfarb1991> {{cite book | last=Goldfarb | first=Jeffrey C. | title=Beyond Glasnost: The Post-Totalitarian Mind | year=1991 | publisher=University of Chicago Press | location=Chicago | isbn=0226300986 }}</cite> * <cite id=refGoldstein2002> {{cite book | last=Goldstein | first=Erik | title=The First World War Peace Settlements, 1919–1925 | year=2002 | publisher=Longman | location=London; New York | isbn=0582311454 }}</cite> * <cite id=refGrant1999> {{cite book | last=Grant | first=Thomas D. | title=The Recognition of States: Law and Practice in Debate and Evolution | year=1999 | publisher=Praeger | location=London | isbn=0275963500 }}</cite> * <cite id=refHehn2005> {{cite book | last=Hehn | first=Paul N. | title=A Low Dishonest Decade: The Great Powers, Eastern Europe, and the Economic Origins of World War II, 1930–1941 | year=2005 | publisher=Continuum | location=New York; London | isbn=0826417612 }}</cite> * <cite id=refHeld1992> {{cite book | last=Held | first=Joseph | title=The Columbia History of Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century | year=1992 | publisher=Columbia University Press | location=New York | isbn=0231076975 }}</cite> * <cite id=refHildebrand1973> {{cite book | last=Hildebrand | first=Klaus | authorlink=Klaus Hildebrand | title=The Foreign Policy of the Third Reich | year=1973 | publisher=University of California Press | location=Berkeley | isbn=0520025288 }}</cite> * <cite id=refHumphrey1936> {{cite book | last=Humphrey | first=Grace | title=Pilsudski: Builder of Poland | year=1936 | publisher=Scott and More | location=New York | oclc=775309 }}</cite> * <cite id=refHyde-Price2001> {{cite book | last=Hyde-Price | first=Adrian | title=Germany and European Order | year=2001 | publisher=Manchester University Press | location=Manchester, UK | isbn=0719054281 }}</cite> * <cite id=refJablonowski1998> {{cite book | last=Jabłonowski | first=Marek | coauthors=Stawecki, Piotr | title=Następca komendanta. Edward Śmigły-Rydz. Materiały do biografii | year=1998 | publisher=Wyższa Szkoła Humanistyczna w Pułtusku | location=Pułtusk | language=Polish | isbn=8390920808 }}</cite> * <cite id=refJedrzejewicz1991> {{cite book | last=Jędrzejewicz | first=Wacław | authorlink=Wacław Jędrzejewicz | title=Pilsudski: A Life For Poland | year=1991 | publisher=Hippocrene Books | location=New York | isbn=0870527479 }}</cite> * <cite id=refJedrzejewicz1994> {{cite book | last=Jędrzejewicz | first=Wacław | coauthors=Cisek, Janusz | title=Kalendarium Życia Józefa Piłsudskiego | year=1994 | publisher=Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich | location=Wrocław | language=Polish | isbn=8304041146 }}</cite> * <cite id=refJordan2002> {{cite book | last=Jordan | first=Nicole | authorlink=Nicole Jordan | title=The Popular Front and Central Europe: The Dilemmas of French Impotence 1918–1940 | year=2002 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | location=Cambridge | isbn=0521522420 }}</cite> * <cite id=refKenez1999> {{cite book | last=Kenez | first=Peter | authorlink=Peter Kenez | title=A History of the Soviet Union from the Beginning to the End | year=1999 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | location=Cambridge | isbn=0521311985 }}</cite> * <cite id=refKershaw2001> {{cite book | last=Kershaw | first=Ian | authorlink=Ian Kershaw | title=Hitler, 1936–1945: Nemesis | year=2001 | publisher=W. W. Norton | location=New York | isbn=0393322521 | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=B5fJYMxufVcC }}</cite> * <cite id=refKipp1993> {{cite book | last=Kipp | first=Jacob (ed.) | title=Central European Security Concerns: Bridge, Buffer, Or Barrier? | year=1993 | publisher=F. Cass | location=London; Portland, Ore. | isbn=0714645451 }}</cite> * <cite id=refLerski1996> {{cite book | last=Lerski | first=Jerzy Jan | authorlink=Jerzy Jan Lerski | title=Historical Dictionary of Poland, 966–1945 | year=1996 | publisher=Greenwood Press | location=Westport, Conn. | isbn=0313260079 }}</cite> * <cite id=refLeslie1983> {{cite book | last=Leslie | first=R. F. | authorlink= | title=The History of Poland Since 1863 | year=1983 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | location=Cambridge | isbn=0521275016 }}</cite> * <cite id=refLieven1994> {{cite book | last=Lieven | first=Anatol | authorlink=Anatol Lieven | title=The Baltic Revolution: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and the Path to Independence | publisher=Yale University Press | isbn=0300060785 | date=1994 | location=New Haven }}</cite> * <cite id=refLonnroth1994> {{cite book | last=Lönnroth | first=Erik | authorlink=Erik Lönnroth | coauthors=Björk, Ragnar; Molin, Karl | title=Conceptions of National History: Proceedings of Nobel Symposium 78 | year=1994 | publisher=Walter de Gruyter | location=Berlin; New York | isbn=3110135043 }}</cite> * <cite id=refLukacs2001> {{cite book | last=Lukacs | first=John | authorlink=John Lukacs | title=The Last European War: September 1939–December 1941 | year=2001 | publisher=Yale University Press | location=New Haven | edition=Pbk. ed | isbn=0300089155 }}</cite> * <cite id=refMacMillan2003> {{cite book | last=MacMillan | first=Margaret | authorlink=Margaret MacMillan | title=Paris 1919: Six Months That Changed the World | year=2003 | publisher=Random House Trade Paperbacks | edition=Random House trade paperback ed | location=New York | isbn=0375760520 }}</cite> * <cite id=refMatuszak2006> {{cite journal | last=Matuszak | first=Tomasz | title=Epilog Legionów | journal=Historia Rzeczpospolitej: Zwycięstwa oręża polskiego | issue=16/20—"Historia bitew: Bitwa pod Kostiuchnówką" | date=June 17, 2006 | language=Polish | url=http://www.rzeczpospolita.pl/dodatki/bitwy_060617/bitwy_a_7.html | publisher=Rzeczpospolita, Mówią Wieki, Muzeum Wojska Polskiego }}</cite> * <cite id=refPaulsson2003> {{cite book | last=Paulsson | first=Gunnar S. | authorlink=Gunnar S. Paulsson | title=Secret City: The Hidden Jews of Warsaw, 1940–1945 | year=2003 | publisher=Yale University Press | location=New Haven | isbn=0300095465 }}</cite> * <cite id=refPidlutskyi2004> {{cite book | last=Pidlutskyi | first=Oleksa | chapter=Józef Piłsudski: The Chief who Created Himself a State | title=Postati XX stolittia (Figures of the 20th century) | year=2004 | publisher=Triada-A | location=Kiev | isbn=9668290011 }}</cite> (Reprinted in ''[[Zerkalo Nedeli]]'' ''(The Mirror Weekly)'', Kiev, February 3–February 9, 2001, [http://www.zerkalo-nedeli.com/nn/show/329/29435/ in Russian] and [http://www.zn.kiev.ua/ie/show/329/29435/ in Ukrainian].) * <cite id=refPilsudski1989> {{citation | last=Piłsudski | first=Józef | editor=Urbankowski, Bohdan | title=Myśli, mowy i rozkazy | year=1989 | publisher=Kwadryga | location=Warsaw | language=Polish | isbn=8385082018 }}</cite> * <cite id=refPipes1993> {{cite book | last=Pipes | first=Richard | authorlink=Richard Pipes | title=Russia under the Bolshevik Regime | year=1993 | publisher=Knopf | location=New York | isbn=0394502426 }}</cite> * <cite id=refPlach2006> {{cite book | last=Plach | first=Eva | title=The Clash of Moral Nations: Cultural Politics in Pilsudski's Poland, 1926–1935 | date=2006 | publisher=Ohio University Press | location=Athens, Ohio | isbn=0821416952 }}</cite> * <cite id=refPobog-Malinowski1990> {{cite book | last=Pobóg-Malinowski | first=Władysław | title=Najnowsza historia polityczna Polski 1864-1945 | language=Polish | year=1990 | publisher=Krajowa Agencja Wydawnicza | location=Warsaw | isbn=8303031635 }}</cite> * <cite id=refPrizel1998> {{cite book | last=Prizel | first=Ilya | title=National Identity and Foreign Policy: Nationalism and Leadership in Poland, Russia and Ukraine | year=1998 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | location=Cambridge; New York | isbn=0521576970 }}</cite> * <cite id=refQuester2000> {{cite book | last=Quester | first=George H. | title=Nuclear Monopoly | year=2000 | publisher=Transaction Publishers | location=New Brunswick | isbn=0765800225 }}</cite> * <cite id=refRoos1966> {{cite book | last=Roos | first=Hans | title=A History of Modern Poland, from the Foundation of the State in the First World War to the Present Day | year=1966 | publisher=Knopf | location=New York | edition=1st American ed | oclc=396836 }}</cite> (Translated by J.R. Foster from the German ''Geschichte der polnischen Nation, 1916–1960''.) * <cite id=refRoshwald2001> {{cite book | last=Roshwald | first=Aviel | title=Ethnic Nationalism and the Fall of Empires: Central Europe, the Middle East and Russia, 1914–1923 | year=2001 | publisher=Routledge | location=London; New York | isbn=0415242290 }}</cite> * <cite id=refRoshwald2002> {{cite book | last=Roshwald | first=Aviel | coauthors=Stites, Richard | title=European Culture in the Great War: The Arts, Entertainment and Propaganda, 1914–1918 | year=2002 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | location=Cambridge, U.K.; New York | isbn=0521013240 }}</cite> * <cite id=refRoszkowski1992> {{cite book | last=Roszkowski | first=Wojciech | authorlink=Wojciech Roszkowski | title=Historia Polski 1914–1991 | year=1992 | language=Polish | publisher=Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN | location=Warsaw | isbn=8301110147 }}</cite> * <cite id=refRothschild1990> {{cite book | last=Rothschild | first=Joseph | title=East Central Europe Between the Two World Wars | year=1990 | publisher=University of Washington Press | location=Seattle | isbn=0295953578 }}</cite> * <cite id=refSanford2002> {{cite book | last=Sanford | first=George | authorlink=George Sanford (scholar) | title=Democratic Government in Poland: Constitutional Politics Since 1989 | year=2002 | publisher=Palgrave Macmillan | location=New York | isbn=0333774752 }}</cite> * <cite id=refSnyder2004> {{cite book | last=Snyder | first=Timothy | authorlink=Timothy Snyder | title=The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569–1999 | year=2004 | publisher=Yale University Press | location=New Haven, Conn.; London | isbn=030010586X | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xSpEynLxJ1MC }}</cite> * <cite id=refStachura2004> {{cite book | last=Stachura | first=Peter D. | title=Poland, 1918–1945: An Interpretive and Documentary History of the Second Republic | year=2004 | publisher=Routledge | location=London; New York | isbn=0415343585 }}</cite> * <cite id=refSuleja2004> {{cite book | last=Suleja | first=Włodzimierz | title=Józef Piłsudski | year=2004 | publisher=Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich | location=Wrocław | language=Polish | isbn=8304047063 }}</cite> * <cite id=refTorbus1999> {{cite book | last=Torbus | first=Tomasz | title=Nelles Guide Poland | year=1999 | publisher=Hunter Publishing | location=Munich | isbn=3886180883 }}</cite> * <cite id=refUrbankowski1997> {{citation | last=Urbankowski | first=Bohdan | authorlink=Bohdan Urbankowski | title=Józef Piłsudski: Marzyciel i strateg (Józef Piłsudski: Dreamer and Strategist) | volume=1–2 | year=1997 | publisher=Wydawnictwo ALFA | location=Warsaw | language=Polish | isbn=8370019145 }}</cite> * <cite id=refWatt1979> {{cite book | last=Watt | first=Richard M. | title=Bitter Glory | year=1979 | publisher=Simon and Schuster | location=New York | isbn=0671226258 }}</cite> * <cite id=refWladyka2005> {{cite book | last=Władyka | first=Władysław | editor=Jabłonowski, Marek; Kossewska, Elżbieta (eds.) | chapter=Z Drugą Rzeczpospolitą na plecach. Postać Józefa Piłsudskiego w prasie i propagandzie PRL do 1980 roku | title=Piłsudski na łamach i w opiniach prasy polskiej 1918–1989 (Piłsudski as Seen in the Polish Press, 1918–1989) | year=2005 | publisher=Oficyna Wydawnicza ASPRA–JR and Warsaw University | location=Warsaw | language=Polish | isbn=8389964449 }}</cite> * <cite id=refZamoyski1987> {{cite book | last=Zamoyski | first=Adam | authorlink=Adam Zamoyski | title=The Polish Way | year=1987 | publisher=John Murray | location=London | isbn=0531150690 }}</cite> * <cite id=refZulawnik2005> {{cite book | last=Żuławnik | first=Małgorzata | coauthors=Żuławnik Mariusz | editor=Jabłonowski, Marek; Kossewska, Elżbieta (eds.) | chapter=Powrót na łamy. Józef Piłsudski w prasie oficjalnej i podziemnej 1980–1989 (Return to the Newspapers: Józef Piłsudski in the Official and Underground Press, 1980–1989 | title=Piłsudski na łamach i w opiniach prasy polskiej 1918–1989 (Piłsudski as Seen in the Polish Press, 1918–1989) | year=2005 | publisher=Oficyna Wydawnicza ASPRA–JR and Warsaw University | location=Warsaw | language=Polish | isbn=8389964449 }}</cite> </div> ==Further reading== :''This is only a small selection. See also [[National Library in Warsaw]] [http://www.ekologia.neostrada.pl/hwjpl.html lists].'' <div style="font-size:95%;"> * {{cite book | last=Czubiński | first=Antoni (ed.) | title=Józef Piłsudski i jego legenda (Józef Piłsudski and His Legend) | year=1988 | publisher=Państowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN | location=Warsaw | isbn=8301078197 }} * {{cite book | last=Davies | first=Norman | authorlink=Norman Davies | title=Heart of Europe, The Past in Poland's Present | year=2001 | publisher=Oxford University Press | location=Oxford; New York | isbn=0192801260 | origyear=1984 }} * {{cite book | last=Dziewanowski | first=Marian Kamil | authorlink=Marian Kamil Dziewanowski | title=Joseph Pilsudski: A European Federalist, 1918–1922 | year=1969 | publisher= Stanford University Press | location=Stanford | isbn=0817917918 }} * {{cite book | last=Garlicki | first=Andrzej | chapter=Piłsudski, Józef Klemens | title=[[Polish Biographical Dictionary]] (Polski Słownik Biograficzny) vol. XXVI | year=1981 | publisher=Polska Akademia Nauk | location=Wrocław | isbn= | pages=pp. 311–324 | language=Polish }} * {{cite journal | last=Hauser | first=Przemysław | coauthors=Dorosz, Janina (transl.) | title=Jozef Pilsudski's Views on the Territorial Shape of the Polish State and His Endeavours to Put them into Effect, 1918–1921 | journal=Polish Western Affairs | year=1992 | issue=2 | location=Poznań | pages=pp. 235–249 | id={{ISSN|0032-3039}} | publisher=Komisja Naukowa Zachodniej Agencji Prasowej }} * {{cite book | last=Jędrzejewicz | first=Wacław | authorlink=Wacław Jędrzejewicz | title=Józef Piłsudski 1867–1935 | year=1989 | publisher=Wydawnictwo LTW | location=Wrocław | isbn=8388736256 }} * {{cite book | last=Piłsudska | first=Aleksandra | authorlink=Aleksandra Piłsudska | title=Pilsudski: A Biography by His Wife | year=1941 | publisher=Dodd, Mead | location=New York | oclc=65700731 }} * {{cite book | last=Piłsudski | first=Józef | coauthors=Gillie, Darsie Rutherford | title=Joseph Pilsudski, the Memories of a Polish Revolutionary and Soldier | year=1931 | publisher=Faber & Faber }} * {{cite book | last=Piłsudski | first=Józef | title=Year 1920 and its Climax: Battle of Warsaw during the Polish-Soviet War, 1919–1920, with the Addition of Soviet Marshal Tukhachevski's March beyond the Vistula | year=1972 | publisher=Jozef Pilsudski Institute of America | location=New York | isbn=B0006EIT3A }} * {{cite book | last=Reddaway | first=William Fiddian | authorlink= | title=Marshal Pilsudski | year=1939 | publisher=Routledge | location=London | oclc=1704492 }} * {{cite book | last=Rothschild | first=Joseph | authorlink= | title=Pilsudski's Coup d'Etat | year=1967 | publisher=Columbia University Press | location=New York | isbn=0231029845 }} * {{cite journal | last=Wandycz | first=Piotr S. | authorlink=Piotr S. Wandycz | title=Polish Federalism 1919–1920 and its Historical Antecedents | journal=East European Quarterly | volume=4 | issue=1 | pages=pp. 25–39 | year=1970 | location=Boulder, Colorado | id={{ISSN|0012-8449}} }} * {{cite book | last=Wójcik | first=Włodzimierz | authorlink= | title=Legenda Piłsudskiego w Polskiej literaturze międzywojennej (Piłsudski's Legend in Polish Interwar Literature) | year=1987 | publisher=Śląsk | location=Warsaw | isbn=8321605338 }} </div> ==External links== {{wikiquote}} {{commons|Józef Piłsudski}} <div style="font-size:95%;"> * Dole, Patryk, [http://web.archive.org/web/20050213064816/http://www.polonica.net/Marshal-Jozef-Pilsudski.htm ''Marshal Jozef Pilsudski. Messiah and Central European Federalist''] {{en icon}} * [http://www.pilsudski.org Jozef Pilsudski Institute of America] {{en icon}}/{{pl icon}} * [http://www.angelfire.com/scifi2/rsolecki/jozef_pilsudski.html Abbreviated version of biography] {{en icon}} * [http://monika.univ.gda.pl/~literat/bibula/index.htm ''Bibuła''] – Book by Józef Piłsudski {{pl icon}} * [http://monika.univ.gda.pl/~literat/media/index.htm Historical media] – Recording of short speech by Piłsudski from 1924 {{pl icon}} </div> {{start box}} {{s-off}} {{succession box|title=[[List of Polish heads of state (1918–present)|Head of State]]|before=[[Regency Council]]|after=[[Gabriel Narutowicz]]|years=1918&ndash;1922}} {{succession box|title=[[Prime Minister of Poland]]|before=[[Kazimierz Bartel]]|after=[[Kazimierz Bartel]]|years=1926&ndash;1928}} {{succession box|title=[[Prime Minister of Poland]]|before=[[Walery Sławek]]|after=[[Walery Sławek]]|years=1930}} {{s-mil|}} {{succession box|title=[[General Inspector of the Armed Forces]]|before=New office|after=[[Edward Rydz-Śmigły]]|years=1926&ndash;1935}} {{end box}} {{Marshals of Poland}} {{Presidents of Poland}} {{Prime Ministers of Poland}} {{PLIGs}} {{featured article}} {{Persondata |NAME=Piłsudski, Józef Klemens |ALTERNATIVE NAMES= |SHORT DESCRIPTION=Polish revolutionary, statesman, independence fighter, Field Marshal, first Chief of State and dictator of the Second Polish Republic, and leader of its armed forces |DATE OF BIRTH=[[December 5]], [[1867]] |PLACE OF BIRTH=Zulovo, Russian Empire (now [[Zalavas]], [[Lithuania]]) |DATE OF DEATH=[[May 12]], [[1935]] |PLACE OF DEATH=[[Warsaw]], [[Poland]] }} {{DEFAULTSORT:Pilsudski, Jozef Klemens}} [[Category:Heads of state of Poland]] [[Category:Prime Ministers of Poland]] [[Category:Marshals of Poland]] [[Category:Polish generals]] [[Category:Polish socialists]] [[Category:Légion d'honneur recipients]] [[Category:Recipients of Virtuti Militari]] [[Category:Recipients of Polonia Restituta]] [[Category:Polish nobility]] [[Category:Liver cancer deaths]] [[Category:1867 births]] [[Category:1935 deaths]] [[Category:Leaders who took power by coup]] [[Category:Polish exiles in the Russian Empire]] [[Category:Polish Lithuanians]] {{Link FA|he}} {{Link FA|pl}} [[be:Юзэф Пілсудскі]] [[be-x-old:Юзэф Пілсудзкі]] [[bg:Йозеф Пилсудски]] [[cs:Józef Piłsudski]] [[da:Józef Piłsudski]] [[de:Józef Piłsudski]] [[es:Józef Piłsudski]] [[eo:Józef Piłsudski]] [[eu:Jozef Pilsudski]] [[fr:Józef Piłsudski]] [[ko:유제프 피우수트스키]] [[hr:Józef Piłsudski]] [[id:Józef Piłsudski]] [[is:Józef Piłsudski]] [[it:Józef Piłsudski]] [[he:יוזף פילסודסקי]] [[lv:Juzefs Pilsudskis]] [[lt:Józef Piłsudski]] [[hu:Józef Piłsudski]] [[nl:Józef Piłsudski]] [[ja:ユゼフ・ピウスツキ]] [[no:Józef Piłsudski]] [[nn:Josef Pilsudski]] [[pl:Józef Piłsudski]] [[pt:Józef Piłsudski]] [[ro:Józef Piłsudski]] [[ru:Пилсудский, Юзеф]] [[simple:Jozef Pilsudski]] [[sr:Јозеф Клеменс Пилсудски]] [[fi:Józef Piłsudski]] [[sv:Józef Piłsudski]] [[uk:Пілсудський Юзеф]] [[zh:约瑟夫·毕苏斯基]]