Killer ape theory
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The '''killer ape theory''' or '''killer ape hypothesis''' is the theory that [[war]] and interpersonal [[aggression]] was the driving force behind [[human evolution]]. It was originated by [[Raymond Dart]] in the 1950s; it was later notably developed by [[Robert Ardrey]] in his book ''[[African Genesis]]'' (1961).
According to the killer ape theory, the ancestors of humans were distinguished from other [[primate]] species by their greater aggressiveness. Furthermore, according to the theory, this aggression remains within humanity, which retains many [[murder]]ous instincts.
The theory gained notoriety for suggesting that the urge to do [[violence]] was a fundamental part of human [[psychology]], but is not widely accepted among [[anthropologist]]s today.{{Fact|date=May 2007}}
==Definition==
The expression ''killer ape'' does not mean an outstanding aggressive kind of ape, in fact the term is about the anthropological analysis of human aggression.
It is scrutinized whether present-day behavior like e.g. the defense of one’s own piece of land, palpability or even murder base on ancestors of humankind. Accordingly, the killer ape is a notably belligerent species on which our instincts might be rooted, because this very ape could establish itself due to his special aggression.
As founder of this thesis, [[Raymond Dart|Raymond A. Dart]] (1893-1988) dealt with this issue in his professional article “The predatory transition from ape to man”, 1953.
==The predatory transition from ape to man==
===The step from ape to man===
[[Raymond Dart|Dart]] refers to the Australian anatomist [[Grafton Elliot Smith]] (1871-1937), a specialist concerning anthropology.
The question is what exactly could cause the evolutionary step from ape to man. Basically, there are three different versions: the increase of the brains’ size, the acquirement of speech or the upright motion. [[Grafton Elliot Smith|Smith]] excludes this last option; otherwise the traditional erect gibbon would be a possible ancestor of mankind. For him, the relevant point was the bigger brain. It would have made the bipedal movement possible and would have accelerated the enlargement through common use of its hands, which are no more needed to walk.
Until [[Raymond Dart]] found the [[Australopithecus africanus]] (1925a), this controversial problem could not be solved.
===The "Taung Child"===
This about 2.5 million year old cranial bone, also known as “[[Taung Child]]”, was a first proof of bipedal apes. [[Robert Broom]] (1866-1951), primarily a Scottish physician, who spent his life as an archeologist in Australia since 1892, agreed to this statement, too. Five years later he decided to spend the rest of his life in South Africa. His excavations from 1946 pointed into the same direction, when he also discovered bones from the [[Australopithecus africanus]].
However, further examinations showed that, in these cases, the size of the brain was not to be equated with the evolution’s level. In fact, it is much more popular to connect the accomplishment of more and more complex movements directly with an evolutionary response, which caused the brain to grow.
Both [[Raymond Dart|Dart]] and [[Robert Broom|Broom]], as well as [[Charles Darwin]] (1809-1882), agreed that this new type of locomotion brought a remarkable advantage in comparison to other co specifics, to rivalling animals or to the quarry.
===The findings of Makapan===
Osseous findings at a limestone cave located in Makapan, South-Africa, led to the question to what extent this advantage, in combination with a more and more improved skill using tools, affected the behavior of the apes.
These findings showed explicit cracks and fractures, which are likely to be done on purpose. Additionally, there were clubs, bludgeons and spears formed by the long limb bones or the horns of antelopes. This new special weapon leaves small punctured, round and triangular holes in skulls, depending on how it was formed.
This new development in building weapons shows a clear increase concerning the aggression of the animals.
===The "proto-men"===
[[Raymond Dart|Dart]] carries that issue to extremes and equips this new type of ‘carnivorous and killing’ apes (“[[proto-men]]” in his own words) with weapons. Furthermore he describes them as organized in a pride, so they were able to hunt bigger animals. The ability of making fire and remarkable social skills prompt [[Raymond Dart|Dart]] to bring them more in line with humans.
Observations from Sgt. H. B. Potter (Zululand, South Africa) show, that this kind of development is still up to date as it is mentioned in “The predatory transition from ape to man” by [[Raymond Dart]]. He describes a pride of baboons that hunts antelopes. Indeed, he admits that this depends on seasonal circumstances, because nutrition was rare. Nevertheless, he proves explicit behavior.
===The eating habits===
Concerning the eating habits from then until now, [[Raymond Dart|Dart]] argues that there has always been an ambition to eating meat: grubs and insects, bigger mammals and even human flesh (i.e. distinctive [[cannibalism]]) are the results.
A so called deficit from “animal proteins” has to be compensated, so consuming meat is essential to survive.
==Reception==
The comment written by the editor of [[Raymond Dart|Dart’s]] article Dr. Alan H. Kelso shows how few scientists accepted the new ideas of [[Raymond Dart|Dart]] and [[Robert Ardrey|Ardrey]]. Not only Dart required long time to publish his work, but also the epilogue contains notices like: “Professor Dart’s thesis that the South African apemen, at the stage they were found, were omnivorous, must be considered as proven. Of course, they were only the ancestors of the modern Bushmen and Negroes, and of ''nobody else''.”
Another obvious evidence would be the rejection of [[Raymond Dart|Dart’s]] thesis by a scientific convention at [[Livingstone]] ([[Zambia]], South-Africa), what led [[Robert Ardrey|Ardrey]] into writing his book “African Genesis”. He felt himself forced to defend the opinion of his mentor.
Just as well, the ethologist [[Konrad Lorenz]] showed interest before and brought out his book “[[On Aggression]]” (1963). In his introduction he describes rivalling butterfly fish, which defend their territory that leads over to the question, if humans, too, tend to intraspecific behavior.
The "Declaration of Seville", released under US auspices in 1986, stated that while patterns of human aggression may be inherited, [[warfare]] need not be a necessary consequence.
==References in fiction==
Movies like ''[[Planet of the Apes (1968 film)|Planet of the Apes]]'' (1968) show that this issue affected common people, too. In fact, it’s based on [[Pierre Boulle]]’s novel of the same title, but the content is almost similar to the topic.
This theory can be seen in the opening sequence of ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]'', and also appears in the television show ''[[Sliders]]'', which made extensive use of the killer ape theory in arcs involving the Kro-Maggs.
==See also==
*''[[Homo necans]]''
*''[[On Aggression]]''
*''[[Demonic males]]''
* [[Hunting hypothesis]]
==External links==
* [http://www.aliciapatterson.org/APF001973/Rensberger/Rensberger08/Rensberger08.html "The Killer Ape Is Dead"]
* [http://www.users.muohio.edu/erlichrd/vms_site/afric.htm Excerpts from ''African Genesis'' by Robert Ardrey]
[[Category:Anthropology]]
[[Category:Human evolution]]