Jehovah's Witnesses 52547 226064567 2008-07-16T17:49:18Z Cst17 6898026 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/198.144.15.221|198.144.15.221]] to last version by Fieldday-sunday (using [[WP:HG|Huggle]]) {{Infobox Christian denomination | name=Jehovah's Witnesses | image=Watchtower-brooklyn.jpg | caption=Watchtower Buildings in Brooklyn, New York | main_classification=[[Restorationism|Restorationist]] | orientation = | polity = [[Organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses|Hierarchical]] | founder = [[Charles Taze Russell]] (founded [[Bible Student movement]]) | founded_date = [[1876]] &ndash; Bible Students founded<br/>[[1931]] &ndash; Adopted name | founded_place = [[Pennsylvania]] and [[New York]], [[USA]] | separated_from = | parent = [[Millerites|Millerite]] and [[Adventist]] movements | merger = | separations = See ''[[Jehovah's Witnesses splinter groups|Jehovah's Witnesses<br/>splinter groups]]'' | associations = | area = Worldwide | congregations = 101,376 | members = 7 million | footnotes = Statistics from 2008 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses }} '''Jehovah's Witnesses''' are members of a [[restorationism|restorationist]]<ref>Stark et al, Why Jehovah’s Witnesses Grow So Rapidly: A Theoretical Application, Journal of Contemporary Religion, Vol. 12, Num. 2, 1997: 133–157</ref><ref>[[The Watchtower]], October 1, 1977 p. 598: “''Jehovah’s Witnesses today have made efforts to learn the mode of operation of the early Christian congregation and to follow that Scriptural pattern''.”; Cote, P., Richardson, J.T., Disciplined Litigation, Vigilant Litigation, and Deformation: Dramatic Organisation Change in Jehovah’s Witnesses: ''Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion'', March 2001 Vol. 40 No 1 p 23, “''Not taking part in political activities, the ‘neutrality principle’ as it is known, is for the Witnesses, along with the blood taboo, the surest sign that theirs is the original community of true Christians''.”</ref> religious denomination of the same name. The religion emerged from the [[Bible Student Movement]], founded in the late 19th century by [[Charles Taze Russell]]. The name, "Jehovah's Witnesses," based on [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_%28King_James%29/Isaiah#Chapter_43 Isaiah 43:10], was adopted at a 1931 convention of Bible students while under the leadership of [[Joseph Franklin Rutherford]]. Identification of the religion as [[Christian]], among other [[Controversies regarding Jehovah's Witnesses|controversies]], is debated largely owing to their disputing the [[Trinity]], which most Christian religions regard as a fundamental doctrine. They believe in [[God]] and [[Jesus Christ]], and consider them separate and not equal. ==Beliefs== {{main|Beliefs and practices of Jehovah's Witnesses}} [[Image:Jehovas Zeugen Königreichssaal Heimfeld 04.jpg|thumb|right|220px|Jehovah's Witnesses meet in buildings called [[Kingdom Hall]]s, like this one in Germany.]] ===Jehovah=== Jehovah's Witnesses believe that, according to the Bible, God has a personal name, the [[Tetragrammaton]], which is sometimes rendered in English [[Jehovah]] based on reading the word [[YHWH]] with the vowels of the Hebrew word for "my lord," the term generally used by Jews during scriptural recitation in lieu of pronouncing the ineffable YHWH. They view the use of the name as essential for true worship, since it makes God more personal and, according to its meaning in [[Hebrew]], it inspires solid faith in the fulfillment of his promises (Jehovah has a specific meaning as described in the scriptures to Moses in Exodus 3:14 as "I AM WHAT I AM", or "HE CAUSES TO BECOME"). The Tetragrammaton is mentioned 7,210 times in the Bible.{{Fact|07/04/08|date=July 2008}} To the Jehovah's Witnesses, Jehovah is regarded as Almighty God, the supreme being and creator of everything, the sovereign of the universe. They believe that Jehovah's main qualities are love, justice, wisdom, and power, and that these qualities are consistently demonstrated throughout the Bible. ===Jesus=== Jehovah's Witnesses believe that [[Jesus]] is the only-begotten Son of Jehovah, Jehovah and [[Jesus Christ]] are separate beings, and that the [[Holy Spirit]] is Jehovah's impersonal, active force. [[Christ]] (through his ransom sacrifice) is regarded as the only means by which to approach Jehovah in [[prayer]], and the means of [[salvation]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Insight on the Scriptures Vol. e2|publisher=Watchtower|pages=60–61|chapter="His Vital Place in God's Purpose" and "Chief Agent of life"}}</ref> Also, Jesus is regarded as head of the Christian Congregation. For this and many other reasons Jehovah Witnesses have been called guilty of the early church [[heresy]] of [[Arianism]]. ===Salvation=== {{seealso|Soteriology}} Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus' death was necessary to atone for the sin brought into the world by the first man, [[Adam (Bible)|Adam]], opening the way for the hope of everlasting life for mankind, and that 144,000 anointed Christians will receive immortal life in heaven as co-rulers with Christ, ruling over the rest of mankind during the [[Millennialism|Millennial Reign]]. Witnesses believe that during the imminent war of [[Armageddon]], the wicked will be destroyed, and survivors, along with millions of others who will be resurrected, will form a new earthly society ruled by a heavenly government and have the possibility of living forever in an earthly [[paradise]]. The vast majority of Jehovah's Witnesses expect to live on a renewed paradise on Earth.<ref>{{cite book|title=What Does the Bible Really Teach?|year=2005|pages=33–36|publisher=Watchtower}}.</ref> The [[Holy Spirit]] is not a person but is God's active force.<ref>{{cite book|title=Insight on the Scriptures Vol. 2|year=1988|pages=1019}}</ref> The [[soul]] is the person itself, not an immortal immaterial entity that dwells inside the body; it does expire with the body.<ref>"The...Scriptures show 'soul' to be a person, an animal, or the life that a person or an animal enjoys." {{cite book|title=Insight on the Scriptures Vol. 2|year=1988|pages=1004}}</ref> Thus, souls of deceased persons are considered dead, and death itself is a state of non-existence with no consciousness.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Is There LIFE After Death?|journal=Watchtower|month=July 15|year=2001|url=http://www.watchtower.org, /library/w/2001/7/15/article_01.htm|accessdate=2006-01-26}}</ref> [[Hades in Christianity|Hades]] or [[Sheol]] is the designated common grave of all mankind. They do not believe in any [[Hell]] of fiery torment.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Hell—Eternal Torture or Common Grave?|journal=The Watchtower|month=April 15|year=1993|pages=6|doi=10.1213/01.ane.0000250913.45299.f3|author=Sniecinski, Roman M.|volume=104}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Insight on the Scriptures Vol. 2|year=1988|pages=189}}</ref> Jehovah's Witnesses believe that October of 1914 marks the return, or "presence", of Christ as king of God's kingdom, which is understood to have occurred invisibly in heaven. They believe that his first act as king was to throw Satan out of heaven. In 1918, those of the 144,000 who had died are believed to have been resurrected as spirit creatures to heavenly life. Since then, any remaining members of the 144,000 who die are believed to be immediately resurrected to heavenly life, based on their understanding of 1 Corinthians 15:51, 52. [[Armageddon]] is considered to be imminent.<ref>{{cite journal|title="In the Last Days" Since When?|journal=Watchtower|month=October 1|year=1980|pages=19|doi=10.1213/01.ane.0000250913.45299.f3|author=Sniecinski, Roman M.|volume=104}}</ref> After "false religion" is destroyed, governments also face destruction.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Flight to Safety Before the "Great Tribulation"|journal=Watchtower|month=June 1|year=1996|pages=14–19|doi=10.1213/01.ane.0000250913.45299.f3|author=Sniecinski, Roman M.|volume=104}}</ref> Publications of Jehovah's Witnesses have stated that only those serving Jehovah will survive God's judgment of the world.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Remaining Organized for Survival Into the Millennium|journal=Watchtower|month=September 1|year=1989|pages=19|quote=Only Jehovah's Witnesses, those of the anointed remnant and the "great crowd," as a united organization under the protection of the Supreme Organizer, have Scriptural hope of surviving the impending end of this doomed system now dominated by Satan the Devil. When will that day of judgment come? The bible states in several scriptures that only God himself knows when he will execute his judgment. For an example, see Mathew 24:36&ndash;39, Mark 13:23,33,|doi=10.1213/01.ane.0000250913.45299.f3|author=Sniecinski, Roman M.|volume=104 }}</ref> They also teach that it is up to Jesus, and not people, to judge individuals.<ref>[http://www.watchtower.org/e/jt/article_08.htm "Do they believe that they are the only ones who will be saved?,"] ''Jehovah's Witnesses—Who Are They? What Do They Believe?''</ref> Regarding the fate of some, such as small children or the mentally ill, the Witnesses say "we may not know exactly how Jehovah will resolve these issues. He will do so, however, in a righteous and merciful way as his qualities have shown Him, throughout the bible, to be loving and forgiving to the weak and innocent." <ref>{{cite journal | journal = Watchtower | date = 8/15/98 | title = ?? | pages = p. 20 par. 18 | quote = 18 ... ‘How will babies and small children be judged? Might it be that a large number of people will not yet have been reached with the good news when Armageddon arrives? One comforting answer to such questions can be found at Mathew 24:14. What about the mentally ill? ... at present we may not know how Jehovah will resolve these issues. He will do so, however, in a righteous and merciful way.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Strengthening Our Confidence in God's Righteousness|journal=Watchtower|month=August 15|year=1998|pages=20|doi=10.1213/01.ane.0000250913.45299.f3|author=Sniecinski, Roman M.|volume=104}}</ref> After [[Armageddon]], the majority of mankind who have died, both righteous and unrighteous, will be resurrected, with the chance of being judged righteous and living forever in paradise.<ref>{{cite journal|title="Death Is to Be Brought to Nothing"|journal=Watchtower|month=July 1|year=1998|pages=19–24|doi=10.1213/01.ane.0000250913.45299.f3|author=Sniecinski, Roman M.|volume=104}}</ref><ref>What Does The Bible Really Teach? p. 214 par. 3 Judgment Day—What Is It? "To live forever, both Armageddon survivors and resurrected ones will have to obey God’s commandments, including whatever new requirements Jehovah might reveal during the thousand years. Thus, individuals will be judged on the basis of what they do during Judgment Day"</ref> ===Authority of the Bible=== Jehovah's Witnesses consider the entire Biblical [[Biblical canon#Orthodox, Catholic and Protestant|canon]], excluding the [[Apocrypha]], to be the inspired word of God. They prefer their own translation of the Bible, the [[New World Translation]], first published in 1950 by [[Watchtower Bible and Tract Society]]. <ref> "For the best part of a century, the Witnesses used primarily the King James Version, the Roman Catholic Douay Version, or whatever versions were available in their language...Informed persons are also aware that Jehovah’s Witnesses continue to use many translations of the Bible in their worldwide evangelizing work. Since 1961, however, they have additionally enjoyed the use of the New World Translation, with its updated, accurate translation and fine readability." ''The Watchtower'', 15 August, 1990, pp. 16&ndash;17 par. 6</ref> (The Watch Tower Society has never officially revealed the names of the translation committee responsible for their Bible version, insisting that to do so would give undue credit to humans instead of Jehovah God. This practice has been criticized since the respective credentials of the translation committee members cannot be ascertained, and hence it cannot be determined if these members were competent in their field.) While they interpret some scriptures literally,<ref>“Awake!” &ndash; March 8, 1982, p. 10. | “How Protestantism Undermines Respect for the Bible” | © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania</ref> they believe that Biblical writers and characters often employed [[symbolism]], [[parable]], [[figure of speech|figures of speech]], and [[poetry|poeticism]].<ref>{{cite book|title=A Book for All People|year=2005|publisher=Watchtower}}</ref> Thus, they insist that they are not 'fundamentalists,' who they feel are in error in taking a strictly literal view of the Bible.<ref>Watchtower 10/151974 p. 629 “How Are Jehovah’s Witnesses Different?” | © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania</ref><ref>Watchtower 10/15 1977. 618 par. 8 | “Obedience to the Good News a Way of Life” | © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania</ref><ref>Watchtower 9/1 1994. 6 | “Science, Religion, and the Search for Truth” | © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania</ref> They hold that the Bible alone should be used for determining issues of doctrine. Interpretation of scripture and codification of doctrines is considered the responsibility of the [[Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=Christ Leads His Congregation|journal=Watchtower|month=March 15|year=2002|pages=13–16|doi=10.1213/01.ane.0000250913.45299.f3|author=Sniecinski, Roman M.|volume=104}}</ref> ===Ethics and morality=== [[Image:YHWH.svg|thumb|right|120px|The name "Jehovah" is one English rendering of the Biblical [[Hebrew]] letters "yad-he-vav-he" (YHVH), the [[Tetragrammaton]].]] Their view of morality reflects some of the usual conservative Christian views. Bestiality, [[homosexuality]], [[incest]], [[fornication]] and adultery are considered serious [[sin]]s. <ref>{{cite journal|title=Young People Ask... What's Wrong With Premarital Sex?|journal=Awake!|month=July 22|year=2004|pages=12|doi=10.1213/01.ane.0000250913.45299.f3|author=Sniecinski, Roman M.|volume=104}}</ref> Abortion is considered [[murder]].<ref>{{cite book|chapter=Why Living a Godly Life Brings Happiness|title=Knowledge that Leads to Everlasting Life|year=1995|pages=118|publisher=Watchtower}}</ref> Modesty in dress and grooming is frequently emphasized. [[Gambling]] is strictly forbidden,<ref>{{cite book|title=Knowledge That Leads to Everlasting Life|publisher=Watchtower|year=1995|pages=120}}</ref> as are stealing and drunkenness. The family structure is [[Patriarchy|patriarchal]]. The husband is considered the final authority on family decisions, but is encouraged to solicit his wife's thoughts and feelings, as well as those of his children. Marriages are required to be [[Monogamy|monogamous]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=''The Bible's Viewpoint'' What Does It Mean to Be the Head of the House?|journal=Awake!|month=July 8|year=2004|pages=26}}</ref> Divorce is condemned for any reason other than adultery. Abuse and willful nonsupport of one's family is considered grounds for separation. ===Avoidance of interfaith activity=== The Witness contend that the Bible has always condemned the mixing of religions because there can only be one truth from God.<ref>Watchtower 2/1/52 p. 69 Is Interfaith God’s Way?"JEHOVAH is a God of truth. He does not compromise with error"</ref><ref>Awake! 11/22/89 p. 22 "this willingness to compromise has become more pronounced because of a growing acceptance of the '''idea that all “Christian” religions have an inherent God-given unity'''.”</ref> They believe only their religion represents true Christianity and that all other religions fail to meet all the requirements set by God and will be done away with. <ref>'''What Does The Bible Really Teach? chap. 15''' p. 145 par. 3 Worship That God Approves | “3 ... Many people believe that all religions are pleasing to God, but the Bible does not teach that. It is ''not even enough just to claim to be a Christian''. Jesus said: “Not everyone saying to me, ‘Lord, Lord,’ will enter into the kingdom of the heavens, but the one doing the will of my Father who is in the heavens will.” “</ref> The Witnesses are opposed to 'councils' that unite or combine different religions. <ref>Watchtower 12/15/53 pp. 741&ndash;742 Should the Religions Unite? "While these councils may provide a strong political lobby, or aid in mission work, they have no unity of doctrine, no message for the world, no direction to the kingdom of God as earth’s only hope, no counsel for the Christian conscience in the present crisis. They are merely “United Nations” of religions, ‘agencies of cooperation’ between widely divided denominations, but are not organizations that could bring their members to a unity of correct belief."</ref> Weddings, anniversaries, and funerals are typically observed. Common celebrations such as national holidays and [[birthday]]s are not. This prohibition is based on their understanding of the biblical accounts of Pharaoh at Genesis 40:20&ndash;22 and of King Herod at Matthew 14:6&ndash;10. Religious holidays such as [[Halloween]], [[Easter]], and [[Christmas]] are also not celebrated, for they regard these as [[pagan]] (non-Christian) in orgin.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Questions From Readers|journal=Watchtower|month=October 15|year=1998|pages=30}}</ref> ===Relationship with governments=== Jehovah's Witnesses believe their allegiance belongs to God's Kingdom, which is viewed as an actual government. Thus they refrain from saluting the flag of any country or singing nationalistic songs.<ref>{{cite journal|title="Salvation Belongs to Jehovah"|journal=Watchtower|month=September 15|year=2002|pages=21|doi=10.1213/01.ane.0000250913.45299.f3|author=Sniecinski, Roman M.|volume=104}}</ref> <ref>Many Witnesses stand out of respect, following the Biblical example of the Three Hebrews in Daniel 3.</ref> They believe that these acts are tantamount to worship. The political neutrality of Jehovah's Witnesses is also expressed by their refusal to participate in military service &ndash; even when it is compulsory &ndash; and by their detachment from secular politics. Voting in political elections is considered a compromise of their Christian neutrality. Still, members are expected to obey all laws of their native governments, so long as these do not violate what they view as God's law.<ref>"Watchtower" 11/15/00 p. 15 par. 18 Christians Find Happiness in Serving "There are many people who claim to worship God, but their worship is really directed to the gods of nationalism, tribalism, wealth, self, or some other deity"</ref><ref>"Watchtower" 2/15/67 p. 115 par. 15 “(Dan. 2:44) "Thus the nationalistic governments on which the various religious systems depend so heavily for support are destined to be crushed by God’s heavenly kingdom."</ref> They are instructed to pay all taxes of the country in which they reside, considering the government to be solely responsible for how they are used.<ref>Watchtower 11/1/90 p. 24 par. 5 " … what if part of the tax money is used to finance something we disagree with, such as free abortions, blood banks, or programs that conflict with our neutral views? We still pay all our taxes. It is the authority that must take responsibility for how it uses the tax money."</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=God and Caesar|journal=Watchtower|month=May 1|year=1996|pages=9}}</ref> ===Proselytization=== Witnesses are perhaps best known for the efforts to spread their beliefs throughout the world. They do this mainly by visiting people house to house.<ref>''Jehovah's Witnesses: Proclaimers of God's Kingdom'', chap. 25 pg. 570” –1993| “House-to-House Preaching —An Identifying Mark” | . © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania</ref><ref>The Watchtower &ndash; May 15, 1981, p. 17. | “Showing Lifesaving Neighbor Love” | © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania</ref> Free home Bible studies are offered to people having questions or interest in their beliefs. They use their publications, such as the Watchtower, to explain their beliefs. Literature is published in many languages through a wide variety of [[book]]s, [[magazine]]s and other publications, with some publications being available in as many as 410 languages. Witnesses are instructed to devote as much time as possible in preaching activities. They believe that their preaching work is a form of humanitarian effort by helping people apply Biblical principles to improve their lives, and that their preaching work gives people hope for the future.<ref>The Watchtower &ndash; January 15, 1987, p. 6. | “Social Ministry—How It Affects People” | © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania</ref><ref>The Watchtower &ndash; July 15, 1971, p. 426. | “How the True Church Helps” | © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania “The most important thing for you, for every individual—including the poor and afflicted—is to enter into a right relationship with God and Christ. To that end the Christian witnesses of Jehovah are sent into the world, not with material bread, which would be only a temporary help, but with spiritual food, the word of life. These words from God will open the way to peace with Him, and at the same time the way to eternal life in God’s new order, when there will be plenty for all.”</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Watchtower|date=November 1, 1966|pages=647}}</ref> Members are required to participate in the preaching work and if possible to give a voluntary donation to the Watchtower Society's "Worldwide Work" fund.<ref>The Watchtower | 5/15/02 p. 11 Phenomenal Increase Necessitates Quick Expansion “In each congregation, there are boxes clearly labeled “Contributions for the Worldwide Work—Matthew 24:14.””</ref> (An umbrella fund used to support the various aspects of their work.)<ref>Our Kingdom Ministry 3/91 p. 3 par. 5 Our Simplified Literature Distribution Arrangement "In this way, all the Society’s activities are supported, including the distribution of literature."</ref> ===Unity=== Jehovah's Witnesses consider unity to be very important. Assembly programs, convention programs, and Watchtower studies consider the exact same material worldwide. To the witnesses, it is important to 'have love amongst yourselves,' as this is an identifying mark of true religion (John 13:35). If one disagrees with the Governing Body to the extent that they threaten the unity of the congregation, it is viewed by the Witnesses as disagreeing with Jehovah himself and is equal to [[apostasy]]. ===Aid work=== Aid work after large natural disasters is considered an important part of their work, though secondary to their preaching effort. Large sums of donated money are used in the affected areas to rebuild communities and provide aid. The focus of relief efforts is primarily on helping fellow members and rebuilding [[Kingdom Hall]]s, but usually, assistance is provided to non-members in need near the area in which they are working.<ref>Awake! 6/8/89 p. 30 From Our Readers “By no means do Jehovah’s Witnesses ignore the plight of others when disasters occur. Previous articles have demonstrated '''how willing Jehovah’s Witnesses are to assist their neighbors''' during such times. See, for example, the article entitled “The Levee Has Broken!” (October 8, 1986) '''We thus endeavor to “work what is good toward all,''' but ''especially'' toward those related to us in the faith.” (Galatians 6:10)</ref><ref>Awake! 6/06 p. 19 Heeding the Warnings Made a Difference “This group cares for the Louisiana area, which took the brunt of Hurricane Katrina. Of the 2,700 homes of Witnesses needing repair there, work on 1,119 had been completed by the middle of February, so a huge task was still facing that relief committee. '''Again, neighbors and families with dire need were also helped'''.”</ref> Examples of relief work include that provided to [[Hutu]] and [[Tutsi]] victims rebuilding (Kingdom halls) during the [[Rwandan genocide]], as well as to [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo]] refugees.<ref>{{cite journal|quote=Since 1994, Jehovah's Witnesses in [[Europe]] alone have sent more than 190 tons of food, clothing, medicine, and other relief supplies to the Great Lakes region of Africa to fellow Jehovah's Witnesses|title=Christianity in Action: Amid Turmoil|journal=Watchtower|publisher=Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania|month=January 15|url=http://www.watchtower.org/library/w/1998/1/15/|accessdate=2005-12-04|doi=10.1213/01.ane.0000250913.45299.f3|year=2007|author=Sniecinski, Roman M.|volume=104|pages=763}}</ref> Witnesses have also had an active share in the relief work and rebuilding Kingdom Halls after [[Hurricane Katrina]] in the United States of America.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Awake!|month=June|year=2006|pages=14–19}}</ref> ===The Memorial=== {{See Also|Beliefs and practices of Jehovah's Witnesses#Memorial of Christ's death}} Their most important annual event is the commemoration of Jesus' death (referred to as "the Memorial") held after sundown, on the day corresponding to the date of the Hebrew Passover, [[Nisan]] 14 on the [[Hebrew calendar]] (usually in March or April).<ref>“What Does the Bible Really Teach?” –2005, p. 206 | “The Lord’s Evening Meal—An Observance That Honors God” | . © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania</ref> Typically, in most congregations, no one partakes in drinking the wine or eating the bread during this annual event, because only the members of the 144,000 or "The Anointed" partake of the emblems of the wine and unleavened bread. Instead most Jehovah's Witnesses pass the wine and the bread around the congregation. Citing the words at 1 Corinthians 11:27, they believe that those who partake unworthily in the emblems will be judged by Jehovah. According to Witness publications, as of 2008, about 9,000+ persons &ndash; an increase from the previous year &ndash; did partake of the emblems. These anointed ones anticipate being resurrected to heaven after their death. Anyone is invited to view this event; invitations are handed out about one month before the event. Almost all Witnesses today believe their future hope is to live after Armageddon, on a paradise earth which will be governed by Jesus and his heavenly government. ===Education=== Higher education (equivalent to bachelor's degree or higher) is not a focus for most Witness youth.<ref> ''The Watchtower'', 1 October, 2005, "Parents &ndash; What Future Do You Want for Your Children"</ref> Jehovah's Witnesses are instructed to make spiritual matters the top priority in their life since the Witnesses view time as short for their global ministry. Higher education is considered a matter of conscience to be decided individually. If chosen it should be kept secondary to spiritual responsibilities.<ref>Watchtower 10/1/84 p. 17 par. 10</ref> Jehovah's Witnesses provide various education programs for their members. Some examples are the Theocratic Ministry School (available for everyone), Pioneer Service School, Ministerial Training School, Gilead Missionary School, and others, specifically focused on improving skills for their ministry. ===Congregational discipline=== {{main|Jehovah's Witnesses and congregational discipline}} Jehovah's Witnesses employ various levels of congregational discipline administered by elders in the congregation.<ref>Court Judicial, Insight on the Scriptures Vol. 1, Watchtower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania, Inc., 1988 p. 519</ref><ref>Jehovah’s Sheep Need Tender Care, The Watchtower, Watchtower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania, Inc., January 15, 1996, pp. 18&ndash;19</ref><ref>Repentance Leading Back to God, September 1, 1981, [[The Watchtower]], p. 23</ref> These include: * ''Disfellowshipping'' is the most severe form of discipline. Congregation members avoid social and/or spiritual association with disfellowshipped individuals.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Watchtower|month=April 15|year=1988}}</ref> Families are allowed to associate with their disfellowshipped family members, but are not allowed to pray with them or sit and have a meal with them. Disfellowshipped members can attend Kingdom Hall meetings, but are not allowed to take an active part in meetings or the ministry.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.religionfacts.com/jehovahs_witnesses/practices.htm#shunning|title=Practices of Jehovah's Witnesses|work=[[ReligionFacts]]}}</ref> Each year, the elders should make an attempt to remind disfellowshipped ones of the steps they can take to qualify for reinstatement. Disfellowshipped Witnesses can be reinstated if they are deemed by the elders to show true repentance, including consistent meeting attendance while being shunned. After a period of time, usually several months or longer, of behavior considered acceptable the individual may inform the elders in writing of his desire to be reinstated.<ref>Watchtower 8/1/63 p. 472 Proper Viewpoint of Discipline "Reinstatement is not just a matter of waiting for a specified time to elapse and then making the proper request in writing to the congregation</ref> The Judicial Committee then arranges to meet with the individual to determine eligibility for reinstatement.<ref>Watchtower 4/15/91 p. 21 par. 6 Imitate God’s Mercy Today "In time he may seek reinstatement in the clean congregation. When elders then meet with him, they will try to determine whether he has repented and left his sinful course."</ref> If they choose to reinstate the individual, an announcement of reinstatement is made at the Service meeting. * ''Reproof'' involves sins for which one could be disfellowshipped. But if “true repentance” is shown, the person may not be disfellowshipped, but merely reproved.<ref>”Knowledge That Leads to Everlasting Life” chap. 14 p. 138 par. 22 Whose Authority Should You Recognize? | “If a Christian who has committed a grave sin accepts Scriptural discipline and reproof and gives evidence of genuine repentance, he will be helped. Of course, persistent and unrepentant violators of God’s law are disfellowshipped. —1 Corinthians 5:9&ndash;13.</ref> Reproof may be given before all who have knowledge of the transgression.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Giving Reproof "Before All Onlookers"|journal=Watchtower|month=December 1|year=1976|doi=10.1213/01.ane.0000250913.45299.f3|author=Sniecinski, Roman M.|volume=104|pages=763}}</ref> In some cases it is deemed necessary to make an announcement to the congregation that "(so and so) has been reproved."<ref>Watchtower 11/15/06 p. 30 par. 20 Always Accept Jehovah’s Discipline "20 If a sin is widely known or will undoubtedly become known, an announcement to the congregation would likely be appropriate in order to protect its reputation. An announcement will also be made if the congregation needs to be informed"</ref> * ''Marking'' is employed when a member persists in conduct that is considered a clear violation of Scriptural principles, yet not of a sufficient seriousness to warrant disfellowshipping ([[shunning]]). Marking is based on their understanding of 2 Thessalonians 3:6. It is used only if the person repeatedly refuses counsel<ref>Watchtower 4/15/85 p. 31 Questions From Readers | “First the elders try repeatedly to help the violator by admonishing him. If the problem persists, they may, without naming the person, give a warning talk to the congregation concerning the disorderly conduct involved.</ref> and the elders feel that not addressing it would pose a "spiritual danger" to the members of the congregation. A talk may be given regarding the conduct (without naming the individual).<ref>The Watchtower &ndash; April 15, 1985, p. 31. | “Questions From Readers” | © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania</ref> Though such a person would not be shunned, social interaction outside of formal worship settings would be minimized.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Question From Readers|year=1985|month=April 15|pages=31|journal=Watchtower|doi=10.1213/01.ane.0000250913.45299.f3|author=Sniecinski, Roman M.|volume=104}}</ref> Regarding child abuse, unless a confession is made, the religion will take judicial action only on cases where there have been two witnesses, based on the principle at Deuteronomy 19:15 &ndash; "No single witness should rise up against a man ... At the mouth of two ... or ... three witnesses the matter should stand good". However, the elders are expected to report the allegation to the branch office of Jehovah's Witnesses ... if local privacy laws permit. They also comply with laws requiring even uncorroborated or unsubstantiated allegations to be reported to the authorities. Additionally, the victim may wish to report the matter to the authorities, and it is his or her absolute right to do so."<ref>[http://www.jw-media.org/region/global/english/backgrounders/e_molestation.htm Position on child molestation<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>Jehovah's Witnesses and Child Protection, undated statement to media copyrighted 2003, accessed December 12, 2007 at http://www.jw-media.org/region/global/english/backgrounders/e_molestation.htm: “In addition to making a report to the branch office, the elders may be required by law to report even uncorroborated or unsubstantiated allegations to the authorities. If so, we expect the elders to comply.”</ref> In 1997 it was also stated that, "for the protection of our children, a man known to have been a child molester does not qualify for a responsible position in the congregation"<ref>Watchtower 1/1/97 p. 29 Let Us Abhor What Is Wicked | “For the protection of our children, a man known to have been a child molester does not qualify for a responsible position in the congregation. Moreover, he cannot be a pioneer or serve in any other special, full-time service.”</ref> Announcements to the congregation would follow organization policy regarding 'serious sins'.<ref>Watchtower 11/15/06 p. 30 par. 20 Always Accept Jehovah’s Discipline | “20 If a sin is widely known or will undoubtedly become known, announcement to the congregation would likely be appropriate in order to protect its reputation. An announcement will also be made if the congregation needs to be informed.”</ref> ===Blood=== {{main|Jehovah's Witnesses and blood}} [[Image:Bloedafname Sanquin.jpg|thumb|left|Jehovah's Witnesses most often reject transfusions of whole [[wiktionary:allogeneic|allogeneic]] blood]] The official teaching of Jehovah's Witnesses regards blood as sacred and rejects [[wiktionary:allogeneic|allogeneic]] and stored<ref>Our Kingdom Ministry 11/06 p. 4 "When making such decisions, ask yourself the following questions: If some of my blood will be diverted outside my body and the flow might even be interrupted for a time, will my conscience allow me to view this blood as still part of me, thus not requiring that it be ‘poured out on the ground’? (Deut. 12:23, 24)"</ref> autologous [[Blood transfusion|transfusion]]s of whole blood, red cells, white cells, platelets or plasma.<ref>{{cite web|title=How Can Blood Save Your Life?|url=http://watchtower.org/library/hb/ How Can Blood Save Your Life?}} Accessed 4 December 2005.</ref> This is based on an understanding of the Biblical admonition to " abstain from ... blood," based on Acts 15:28, 29, and also on Leviticus 17:11,12, "For the life of the flesh is in the blood ... No soul of you shall eat blood," and of Genesis 9:3, 4, which they understand to be the first instance of "the Bible’s clear prohibition against taking blood into the body."<ref>Awake! &ndash; December 8, 1998, p. 19. | “Doctors Take a New Look at Bloodless Surgery” | © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania</ref> Their belief is that "collecting, storing, and transfusing of blood directly contradicts what is said in Leviticus and Deuteronomy," (that blood should be "poured out"). Their position is they do not "store for transfusion our blood that should be ‘poured out."<ref>Occasionally, a doctor will urge a patient to deposit his own blood weeks before surgery (preoperative autologous blood donation, or PAD) so that if the need arises, he could transfuse the patient with his own stored blood. However, such collecting, storing, and transfusing of blood directly contradicts what is said in Leviticus and Deuteronomy. Blood is not to be stored; it is to be poured out—returned to God, as it were. Granted, the Mosaic Law is not in force now. Nevertheless, Jehovah’s Witnesses respect the principles God included in it, and they are determined to ‘abstain from blood.’ Hence, we do not donate blood, nor do we store for transfusion our blood that should be ‘poured out.’ That practice conflicts with God’s law. ''The Watchtower'' October 15, 2000 pp. 30&ndash;31</ref> Beyond what is stated in Watchtower literature, it is considered a personal decision regarding how a member's "own blood will be handled in the course of a surgical procedure, medical test, or current therapy."<ref>{{cite web|title=Fractions Background|url=http://www.noblood.org/wiki/FractionsBackground}}</ref> While Witnesses may not accept red cells, white cells, platelets or plasma, they may choose to accept fractions made from these components.<ref>[[The Watchtower]], June 15, 2000 p. 30. {{cite journal|author=Sniesinski et al|journal=Anesthesia & Analgesia|title=Coagulopathy After Cardiopulmonary Bypass in Jehovah's Witness Patients: Management of Two Cases Using Fractionated Components and Factor VIIa|url=http://www.freeminds.org/doctrine/sniecinski_analgesia2.pdf|date=April 2007 | volume = 104 | pages = 763 | doi = 10.1213/01.ane.0000250913.45299.f3 <!--Retrieved from CrossRef by DOI bot-->|format=PDF}}</ref><ref>Durable Power of Attorney form, published by [[Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania]], January 2001 p. 1, "I accept all fractions derived from any primary component of blood." Examples of permitted fractions are: [[Interferon]], [http://www.noblood.org/wiki/Immune_Serum_Globulins Immune Serum Globulins] and [[Factor VIII]]; preparations made from [[Hemoglobin]] such as [http://www.noblood.org/wiki/Polyheme PolyHeme] and [[Hemopure]]. Examples of permitted procedures involving the medical use of one's own blood include: [http://www.noblood.org/wiki/Intraoperative_blood_salvage Cell Salvage], [http://www.noblood.org/wiki/Acute_Normovolemic_Hemodilution Hemodilution], [[heart lung machine|Heart-Lung Machine]], [[Dialysis]], [http://www.noblood.org/wiki/Epidural_Blood_Patch Epidural Blood Patch], [[Plasmapheresis]], [http://www.noblood.org/wiki/Blood_cell_scintigraphy Labeling or Tagging of Blood] and [http://www.noblood.org/wiki/Platelet_Gel Platelet Gel] ([[Autologous]]). See [http://www.aggelia.be/km_nov2006.pdf November 2006 ''Our Kingdom Ministry''], pp. 5–6</ref> If a fraction, "makes up a significant portion of that component" or "carries out the key function of a primary component" it may be objectionable to some but is permissible.<ref>'' Awake!'' August 2006 box on P. 11</ref> Witness publications have acknowledged that abiding by this doctrine has led to deaths due to blood loss, but there are no published statistics on total deaths.<ref>"In former times thousands of youths died for putting God first. They are still doing it, only today the drama is played out in hospitals and courtrooms, with blood transfusions the issue." {{cite journal|journal=Awake!|title=Youths Who Put God First|date=[[May 22]], [[1994]]|pages=2|doi=10.1213/01.ane.0000250913.45299.f3|author=Sniecinski, Roman M.|volume=104}}</ref> Witnesses also cite various health risks associated with blood transfusions, including HIV<!--AIDS is a syndrome, not a virus-->, hepatitis, and other blood-borne diseases, sometimes resulting in death.<ref>Awake! October 22, 1990 p.7&ndash;11<!--HIV contamination in blood transfusions is much less likely today, and the referenced article is technically inaccurate; more relevant example would be more appropriate--></ref> However, they indicate that such medical risks are secondary to their religious reasons for refusing blood. Ethical concerns of medical and legal persons involved in managing blood crisis situations in pediatric cases has sometimes led to transfusions being administered to children against family wishes.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Pediatrics and Child Health|title=Medical Emergencies in Children of Orthodox Jehovah's Witness Families|url=http://www.pulsus.com/Paeds/11_10/Pdf/guic_ed.pdf|date=December 2006|pages=655–658|doi=10.1213/01.ane.0000250913.45299.f3|author=Sniecinski, Roman M.|volume=104|format=PDF}} {{cite journal|journal=Macleans|title=The Sextuplets: Whose Babies Are They?|url=http://elsewhereishere.com/jw/blood/macleansjwblood.pdf|date=[[February 19]], [[2007]]|pages=34–38|doi=10.1213/01.ane.0000250913.45299.f3|author=Sniecinski, Roman M.|volume=104|format=PDF}}</ref> Some medical ethicists contend that "serious ethical violations are currently used to enforce the blood policy" among Jehovah's Witnesses, including the suppression of dissident views within the religion.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=The Journal of Medical Ethics|title=Medical confidentiality and the protection of Jehovah's Witnesses' autonomous refusal of blood|url=http://jme.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/26/5/381|date=[[October 1]], [[2000]]|doi=10.1213/01.ane.0000250913.45299.f3|author=Sniecinski, Roman M.|volume=104|pages=763}} {{cite journal|journal=The Journal of Medical Ethics|title=Refusal of potentially life-saving blood transfusions by Jehovah's Witnesses: should doctors explain that not all JWs think it's religiously required?|url=http://jme.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/26/5/299|date=[[October 1]], [[2000]]|doi=10.1213/01.ane.0000250913.45299.f3|author=Sniecinski, Roman M.|volume=104|pages=763}}</ref> Witness leaders have defended these policies as obedience to scripture and religious conscience.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Journal of Medical Ethics|title=Jehovah's Witnesses' refusal of blood: obedience to scripture and religious conscience|url=http://www.ajwrb.org/jme/jmef.htm|date=December 1999|doi=10.1213/01.ane.0000250913.45299.f3|author=Sniecinski, Roman M.|volume=104|pages=763}}</ref> A growing number of hospitals are offering [[Bloodless surgery|bloodless techniques]] in medicine and surgery.<ref>[http://www.pennhealth.com/health_info/bloodless/ University of Pennsylvania article] [http://www.med.unipi.it/patchir/bloodl/bmr.htm]</ref> A number of medical professionals have credited Jehovah's Witnesses and their related organizations for their contribution to the dissemination of information regarding [[bloodless surgery]] techniques.<ref>[http://www.jw-media.org/region/global/english/releases/health/021118.htm] Article from Jehovah's Witnesses official website</ref><ref>[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/12466831 MSNBC article on Jehovah's Witnesses and bloodless surgery]</ref> Experts in the medical surgical profession have collaborated with Jehovah's Witnesses to produce information regarding the benefits of bloodless techniques and therapies.<ref>{{cite book|title=Transfusion-Free Medicine and Surgery|author=Nicolas Jabbour|url=http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN1405121599&id=-kQ6Mbe25Y4C&pg=PP4&lpg=PP4&sig=2hmfw36wQvczkLQEixH3gBs8qQ0|pages=15&ndash;22}}</ref> Baptized Witnesses who willingly violate the prohibition on blood are subject to being "disfellowshipped" (organized communal shunning).<ref>{{cite book|title=Pay Attention to Yourselves and to All the Flock|publisher=Watchtower|year=1991|pages=95}} {{cite journal|journal=BMJ|title=Bioethical aspects of the recent changes in the policy of refusal of blood by Jehovah's Witnesses|url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1119307|date=[[January 6]], [[2001]]|pages=37–39|pmid=11141155|doi=10.1136/bmj.322.7277.37|author=Muramoto, O.|volume=322}}</ref><ref>Watchtower letter to All Hospital Liaison Committees dated June 16, 2000, “If a baptized member of the faith willfully and without regret accepts a blood transfusion, he indicates by his own actions that he no longer wishes to be one of Jehovah’s Witnesses. The individual is no longer viewed as a member of the Christian congregation because he no longer accepts and follows the Biblical prohibition to abstain from blood.</ref><ref>Watchtower media release dated June 14, 2000</ref><ref>Our Kingdom Ministry, Display Christian Loyalty When a Relative Is Disfellowshipped, Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, August, 2002 p. 3, “Cooperating with the Scriptural arrangement to disfellowship and shun unrepentant wrongdoers is beneficial.”</ref> <ref>''The Watchtower'' June 15, 2000 pp. 29&ndash;30</ref><ref>Instructions for Filling In the Advance Decision Document, published by Watchtower in Britain, August 2005 p. 1, "addresses autologous transfusion procedures (those that involve the use of your own blood, which may temporarily leave your body...)" A Jehovah's Witness is aware that there is a risk of death yet believes that dying faithfully is better then living and breaking God's command to abstain from blood. Procedures which are permitted include where a "quantity of blood is withdrawn in order to tag it or to mix it with medicine, whereupon it is put back into the patient" and intra-operative cell salvage. ''The Watchtower'' October 15, 2000 pp. 30&ndash;31</ref> ==History== {{Jehovah's Witnesses}}{{main|History of Jehovah's Witnesses|Eschatology of Jehovah's Witnesses|Jehovah's Witnesses and governments|Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses}} Jehovah's Witnesses originated with the religious movement known as '''[[Bible Student movement|Bible Students]]''', which was founded in the late 1870s by [[Charles Taze Russell]]. Various splinter groups arose after Russell's death, particularly with the beginning of the presidency of Russell's successor, [[Joseph Franklin Rutherford]]. Those who remained supportive of the [[Watchtower Society]], in 1931 came to adopt the name ''Jehovah's Witnesses'', under Rutherford's leadership. Some of the [[Jehovah's Witnesses splinter groups|splinter groups]] survive to this day, though few of these have upwards of 1000 adherents (see [[Jehovah's Witnesses splinter groups|splinter groups article]]). Those who did not support Rutherford formed various [[Bible Student movement|Bible Student]] groups which have retained Russell's teachings. Jehovah's Witnesses no longer use "Bible Students" as a formal name for their religion. [[Image:Russell Charles Taze 1911 .jpg|left|140px|thumb|[[Charles Taze Russell]] (1852–1916)]] ===Russell and Barbour=== In the early 1870s, Russell organized a Bible study group composed mostly of [[Advent Christian Church|Second Adventists]] (a group that arose after the [[Millerites|Millerite]] [[Great Disappointment]]) in [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]].<ref>"Looking back to 1871, we see that many of our company were what are known as Second Adventists."&mdash;''Zion's Watch Tower'', February 1881. [http://www.mostholyfaith.com/bible/Reprints/Z1881FEB.asp#R187 ''Reprints'', p. 187]. "Second Adventists" is an older name for the Advent Christian Church.</ref> An interest in Bible [[prophecy]] was sparked, in part, by [[Jonas Wendell]]. In 1876, Russell met [[Nelson H. Barbour]] and subsequently adopted Barbour's [[eschatology]]. Barbour had predicted the visible return of Christ at 1873, and when that failed to occur, he revised the prediction to 1874.<ref>{{cite web | first = N.H. | last = Barbour | year = 1871 | title =''Evidences for the Coming of the Lord in 1873: or the Midnight Cry''| url = http://www.heraldmag.org/olb/contents/history/barbour%20midnight%20cry.htm | accessmonthday=20 February | accessyear=2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | first = N.H. | last = Barbour | year = 1874 | title =''The Midnight Cry and Herald of the Morning''| url = http://www.heraldmag.org/olb/contents/history/barbour%20herald%20of%20the%20morning.htm | accessmonthday=20 February | accessyear=2006}} See Section under "Our Faith."</ref> Soon after Barbour's second disappointment, his group decided Christ had returned ''invisibly'' to Earth in 1874.<ref>{{cite journal|author=N.H. Barbour|journal=Herald of the Morning|title=The Prophetic Periods|year=1875|month=July|url=http://tjliberte.free.fr/Library/Watchtower_Publications/WT/1874–1876_Herald_of_the_Morning.pdf|pages=28–29|doi=10.1213/01.ane.0000250913.45299.f3|format={{dead link|date=June 2008}} &ndash; <sup>[http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?hl=en&lr=&q=intitle%3AThe+Prophetic+Periods&as_publication=Herald+of+the+Morning&as_ylo=1875&as_yhi=1875&btnG=Search Scholar search]</sup>|volume=104}}Russell recounts his meeting with Barbour and gives "a brief sketch of the development of present truth" in the [http://www.a2z.org/wtarchive/docs/1894_WT_Extra_A_Conspiracy_Exposed.pdf April 25, 1894 ''Watch Tower''] pp. 92&ndash;119. See also {{cite journal | author = Watchtower | year = 1906 | month = July 15 | title = Harvest Gatherings and Siftings | journal = Watchtower | pages = 3822 | url = http://www.agsconsulting.com/htdbv5/r3820.htm | doi = 10.1213/01.ane.0000250913.45299.f3 | volume = 104 }}</ref> They differed from most Second Adventists, teaching that all mankind descending from Adam would be given a chance to live in a paradise on Earth. In 1877, Barbour and Russell jointly published the book ''The Three Worlds'' detailing their views.<ref>{{cite web|author=N.H. Barbour, C.T. Russell | title=''The Three Worlds and The Harvest of This World''| url=http://cchasson.free.fr/deposit/book/1877_The_Three_Worlds.pdf|year=1877|format=PDF}} [http://www.heraldmag.org/olb/contents/history/3worlds.pdf Text Version]</ref> A gathering of the saints to heaven was expected for 1878 and the year 1914 was to mark the end of Gentile control of the city of Jerusalem and the final end of the rule of human governments, marking a forty-year period from 1874.<ref>''The Three Worlds'', pp. 68, 89&ndash;93, 124, 125&ndash;126, 143, 189. {{cite journal|journal=Bible Examiner|author=Chas T. Russell|year=1876|month=October|title=Gentile Times: When Do They End?|url=http://www.a2z.org/wtarchive/docs/1876_Bible_Examiner_Russell.pdf|doi=10.1213/01.ane.0000250913.45299.f3|volume=104|pages=763|unused_data=|pp. 27–8|format=PDF}}</ref> By 1877, a separation between the Barbour-Russell group and the Advent Christian denomination was apparent.<ref>See the [http://www.a2z.org/wtarchive/docs/1877_Advent_Christian_Times_Barbour_Russell.pdf July 18, 1877 Advent Christian Times], pp. 89&ndash;90.</ref> ===Russell's break with Barbour=== In July 1879, Russell broke with Barbour after Barbour discounted the worth of what is known as the [[substitutionary atonement]]<ref>The dispute between Barbour and Russell began in August, 1878 and lasted several months. Russell, as co-editor of ''The Herald of the Morning'' defended his view against Barbour's in the [http://www.a2z.org/wtarchive/docs/1878_Herald_of_the_Morning.pdf September, 1878] issue.</ref> and he soon began publishing his own magazine, ''Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence'' (now known as ''[[The Watchtower]]'').<ref>Online copies of ''The Watch Tower'' from 1879–1916 can be viewed by issue at [http://www.mostholyfaith.com/bible/Reprints/index.asp] or by article at [http://www.agsconsulting.com/htdbv5/links.htm] or in a PDF at [http://www.a2z.org/wtarchive/docs/1879–1916_Watch_Tower.pdf]. These are taken from the seven-volume ''Watch Tower Reprints'' published by the Watch Tower Society in 1920 which reprinted all the issues from 1879–1919.</ref> After the break, Russell retained the bulk of Barbour's eschatological views.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Herald of the Morning|title=Notice|year=1879|month=June|url=http://www.a2z.org/wtarchive/docs/1879_Herald_of_the_Morning.pdf|pages=99|format=PDF}} By 1880, Barbour had rejected the idea of an invisible presence in 1874, believing instead that Christ would return in the flesh: "And he [Jesus] will come back to the church, in like manner as they saw him go; and not in an invisible manner." {{cite journal|journal=Herald of the Morning|title=Our Mistake|year=1880|month=July|url=http://www.a2z.org/wtarchive/docs/1880_Herald_of_the_Morning_July.pdf|pages=2|format=PDF}}</ref> He also maintained the Adventist rejection of the traditional view of [[Hell]] and by 1882 had rejected the doctrine of the [[Trinity]].<ref>July, 1882 ''Zion's Watch Tower'', [http://www.mostholyfaith.com/bible/Reprints/Z1882JUL.asp#R369 Reprints, p. 369]. But see [http://www.mostholyfaith.com/bible/Reprints/Z1879JUL.asp#R9 "God is Love"] in the first issue of ''Zion's Watch Tower'' (July, 1879).</ref> In 1881 he formed the legal entity which developed into the [[non-profit organization]]: The [[Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania]] (currently headquartered in [[New York City]]).<ref>Zion’s Watch Tower Tract Society was formed on February 16, 1881, with W. H. Conley as president and C. T. Russell as secretary and treasurer. {{cite book|title=Jehovah's Witnesses: Proclaimers of God's Kingdom|publisher=Watchtower|year=1993|pages=576}}</ref> In 1884, it was incorporated, with Russell as president. He authored the six-volume series, ''Studies in the Scriptures''.<ref>Originally entitled ''Millennial Dawn''. The titles of the six volumes are: 1) [http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC02393988&id=YK4OAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=editions:OCLC38151368 ''The Divine Plan of the Ages''], 2)[http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC38151368&id=k9wOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=inauthor:charles+inauthor:taze+inauthor:russell+date:1902–1902&num=100&as_brr=1 ''The Time is At Hand''], 3)[http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC38151371&id=w60OAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=related:ISBN0972824324 ''Thy Kingdom Come''], 4)[http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC38151368&id=P7MOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=editions:OCLC38151368 ''The Day of Vengeance''] (later retitled [http://www.strictlygenteel.co.uk/armageddon/atitles.html ''The Battle of Armageddon'']), 5)[http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC38151368&id=99kOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=editions:OCLC38151371 ''The At-one-ment Between God and Man''], 6)[http://www.strictlygenteel.co.uk/newcreation/nctitles.html ''The New Creation'']. Volumes available in scanned PDF format at: [http://www.archive.org/details/studiesinthescri014262mbp 1], [http://www.archive.org/details/studiesinthescri00unknuoft 2], [http://www.archive.org/details/studiesinthescri03unknuoft 3], [http://www.a2z.org/wtarchive/docs/1897_The_Day_of_Vengeance.pdf 4], [http://www.archive.org/details/studiesinthescri011970mbp 5], [http://www.a2z.org/wtarchive/docs/1904_The_New_Creation_1909_ed.pdf 6].</ref> Early editions predicted that [[Armageddon]] would culminate in the year 1914.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Time is At Hand|author=C.T. Russell|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=k9wOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA76|publisher=Watch Tower|year=1902|pages=76&ndash;78}} The predictions for 1914 were revised in later editions.</ref> Various statements assuring the accuracy and authority of their predictions were issued, such as "We see no reason for changing the figures — nor could we change them if we would. They are, we believe, God’s dates, not ours. But bear in mind that the end of 1914 is not the date for the beginning, but for the end of the time of trouble."<ref>The Watchtower, [http://www.mostholyfaith.com/bible/Reprints/Z1894JUL.asp#R1677 July 15, 1894, p. 1677]</ref> In contrast, Russell also wrote regarding his expectations: "We are not prophesying; we are merely giving our surmises ... We do not even aver that there is no mistake in our interpretation of prophecy and our calculations of chronology. We have merely laid these before you, leaving it for each to exercise his own faith or doubt in respect to them."<ref>See article [http://www.mostholyfaith.com/bible/Reprints/Z1908JAN.asp#Z4:4 "Yet Seven Years More"] in ''Zion's Watch Tower, January 1, 1908 (reprint)'', p. 4110.</ref> In 1914, Russell founded the [[International Bible Students Association]] in the [[United Kingdom]]. ===Presidency of Joseph Franklin Rutherford=== [[Image:Jfrutherford1911.jpg|right|thumb|[[Joseph Franklin Rutherford]] (1869&ndash;1942)]] Following Russell's death on October 31, 1916, an editorial committee of five was set up to supervise the writing of the ''Watch Tower'' magazine, as set forth in Russell's [[Will (law)|Last Will and Testament]].<ref>{{cite book | title=Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom | publisher=Watchtower | pages = 64–65}};{{cite web | title=C.T. Russell's Last Will and Testament| url=http://www.agsconsulting.com/htdbv5/r5999.htm}} from the December 1, 1916 ''Watch Tower.'' This editorial committee was requested to not write, or be connected with, any other publications.</ref> On January 6, 1917, [[Joseph Franklin Rutherford]] (also known as "Judge" Rutherford) was elected second President of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society. A power struggle soon developed between Rutherford and four of the seven-member Board of Directors of the Society.<ref>New by-laws were passed at the time of Rutherford's election that strengthened the President's authority. {{cite book | author = M.J. Penton | title=Apocalypse Delayed|pages=p. 51}} Rutherford, as chief legal counsel for the Watch Tower Society, had written the new by-laws. (See ''Harvest Siftings II'', written by J.F. Rutherford.) Initially, the Board of Directors for the Watch Tower Society accepted this change, but four of the board members withdrew their support. Rutherford published his account of the dispute in {{cite web|url=http://www.pastor-russell.com/legacy/hs.pdf|title=Harvest Siftings|format=PDF}} and {{cite web|url=http://www.biblestudents.net/downloads/Harvest_Siftings_Part2.pdf|title=Harvest Siftings II|format=PDF}} The four directors replied to Rutherford's first booklet in {{cite web|url=http://cchasson.free.fr/deposit/booklet/1917_Light_After_Darkness.pdf|title=Light After Darkness|format=PDF}} The June 20, 1917 meeting of the full board of directors tabled, for one month, a proposal to return control of the Society to the board (see Rutherford's ''Harvest Siftings'' under subheading "Seeds Begin to Bring Forth"), but Rutherford prevented the board from meeting again.</ref> Matters reached a climax on July 17, 1917 as the book ''The Finished Mystery'' was released to the headquarters staff in Brooklyn.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC13089093&id=dDQSOQV2RBIC&printsec=titlepage&dq=editions:OCLC38151368|publisher=Watchtower|title=The Finished Mystery}}, published 1917, was called the seventh volume of ''Studies in the Scriptures''. [http://www.a2z.org/wtarchive/docs/The_Finished_Mystery.pdf PDF version of ''The Finished Mystery'']</ref> Rutherford announced to the staff that he was also dismissing the four directors and replacing them with new members, claiming they had not been legally elected.<ref>{{cite book|author=A.H. MacMillan|title=Faith on the March|pages=80|url=http://www.quotedstatements.com/FOTM.pdf|accessdate=2007-10-25|format=PDF}}. The ousted directors disagreed: "...if the directors were not legally elected, neither were the Society's three officers: Rutherford, Pierson, and Van Amburgh. In order to have been chosen officers in January 1917, they would have had to have been legally elected directors. Yet, they had not been, and hence, by Rutherford's own logic, did not hold office legally."—''Apocalypse Delayed'', M. James Penton, p. 52</ref> The four dismissed directors set up the [[Pastoral Bible Institute]] and began publishing their own religious journal. Dissension and schisms ensued in congregations worldwide as a result of these events, and of the consequences of new predictions made for the years 1918,<ref>"Also, in the year 1918, when God destroys the churches wholesale and the church members by millions, it shall be that any that escape shall come to the works of Pastor Russell to learn the meaning of the downfall of 'Christianity.'"—{{cite book|title=The Finished Mystery|year=1917|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=dDQSOQV2RBIC&pg=PA485&dq=editions:OCLC38151368|pages=485|publisher=Watchtower}} (later editions read differently)</ref> 1920<ref>"And the mountains were not found. Even the republics will disappear in the fall of 1920. And the mountains were not found. Every kingdom of earth will pass away, be swallowed up in anarchy."{{cite book|title=The Finished Mystery|year=1917|pages=258|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=dDQSOQV2RBIC&pg=PA258&dq=editions:OCLC38151368|publisher=Watchtower}}. (This date was changed in later editions.)</ref> and 1925.<ref> {{cite book|title=Millions Now Living Will Never Die|url=http://www.strictlygenteel.co.uk/millions/millions.html| publisher=Watchtower|pages=88|year=1920}}. [http://cchasson.free.fr/deposit/booklet/1920_Millions_Now_Living_Will_Never_Die.pdf PDF version of book] This book was distributed as part of a major lecture program worldwide. See [http://www.theocraticlibrary.com/downloads/Millions_Campaign_News_Clippings.pdf News Clippings from the "Millions Now Living Will Never Die" Campaign (1919&ndash;1925)]</ref><ref>{{cite book| title=The Way to Paradise|publisher=Watchtower|url=http://www.strictlygenteel.co.uk/waytoparadise/1924_The_Way_To_Paradise.pdf|pages=220–235|year=1924|format=PDF}}</ref> {{Jehovah's Witnesses/eschatology}} ''The Finished Mystery'', published in 1917, was controversial in its criticism of Catholic and Protestant clergy and Christian involvement in war.<ref>''The Finished Mystery'' [http://www.strictlygenteel.co.uk/finishedmystery/fmr16.html pp. 247&ndash;253] [http://books.google.com/books?id=dDQSOQV2RBIC&pg=PA468&dq=editions:OCLC38151368 468] and [http://books.google.com/books?id=dDQSOQV2RBIC&pg=PA474&dq=editions:OCLC38151368 474]. See also [http://www.watchtowerdocuments.com/downloads/1917%20Bible%20Students%20Monthly%20-%20Fall%20of%20Babylon.pdf ''The Fall of Babylon''], published in 1917, which contains extracts from ''The Finished Mystery.''</ref> Citing this book, the United States federal government indicted Rutherford and the new board of directors for violating the [[Espionage Act|''Espionage Act'']] on May 7, 1918. They were found guilty and sentenced to 20 years imprisonment. However, in March 1919, the judgment against them was reversed and they were released from prison.<ref>Trial documents: [http://www.a2z.org/wtarchive/docs/1918_Rutherford_vs_the_United_States_Trial.pdf ''Rutherford et al. vs. the United States''], [http://www.pastor-russell.com/misc/jfrdoc.html Application for Executive Clemency &ndash; 1919], [http://www.watchtowerdocuments.com/downloads/1919_May_14__Appeals_Court_reverses_conviction_of_WT_Directo.pdf Reversal by Appeals Court]</ref> The charges were later dropped.<ref>{{cite book|title=Apocalypse Delayed|author=M.J. Penton|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=38SYXalMLeQC&pg=PA55&lpg=PA55&dq=apocalypse+delayed&sig=9rClKXiom_GcQPMLkgsCyoFYzws|pages=55–56}} {{cite book|title=Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom|publisher=Watchtower|year=1993|pages=647&ndash;654}} Rutherford gives his defense against the charges in {{cite book|title=Souvenir Report of the Bible Student's Convention (1919)|url=http://cchasson.free.fr/deposit/CR/1919convention.pdf|publisher=Watchtower|pages=62&ndash;63|format=PDF}} and in the tract [http://www.strictlygenteel.co.uk/tracts/1919_Case_of_the_IBSA.pdf ''The Case of the IBSA'']</ref> Patriotic fervor during World War I fueled persecution of the Bible Students both in America and in Europe.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=The Golden Age|title=Distress of Nations: Cause, Warning, Remedy|pages=712–718|year=1920|month=September 29|url=http://www.a2z.org/wtarchive/docs/1920_Golden_Age.pdf|doi=10.1213/01.ane.0000250913.45299.f3|author=Sniecinski, Roman M.|volume=104|format=PDF}}</ref> An emphasis on house-to-house preaching began in 1922.<ref>{{cite book|title=Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom|publisher=Watchtower|year=1993|pages=259–260}}</ref> The period from 1925&ndash;1933 saw many significant changes in doctrine. Attendance at their yearly [[Beliefs and practices of Jehovah's Witnesses#Memorial of Christ's death|Memorial]] dropped from a high of 90,434 in 1925<ref>{{cite book|title=Your Will Be Done on Earth|publisher=Watchtower|year=1958|pages=337}}</ref> down to 17,380 in 1928,<ref>{{cite book|title=Jehovah's Witnesses in the Divine Purpose|publisher=Watchtower|year=1959|pages=313}}</ref> due to the previous power struggle, the failed predictions for the year 1925,<ref>{{cite book|title=Apocalypse Delayed—The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses|author=M. James Penton|pages=61}} Attendance at the annual Memorial (statistics were published each year in the ''Watch Tower'') shows the growth in the period before 1925. 1919: 17,961, 1922: 32,661, 1923: 42,000, 1924: 62,696, 1925: 90,434. 1926 marked the first decrease: 89,278. There are no published statistics from 1929&ndash;1934. In 1935, Memorial attendance was 63,146. {{cite journal|title=Watchtower|date=[[August 15]], [[1996]]|pages=31}}</ref> and the evolving doctrinal changes which alienated those who sided with Russell's views.<ref>See, for example, {{cite book|url=http://www.pastor-russell.com/legacy/wprd.pdf|title=When Pastor Russell Died|publisher=Dawn Bible Students Association|year=1946|pages=6&ndash;16|format=PDF}}</ref> By 1933, 1914 was seen as the beginning of Christ's presence, his enthronement as king, and the start of the "last days" instead of being considered the terminal date in their chronology.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Harp of God|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Fjw3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA231|year=1921|pages=231–236}} affirms that “the Lord’s second presence dates from 1874.” {{cite journal|title=Watchtower|pages=71|year=1922|month=March 1|publisher=Watchtower}} and {{cite book|pages=65–66|title=Prophecy|year=1930}} reiterated this position. The eschatological changes during this period are documented in {{cite book|title=Historical Idealism and Jehovah's Witnesses|pages=3–37|author=Thomas Daniels|url=http://www.catholic-forum.com/members/popestleo/Historical%20Idealism%20and%20Jehovahs%20Witnesses.pdf|accessdate=2006-02-01|format=PDF}} These are the current teachings of Jehovah's Witnesses regarding 1914, 1918 and 1919. They no longer consider the dates 1799, 1874 and 1878 to have any [[eschatology|eschatological]] significance</ref> The editorial committee was disbanded with Rutherford having the final say regarding what went into Watchtower publications.<ref>''A People For His Name'' by Timothy White, pp. 186&ndash;188. ''The Watchtower'', June 15, 1938, p. 185</ref> The offices and election of elders and deacons were also discontinued during this era with all "servants" in local congregations being appointed by headquarters.<ref>''Proclaimers'', p. 214. June 15, 1938 ''Watchtower''</ref> [[Hitler]]'s [[Nazi Germany]] persecuted Jehovah's Witnesses and many were imprisoned in [[concentration camps]]. Their identifying [[Nazi concentration camp badges|badge]] was a [[purple triangle]].<ref>See article on the persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses from the {{cite web|title=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum|url=http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10005394|accessmonthday=22 February |accessyear=2005}}</ref> In a book on Jehovah's Witnesses under the Nazi regime, Hans Hesse commented, "Some five thousand Jehovah's Witnesses were sent to concentration camps where they alone were 'voluntary prisoners', so termed because the moment they recanted their views, they could be freed. Some lost their lives in the camps, but few renounced their faith"<ref>.{{cite book|title=Persecution and Resistance of Jehovah's Witnesses During the Nazi Regime|author=Hans Hesse|url=http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN3861087502&id=mcxD0qxHMO0C&printsec=frontcover|year=2001|pages=10}}</ref> During this time period, Witnesses also experienced mob violence in America and were temporarily banned in Canada and Australia because they were perceived as being against the war effort.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses|author=American Civil Liberties Union|url=http://www.theocraticlibrary.com/downloads/The_Persecution_of_Jehovah's_Witnesses_-_ACLU.pdf|year=1941|pages=1&ndash;24|format=PDF}} {{cite book|title=Visions of Glory|author=[[Barbara Grizzuti Harrison]]|pages=185, 281|year=1978|url=http://www.exjws.net/vg.htm}} {{cite web|title=The Banning of Jehovah's Witnesses in Australia in 1941|url=http://www.tasa.org.au/conferencepapers05/papers%20(pdf)/religion_persian.pdf|author=Jayne Persian|date=December 2005|format=PDF}} [http://cchasson.free.fr/deposit/trial/Adelaide%20Company%20of%20Jehovah's%20Witnesses%20Inc%20V%20The%20Commonwealth%20of%20Australia..pdf ''Adelaide Company of Jehovah's Witnesses, Inc. v. The Commonwealth of Australia'']</ref> Under Rutherford, membership grew from about 21,000 in 1917 to about 115,000 at the time of his death in 1942. ===Nathan Knorr, reorganization, and subsequent Presidents=== [[Nathan H. Knorr|Nathan Homer Knorr]] succeeded Rutherford as president of the [[Legal instruments of Jehovah's Witnesses|Watch Tower Society]]. Known as an efficient administrator, Knorr founded the [[Gilead school|Watchtower Bible School of Gilead]] to train missionaries, as well as the [[Beliefs and practices of Jehovah's Witnesses#The Theocratic Ministry School|Theocratic Ministry School]] to train preaching and teaching at the congregational level. Significant [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] victories involving the rights of [[Freedom of speech|free speech]] and [[Freedom of religion|religion]] for Jehovah's Witnesses have had a great impact on legal interpretation of these rights for others.<ref>Flynn Patrick J, Writing Their Faith into the Law of the Land: Jehovah's Witnesses, the Supreme Court and the Battle for the Meaning of the Free Exercise Clause, 1939&ndash;1945, Texas Journal on Civil Liberties and Civil Rights, December 1, 2004</ref> In 1943, the United States Supreme Court ruled in [[West Virginia State Board of Education vs. Barnette]] that school children of Jehovah's Witnesses could not be compelled to salute the flag. In the United States, over 60 [[Supreme Court cases involving Jehovah's Witnesses]] have shaped [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]] law. By [[1988]], the U.S. Supreme Court had reviewed 71 cases involving Jehovah's Witnesses, two thirds of which were decided in their favor. [[Image:Casaemcasa.jpg|thumb|left|Jehovah's Witnesses are known for their preaching from house to house]] Knorr's vice-president [[Frederick W. Franz|Frederick William Franz]] became the leading [[theology|theologian]], and is believed to have been the principal translator of the ''[[New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures]].''<ref>At a trial in Scotland, Fred Franz was asked: "Were you yourself responsible for the translation of the Old Testament?" He replied: "I cannot answer that question." [http://cchasson.free.fr/deposit/trial/Walsh_Trial.pdf Pursuer's Proof: Lord Strachan vs. Douglas Walsh], p. 92. Since 1942, Witness publications have been produced under a policy of anonymity. However, former Governing Body member [[Raymond Franz]] (nephew of Fred Franz) claims the translators of the ''New World Translation'' were [[Fred Franz]], [[Nathan Knorr]], [[Albert Schroeder]] and [[George Gangas]]. {{cite book|title=Crisis of Conscience|edition=4th|year=2004|pages=56|publisher=Commentary Press|id=0–914675–23–0}}</ref> Also produced were a Greek-English New Testament interlinear (''The Kingdom Interlinear Translation of the Greek Scriptures'') and a Bible dictionary (''[[Aid to Bible Understanding]]'').<ref>In 1988, this was replaced by the two-volume set ''Insight on the Scriptures''.</ref> The offices of elder and ministerial servant were restored to Witness congregations in 1972, with appointments being made from headquarters.<ref>{{cite book|title=Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom|publisher=Watchtower|pages=106|year=1993}}</ref> Membership rose from 115,000 to over 2 million under Knorr's presidency. During the 1960s<ref>The year 1975 was first mentioned in 1966. See {{cite journal|title=How Much Longer Will It Be?|journal=''Awake!''|year=1966|month=October 8|pages=17–20|doi=10.1213/01.ane.0000250913.45299.f3|author=Sniecinski, Roman M.|volume=104}}</ref> and early 1970s, various references were made in Witnesses' literature and at assemblies, implying that Christ's thousand-year millennial reign might begin by 1975.<ref>See [http://www.escapefromwatchtower.com/1975franz.html 1975: 'THE APPROPRIATE TIME FOR GOD TO ACT']. Page 14 of the October 8, 1968 ''Awake!'' demonstrates the disclaimer that was made at the time: "Does this mean that the above evidence positively points to 1975 as the complete end of this system of things? Since the Bible does not specifically state this, no man can say...If the 1970s should see intervention by Jehovah God to bring an end to a corrupt world drifting toward ultimate disintegration, that should surely not surprise us."</ref> The chronology pointing to 1975 was noted in the secular media at the time.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Witnessing the End|year=1969|month=July 18|journal=Time|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,901074–1,00.html|accessdate=2006-09-12}}</ref> From 1975 to 1980, there was a drop in membership following an uneventful 1975.<ref>{{cite book|title=Crisis of Conscience|author=Raymond Franz|chapter=1975—The Appropriate Time for God to Act|pages=237–253|url=http://web.archive.org/web/20031209184316/http://users.volja.net/izobcenec4/coc/9.pdf|accessdate=2006-07-27|format=PDF}}This drop in membership has been variously analyzed. Richard Singelenberg ([http://www.watchtowerinformationservice.org/index.php/dates/the-1975-prophecy-and-its-impact-among-dutch-jehovahs-witnesses/ “The ‘1975'-prophecy and its impact among Dutch Jehovah’s Witnesses”]) in ''Sociological Analysis'' 50(1)1989, pp 23–40 notes a nine per cent drop in total publishers (door-to-door preachers) and a 38 per cent drop in pioneers (full-time preachers) in the Netherlands. Stark and Iannoccone have analyzed the impact on US Witnesses. {{cite journal|title=The Journal of Contemporary Religion|article=Why the Jehovah's Witnesses Grow So Rapidly: A Theoretical Application|url=http://www.geocities.com/rogueactivex/JWGrow-O.pdf|year=1997|pages=142–143|format=PDF}} The January 30, 1982 ''Los Angeles Times'' ("Defectors Feel 'Witness' Wrath: Critics say Baptism Rise Gives False Picture of Growth" by John Dart, p. B4) cited statistics showing a net increase of publishers worldwide from 1971–1981 of 737,241, while baptisms totaled 1.71 million for the same period.</ref> In 1980, the Watchtower Society admitted its responsibility in building up hope regarding the year 1975.<ref>The Watchtower, 15 March, 1980, p.17 "With the appearance of the book ''Life Everlasting—in Freedom of the Sons of God'', ... considerable expectation was aroused regarding the year 1975. ... there were other statements published that implied that such realization of hopes by that year was more of a probability than a mere possibility. It is to be regretted that these latter statements apparently overshadowed the cautionary ones and contributed to a buildup of the expectation already initiated. ... ''persons having to do with the publication of the information'' ... contributed to the buildup of hopes centered on that date."</ref> In 1976, the leadership of Jehovah's Witnesses was reorganized, and the power of the presidency passed on to the [[Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses]] of the Watch Tower Society. After Knorr's death in 1977, the presidents have been [[Frederick William Franz]], [[Milton George Henschel]] and [[Don A. Adams]]. However, since 1976, doctrinal and organizational decisions have been made by the Governing Body and they supervise the writing of Watchtower publications.<ref>''1977 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses'', p. 258</ref> Witnesses no longer teach that the timing of [[Armageddon]] is tied to the literal generation of people alive in 1914,<ref>Watchtower 6/1/97 p. 28 "God’s servants in modern times have tried to derive from what Jesus said about “generation” some clear time element calculated from 1914. For instance, one line of reasoning has been that a generation can be 70 or 80 years, made up of people old enough to grasp the significance of the first world war and other developments; thus we can calculate more or less how near the end is.…So the recent information in The Watchtower about “this generation” did not change our understanding of what occurred in 1914. But it did give us a clearer grasp of Jesus’ use of the term “generation,” helping us to see that his usage was no basis for calculating—counting from 1914—how close to the end we are."</ref><ref>"A Time To Keep Awake", ''The Watchtower'' (November 1, 1995), p. 19 par. 12, and p. 20 par. 15.</ref> but are told not to lose confidence in "the nearness of Jehovah's day of judgment".<ref>"Jesus was concerned that his followers too could become distracted by Satan's world, even to the point that they might 'return to the things behind.' (Luke 17:22, 31) And, indeed, this has happened to some Christians. For years such ones longed for the day when Jehovah will put an end to this wicked world. However, when Armageddon did not occur by the time they expected, they became disheartened. Their confidence in the nearness of Jehovah's day of judgment faded. They slowed down in the ministry and gradually became so involved in the mundane matters of life that little time was left for spiritual matters. (Luke 8:11, 13, 14) In time, they `returned to the things behind'--how sad!" {{cite journal|title=Watchtower|date=[[December 15]], [[2006]]|pages=25–29}}</ref> == Demographics == [[Image:JWStats.png|right|thumb|350px|Average Publishers, 1945–2005]] {{main|Demographics of Jehovah's Witnesses}} Jehovah's Witnesses have an active presence in most countries, though they do not form a large part of the population of any country. [[Brazil]], [[Mexico]], and the [[United States]] are the only countries where the number of active Witness publishers exceeds half a million. As of February 2008, Jehovah's Witnesses have an average of 6.8 million members actively involved in preaching.<ref>To be counted, an individual must be approved as a minister and report at least 15 minutes in the ministry. In 2007, these reports indicated a total of over 1.3 billion hours.</ref> Since the mid-1990s, the number of peak publishers has increased from 4.5 million to 7.0 million.<ref>Yearbooks of Jehovah's Witnesses, 1996–2008.</ref> However, there has been a decline in growth rates, from over 8% per annum in the mid 1970s, to 5% per annum in the mid 1990s, to about 2%&ndash;3% per annum since 1999.<ref>[http://jwfacts.com/index_files/statistics.htm Facts about truth and Jehovah's Witnesses<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Growth rates and activity reports tend to show significant geographical variation.<ref>[http://www.sektes.info/stats-e.htm Statistics<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The official published membership statistics only include those who have reported preaching activity. 'Inactive' and disfellowshipped members, and any who have either not been involved in preaching or have not submitted reports, are not included in the reported figures but may be reflected in the attendance at the Witnesses' annual Memorial, with over 17 million attending in 2007.<ref>If Witnesses counted members like other churches, the number of members (1995 data) would then be over 15 million. (See study by Rodney Stark on Jehovah's Witness growth at http://www.geocities.com/rogueactivex/JWGrow-O.pdf and article comparing Mormon and other churches' growth, including the Witnesses, at http://www.sltrib.com/ci_2890645).</ref><!--the first cited website indicates 13 million for 1995 data--> ==Organizational structure== {{main|Organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses}} Jehovah's Witnesses are led by a [[Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses|Governing Body]] located at the [[Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania|Watchtower]] headquarters. The Watchtower Society was incorporated as Zion’s Watch Tower Tract Society in 1884. Its directors served as the central Governing Body overseeing their preaching work.<ref>[[The Watchtower]], February 1, 1999, p. 17</ref> This initial Governing Body was composed of five men and two women.<ref>Zion’s Watch Tower, Extra Edition April 25, 1894 p. 56, Charles T. Russell, Henry Weber, Maria F. Russell, W. C. McMillan, J. B. Adamson, Simon O. Blunden, Rose Ball.</ref> As of 1971 the Governing Body consisted of the [[Board of Directors]] of the [[Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania]], a body of seven men, and the agenda of the Governing Body was set by the President of the Watch Tower Society, who was also a member. The Governing Body was enlarged by [[Nathan H. Knorr]] to include other members of the Society in 1971, and its membership rose to eleven men. In that year, the chairmanship of the group began to rotate annually.<ref>{{cite book|title=Jehovah's Witnesses – Proclaimers of God's Kingdom|author=Watchtower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania|publisher=Watchtower Bible and Tract Society of New York|date=1993|pages=233, 234}}</ref> The number of men who make up the Governing Body has ranged from nine to seventeen and now stands at nine. The Governing Body, through the departments of its various legal organizations, directs the operation of the 112 branches throughout the world.<ref>{{cite web| author=Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society |year=2005| title=Membership and Publishing Statistics | url=http://www.jw-media.org/people/statistics.htm| work=Authorized Site of the Office of Public Information of Jehovah's Witnesses | accessmonthday=4 December | accessyear=2005}}</ref> Members volunteer to operate these facilities. Each branch assigns circuit overseers who travel among various congregations, spending a week with each. Within each local congregation, elders assigned by the branch organize the congregation's public ministry and schedule various speakers for congregational teaching. They also decide on qualified members of the congregation for the positions of elder or ministerial servant, requiring the approval of higher leadership. Elders are prominent in congregational matters, particularly in religious instruction and spiritual counseling. Ministerial servants generally assist elders in a limited administrative capacity. Both roles are unpaid, but circuit and district overseers receive a small financial living allowance. All baptized Witnesses consider themselves to be ordained ministers, and are expected to be able to provide religious instruction to others. Males are encouraged to qualify for responsibilities in the congregation and to work towards becoming ministerial servants or elders. Within local congregations the role of women is minimal in terms of responsibility. They cannot serve as elders or ministerial servants, though they carry out a large proportion of the preaching work, including missionary work, pioneering, and helping others in the congregation to become more regular in preaching. The [[legal instruments of Jehovah's Witnesses]] include corporations that represent the religion in legal matters. Most well known is the [[Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania]]. In 2000, three new [[non-profit]] corporations were organized: '''[[Christian Congregation of Jehovah's Witnesses]], Inc.''' coordinates all service (i.e., preaching) activities, including door-to-door preaching, circuit and district conventions, etc. '''Religious Order of Jehovah's Witnesses, Inc.''' coordinates the activities of those involved in full-time service, including pioneers, missionaries, and circuit and district overseers. '''Kingdom Support Services, Inc.''' controls construction of new Kingdom Halls and other facilities and holds the titles to Society-owned vehicles. ==Publications== {{main|List of Jehovah's Witnesses Publications}} The publishing arm of Jehovah's Witnesses, known as the [[Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania]] engages in extensive publication work. In addition to their two magazines—'The Watchtower' and 'Awake!', each having tens of millions of monthly copies printed—they also publish many brochures, tracts, books, Bible maps, and encyclopedias including the ''New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures''. * ''[[The Watchtower]]'' has been published continuously since 1879. Until 2007, ''The Watchtower'' was published twice a month, on the 1st and a 15th of each month. From 2008 onward, a Study Edition typically including five articles for use at the Watchtower Study, is published on the 15th of each month; a separate edition for use in the public ministry is published on the 1st of each month. It is published in 167 languages. * ''[[Awake!]]'', a general interest magazine, has a wider scope than the ''Watchtower'', publishing articles on science, nature, and geography, usually with a religious slant. Earlier titles for this magazine were ''The Golden Age'' (1919–1937) and ''Consolation'' (1937–1946). Until 2005, ''Awake!'' was published on the 8th and 22nd of each month; from 2006 onwards, one issue is published each month. It is available in 81 languages. * ''[[New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures]]'' is a translation of the Bible by the New World Bible Translation Committee, last revised in 1984 in English. It extensively uses the name Jehovah, an English version of the Hebrew [[Tetragrammaton]], also replacing the Greek word for "Lord" some 237 times in the New Testament. It is available in 71 languages. The translators have opted to remain anonymous but others have identified them as being prominent leaders of the movement.<ref>(2004) Crisis of Conscience, 4th, Commentary Press, 56. 0–914675–23–0. {{cite book|title=Visions of Glory|author=Harrison|url=http://www.exjws.net/vg.htm|pages=231}}</ref> * ''What Does the Bible Really Teach?'' (2005) The official textbook used to conduct Bible studies with non-Witnesses.<ref>"Our Kingdom Ministry 1/06 p. 1 "The Bible Teach Book—Our Primary Bible Study Aid" … "publishers are encouraged to begin using it immediately to start and conduct Bible studies."</ref> * ''Live With Jehovah's Day in Mind'' (2007) A book specifically focused on Jehovah's Witnesses how to cope living in the Last Days. To be studyed in their Bookstudy from August onwards. * ''Keep Yourselves in God's Love'' (2008) Companion volume to ''What Does the Bible Really Teach?'' to be studied with new converts. Jehovah's Witnesses developed the capability to print Bible literature in multiple languages, and in extremely large volumes, in their own facilities. They currently print all publications at eight branch offices located around the world.<ref>1)United States of America, (for United States of America, Alaska, Hawaii, and Canada), 2)Mexico (for Mexico and Central America Countries), 3)Brazil (for Brazil and South America Countries), 4)Germany (for Germany, West Europe Countries, North Europe Countries, South Europe Countries, East Europe Countries, Greenland, Iceland, Indonesia (for Arabic, Dutch, German, Russia, and Spanish) and former Soviet Union Countries), 5)Britain (for United Kingdom, Northern Ireland, Ireland, and Middle East Countries), 6)South Africa (for South Africa and African Countries), 7)Japan (for Japan, East Asia Countries, West Asia Countries, South Asia Countries, and South East Asia Countries), and 8)Australia (for Australia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, New Caledonia, Indonesia (for French), Pacific Countries, Pacific Islands, and Pacific Territory).</ref> Since [[1 January]] [[2000]] all publications are offered free of charge world-wide. == Controversy == {{main|Controversies regarding Jehovah's Witnesses}} Witnesses teach that after the death of the last apostle, the Church gradually diverged, in a [[Great Apostasy]] (2 Thessalonians 2:6&ndash;12), from the original teachings of Jesus on several major points. Thus most of the doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses differ from those of mainstream Christianity, and are considered [[heresy]] by most mainstream Christian scholars. Possibly the most controversial doctrinal differences relate to the nature of God and of Jesus, particularly the Jehovah's Witnesses' rejection of the [[Trinity]]. In contrast with Trinitarian doctrine, they believe that Jesus was not God in a human body, but rather that he was God's firstborn (created) Son created before all other creation. The beliefs of Jehovah's Witnesses about [[hell]], the immortality of the soul, the [[Second Coming|return of Jesus]] to the earth, and salvation are also controversial. Some scholars have criticized the [[New World Translation]], the translation of the Bible published by Jehovah's Witnesses, stating that the group has changed the Bible to suit their doctrine and that the translation contains a number of errors and inaccuracies.<ref>Robert M. Bowman Jr, ''Understanding Jehovah's Witnesses'', (Grand Rapids MI: Baker Book House, 1992); Samuel Hass: "While this work indicates a great deal of effort and thought, it is to be regretted that religious bias was allowed to colour many passages." (''Journal of Biblical Literature'', December 1955, p. 283).</ref> The Society publishes an interlinear edition of the New World Translation, the Kingdom Interlinear Translation of the Christian Greek Scriptures, which provides the actual Greek text used in translation (Westcott & Hort), a word-for-word literal English translation underneath, and the New World Translation alongside, enabling the reader to consider such charges directly regarding the New Testament. A number of books have been published that are critical of the Watchtower Bible & Tract Society.<ref>e.g., Watters, Randall (2004) Thus Saith Jehovah's Witnesses, Common Sense Publications; Gruss, Edmond (2001) Jehovah's Witnesses: Their Claims, Doctrinal Changes, and Prophetic Speculation. What Does the Record Show?, Xulon Press; Reed, David A. (1990) Index of Watchtower Errors, 1879 to 1989, Baker Books</ref> Critics state that the Watchtower Society has made a number of unfulfilled predictions and doctrinal changes over the years, while claiming that it is the "one and only channel"<ref>''Watchtower'', April 1, 1919; see also ''Watchtower'', May 15, 1933, pp. 154–155; July 15, 1960, pp. 438–439; ''Our Kingdom Ministry'', September 2002, p. 8</ref> used by God to continually dispense truth. [[Raymond Franz]], a former member of the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses, has challenged the Witnesses' policies on blood transfusions, stating that their requirements are inconsistent and contradictory.<ref>Franz, Raymond. "In Search of Christian Freedom" [http://www.commentarypress.net/cpn-essays/English/4C648686–695D-48C7-ACA8-A52794ED6128_files/Search-Eng-Chap%209.2006.pdf Chapter Nine]. Atlanta: Commentary Press, 1991. ISBN 0–914675–16–8. p. 732.</ref> However, to Witnesses blood as the fluid ''per se'' is not the real issue, it is what it represents. They say that "the important thing is that respect has been shown for the sanctity of blood, regard has been shown for the principle of the sacredness of life" represented by the blood.<ref>''The Watchtower'' [[November 1]], [[1961]] p. 669 Questions From Readers</ref><ref>''What Does The Bible Really Teach?'' 2005 P.128</ref> When the blood has been drained from an animal, the '''respect''' has been shown to God and then a person may eat the meat even though it may contain minute traces of blood. Critics have also argued that various Witness policies and practices—including the treatment of members who dissociate themselves or who have been disfellowshipped by the congregation—limit the ability of members to exercise personal freedom. Witnesses do this to punish individuals who know the truth about sinning and willfully sins. It's like discipline, it's done to make that individual that willfully sin think about his action and understand the serverity in it. Jehovah Witnesses believe in keeping their organization clean so someone sinning and going out into the world claiming to be a witnesses will get disfellowship.<ref>Bowen, W. 2007 "Jehovah’s Witnesses Lose Court Battle to Suppress Freedom of Speech". ICSA E-Newsletter, Vol. 6, No. 2, 2007</ref><ref>Alter, S. 2007 "Jehovah's Witnesses: Disfellowshipping And Shunning" Cult Awareness and Information Centre [http://www.culthelp.info/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=289&Itemid=8]</ref> Witnesses teach that "freedom to make decisions [is] to be exercised within the boundaries of God’s laws and principles."<ref>''Worship the Only True God'' chap. 5 p. 43 par. 4 Freedom Enjoyed by Worshipers of Jehovah</ref> And that “only Jehovah [is] free to set the standard of what is good and bad.”<ref>[[The Watchtower]], A Free People but Accountable, June 1, 1992 p. 11 par. 7</ref> However, the leadership promotes itself as the channel God uses to interpret the scriptures, and it instructs members about "what is good and bad."<ref>''The Watchtower'' [[September 1]], [[1991]] "Jehovah and Christ – Foremost Communicators" p. 18 par.15</ref> Some countries such as [[Uzbekistan]], [[Belarus]], and the city of [[Moscow]] have opposed the building of facilities (such as [[Kingdom Hall]]s) and the holding of large conventions in their territory. Though such opposition is at times specifically directed at the religious group, at other times more mundane concerns are involved, such as traffic congestion and noise. In some legal cases, such as ''Congrégation des témoins de Jéhovah de St-Jérôme-Lafontaine v. Lafontaine (Village)'', disputes that have apparently been about appropriate land use have come out of religious bias, according to Jehovah's Witnesses' claims. == See also == * [[Bloodless surgery]] * [[Bible Student movement]] * [[Jehovah's Witnesses splinter groups]] * [[Religious rejection of politics]] * [[Restorationism]] * [[Supreme Court cases involving Jehovah's Witnesses]] * [[The Holocaust]] ==References== {{reflist}}<!-- Please don't use multi-column format; it's an undreadable mess at screen resolutions less than XVGA --> ==Further reading== ===Books=== <!-- Please discuss any books you wish to add to this list on this article's talk page before adding them. To avoid spam, link creep, and keep the resources in this section of high quality, we want to discuss any external resource inclusion before it is added. Thank you! --> * ''Jehovah's Witnesses: Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement'' by Andrew Holden. An academic study on the sociological aspects of Jehovah's Witnesses phenomenon. Publisher: Routledge; 1st edition 2002, ISBN 978–0415266109. 224 pages. * ''Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom'' (1993) by [[Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania]]. Official history of the development of the beliefs, practices, and organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses. 750 pages. * ''A People for His Name: A History of Jehovah's Witnesses and an Evaluation'' by Tony Wills, (2006) 2nd edition. (The first edition was published under the pseudonym Timothy White.) He explores the Witnesses' doctrinal growth and shifts and notes schisms from the main body. 300 pages. ISBN 978–1-4303–0100–4 [http://books.google.com/books?id=iTt2EphfPr8C&printsec=frontcover Selections from Google Books] * ''[[What Does the Bible Really Teach?]]'' Published by Jehovah's Witnesses * ''[[Controversies regarding Jehovah's Witnesses#Books Critical of Jehovah's Witnesses]] * ''[[I Was A Teenage Jehovah's Witness]] Published by Moon Temple Press ==External links== {{Commons|Category:Jehovah's Witnesses|Jehovah's Witnesses}} <!-- Please discuss any links you wish to add to this list on this article's talk page before adding them. To avoid spam, link creep, and keep the resources in this section of high quality, we want to discuss any external resource inclusion before it is added. Thank you! --> ===Official sites=== * [http://www.jw.org/ The Worldwide Association of Jehovah's Witnesses] * [http://www.watchtower.org Jehovah's Witnesses: Watchtower Society Official Web Site] * [http://www.jw-media.org Authorized Site of the Office of Public Information of Jehovah's Witnesses] ===Other sites=== <!-- Please discuss any books you wish to add to this list on this article's talk page before adding them. To avoid spam, link creep, and keep the resources in this section of high quality, we want to discuss any external resource inclusion before it is added. Thank you! --> *[http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/witnesses/ BBC Religion: Jehovah's Witnesses] *[http://www.jwforum.net World Good News for Happy People] *[http://www.jehovah.to/ Jehovah's Witnesses United]—A collection of scholarly information supporting the Watchtower Bible & Tract Society's teachings and the New World Translation. *[http://www.knocking.org/ 'Knocking'] &ndash; an independently made documentary about Jehovah's Witnesses. [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Oj4cS4n9ZkA Sample Trailer] *[http://www.strictlygenteel.co.uk/index.html Strictly Genteel Theocratic Resources]—Scans of complete books and booklets from Russell's era to Knorr's. The "site is maintained by one of Jehovah's Witnesses who fully supports the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society." Emphasis is on literature not found in the Watchtower Library CD-ROM. *[http://www.tookyware.com/wordlists/e/eec/www/index.html Theocratese Glossary] &ndash; Glossary of terms used by Jehovah's Witnesses *[http://www.adherents.com/largecom/com_jw.html Interesting Jehovah's Witness Statistics] A site providing statistical data. *[http://jehovah-shammah.wikidot.com/ Jehovah's Witnesses Worldwide Building Directory] [[Category:Antitrinitarianism]] [[Category:Jehovah's Witnesses| ]] [[Category:Premillennialism]] [[Category:Restorationism]] {{Link FA|fi}} [[af:Jehovasgetuies]] [[ar:شهود يهوه]] [[ast:Testigos de Xehová]] [[ay:Jehová Diosan Qhanañchirinakapaxa]] [[zh-min-nan:Iâ-hô-hoa Kiàn-chèng-jîn]] [[bi:Ol Wetnes Blong Jeova]] [[bs:Jehovini svjedoci]] [[bg:Свидетелите на Йехова]] [[ca:Testimonis de Jehovà]] [[ceb:Saksi ni Jehova]] [[cs:Svědkové Jehovovi]] [[da:Jehovas Vidner]] [[pdc:Jehovah's Witness]] [[de:Zeugen Jehovas]] [[et:Jehoova tunnistajad]] [[el:Μάρτυρες του Ιεχωβά]] [[es:Testigos de Jehová]] [[eo:Atestantoj de Jehovo]] [[eu:Jehobaren Lekukoak]] [[fo:Jehova Vitni]] [[fr:Témoins de Jéhovah]] [[fur:Testemonis di Jeova]] [[ko:여호와의 증인]] [[hr:Jehovini svjedoci]] [[id:Saksi-Saksi Yehuwa]] [[ia:Testes de Jehovah]] [[is:Vottar Jehóva]] [[it:Testimoni di Geova]] [[he:עדי יהוה]] [[kw:Dustunyoryon Yehovah]] [[kg:Bambangi ya Yehowa]] [[ku:Şahidên Yahowa]] [[la:Testes Iehovah]] [[lv:Jehovas liecinieki]] [[lt:Jehovos liudytojai]] [[hu:Jehova Tanúi]] [[mk:Јеховини сведоци]] [[ml:യഹോവ സാക്ഷികള്‍]] [[mi:Nga Kaiwhakaatu o Ihowa]] [[ms:Saksi-Saksi Yehuwa]] [[nah:Tlāchixqueh Xehova]] [[nl:Jehova's getuigen]] [[ja:エホバの証人]] [[no:Jehovas vitner]] [[nn:Jehovas vitne]] [[pl:Świadkowie Jehowy]] [[pt:Testemunhas de Jeová]] [[ro:Organizaţia Religioasă Martorii lui Iehova]] [[ru:Свидетели Иеговы]] [[tn:Basupi ba ga Jehova]] [[simple:Jehovah's Witnesses]] [[sk:Svedkovia Jehovovi]] [[sl:Jehovove priče]] [[sr:Јеховини сведоци]] [[sh:Jehovini svjedoci]] [[fi:Jehovan todistajat]] [[sv:Jehovas vittnen]] [[vi:Nhân Chứng Giê-hô-va]] [[tr:Yehova'nın Şahitleri]] [[uk:Свідки Єгови]] [[zh:耶和華見證人]]