Krakatoa 17276 225670139 2008-07-14T20:44:17Z 63.236.116.94 /* Cataclysmic stage */ {{about|the volcano|other uses|Krakatoa (disambiguation)}} {{Refimprove|date=October 2007}} {{Infobox Mountain | Name=Krakatoa<br>''Krakatau'' (native name) | Photo=krakatoa 01.JPG | Caption=An early 19th century illustration of Krakatoa | Elevation=813 m (2,667 ft) | Location=[[Sunda Strait]], [[Indonesia]] | Prominence = | Coordinates = {{coord|6|6|27|S|105|25|3|E|type:mountain|display=inline,title}} | Topographic map = | Type=[[Stratovolcano]] | Age= | Last eruption=2008<ref name="smithsonian">{{VNUM | 1=0602-00= | 2=Krakatau }}</ref> | First ascent= | Easiest route= }} '''Krakatoa''' ([[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]: ''Krakatau''), also spelled '''Krakatao''' or '''Krakatowa''', is a [[volcanic island]] in the [[Sunda Strait]] between [[Java (island)|Java]] and [[Sumatra]] in [[Indonesia]]. The name is used for the island group, the main [[island]] (also called [[Rakata]]), and the [[volcano]] as a whole. It has erupted repeatedly, massively, and with disastrous consequences throughout recorded history. The best known eruption culminated in a series of massive explosions on August 26 - 27, 1883, which was among the most violent volcanic events in modern times. With a [[Volcanic Explosivity Index]] of 6, it was equivalent to 200 [[megaton]]s of [[Trinitrotoluene|TNT]] &mdash; about 13,000 times the yield of the [[Little Boy]] bomb (13 to 16 KT) that devastated [[Hiroshima, Japan]]. The 1883 eruption ejected more than 25 cubic kilometres of rock, ash, and [[pumice]],<ref name="scholastic">[http://teacher.scholastic.com/activities/wwatch/volcanoes/witnesses.htm The Volcano That Shook the world: Krakatoa 1883]Deborah Hopkinson. Storyworks. New York: Jan 2004. Vol. 11, Iss. 4; pg. 8 from Scholastic.com </ref> and generated the loudest sound historically reported: the cataclysmic explosion was distinctly heard as far away as [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]] in [[Australia]] approx. {{convert|1930|mi|km|-1}}, and the island of [[Rodrigues (island)|Rodrigues]] near [[Mauritius]] approx. {{convert|3000|mi|km|-3}}. Near Krakatoa, according to official records, 165 villages and towns were destroyed and 132 seriously damaged, at least 36,417 (official toll) people died, and many thousands were injured by the eruption, mostly from the [[tsunami]]s that followed the explosion. The eruption destroyed two-thirds of the island of Krakatoa. Eruptions at the volcano since 1927 have built a new island in the same location, called '''Anak Krakatau''' (child of Krakatoa).<ref name="smithsonian">{{VNUM | 1=0602-00= | 2=Krakatau }}</ref>This island has a radius of roughly 2 kilometers and a high point around 200 meters above sea level. The original island of Krakatoa had a high point at an estimated 2000 meters above sea level and had a radius of 9 kilometers. ==Origin and spelling of the name== [[Image:Indonesia, Sunda Straits.jpg|thumb|right|The [[volcanic]] activity of Krakatau.]] The earliest mention of the island in the [[Western world]] was on a map by [[Lucas Janszoon Waghenaer]], who labelled the island "Pulo Carcata". ("Pulo" is a form of ''pulau'', the [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] word for "island".) There are two generally accepted spellings, ''Krakatoa'' and ''Krakatau''. While ''Krakatoa'' is more common in the English-speaking world, Krakat'''au''' (or Krakata'''o''' in an older Portuguese based spelling) tends to be favored by Indonesians and geologists. The origin of the spelling Krakat'''oa''' is unclear, but may have been the result of a typographical error made in a [[United Kingdom|British]] source reporting on the massive eruption of 1883. Theories as to the origin of the Indonesian name ''Krakatoa'' include: * [[Onomatopoeia]], imitating the noise made by [[cockatoo]]s which used to inhabit the island. * From [[Sanskrit]] ''karka'' or ''karkata'' or ''karkataka'', meaning "[[lobster]]" or "[[crab]]". * From [[Malay language|Malay]] ''kelakatu'', meaning "white-winged [[ant]]". There is a popular story that ''Krakatau'' was the result of a linguistic error. According to legend, "Krakatau" was adopted when a visiting ship's captain asked a local inhabitant the island's name, and the latter replied "''Ka ga tau''" (''Aku nggak tau'') &mdash; a [[Jakarta]]n/Betawinese slang phrase meaning "I don't know". This story is largely discounted; it closely resembles famous linguistic myths about the origin of the word [[kangaroo]] and the name of the [[Yucatán Peninsula]].{{Fact|date=June 2007}} The name is spelled ''Karata'' on a map drawn before 1708. {{Fact|date=February 2007}} ==Pre-1883 history== ===Geography=== [[Image:Sunda strait map v3.png|250px|right|thumb|The Sunda Strait]] Before the 1883 eruption, Krakatoa consisted of three main islands: '''[[Lang Island|Lang]]''' ('Long', now called Rakata Kecil or [[Panjang]]) and '''[[Verlaten]]''' ('Forsaken' or 'Deserted', now [[Sertung]]), which were edge remnants of a previous very large [[caldera]]-forming eruption; and '''Krakatoa''' itself, an island 9 km long by 5 km wide. Also there was a tree-covered islet near Lang named '''[[Poolsche Hoed]]''' ('Polish Hat', apparently because it looked like one from the sea), and several small rocks or banks between Krakatoa and Verlaten. There were three volcanic cones on Krakatoa at that time: [[Rakata]] (823 m) to the south, [[Danan]] (445 m), and [[Perboewatan]], now spelled Perbuatan, (122 m) to the north. (Danan may have been a [[twin volcano]]). Krakatoa is directly above the [[subduction zone]] of the [[Eurasian Plate]] and [[Indo-Australian Plate]], where the plate boundaries make a sharp change of direction, possibly resulting in an unusually weak crust in the region.{{Fact|date=March 2008}} ===416 AD event=== The [[Javanese language|Javanese]] ''[[Pararaton|Book of Kings]]'' (''Pustaka Raja'') records that in the year 338 [[Shalivahana era|Saka]] (416 AD) {{Cquote|A thundering sound was heard from the mountain Batuwara ... a similar noise from Kapi ... The whole world was greatly shaken and violent thundering, accompanied by heavy rain and storms took place, but not only did not this heavy rain extinguish the eruption of the fire of the mountain Kapi, but augmented the fire; the noise was fearful, at last the mountain Kapi with a tremendous roar burst into pieces and sank into the deepest of the earth. The water of the sea rose and inundated the land, the country to the east of the mountain Batuwara, to the mountain Raja Basa, was inundated by the sea; the inhabitants of the northern part of the Sunda country to the mountain Raja Basa were drowned and swept away with all property <ref>[http://webpages.charter.net/anthropogene/arc_vol1_is7.html webpages.charter.net]</ref> ... The water subsided but the land on which Kapi stood became sea, and Java and Sumatra were divided into two parts. }} There is no geological evidence of a Krakatoa eruption of this size around that time; it may describe loss of land which previously joined Java to Sumatra across what is now the narrow east end of the [[Sunda Strait]]; or it may be a mistaken date, referring to an [[eruption]] in 535 AD, also referred to in the Javanese [[Pararaton|Book of Kings]], and for which there is geological and some corroborating historical evidence.{{Fact|date=March 2008}} ===535 AD event=== [[David Keys (author)|David Keys]], Ken Wohletz, and others have postulated that the violent eruption of Krakatoa in 535 may have been responsible for the global [[climate changes of 535-536]].<ref>[http://www.ees1.lanl.gov/Wohletz/Krakatau.htm Wohletz KH, 2000, Were the Dark Ages triggered by volcano-related climate changes in the 6th century?] EOS Trans Amer Geophys Union 48(81), F1305.</ref> Keys explores what he believes to be the radical and far ranging global effects of just such a putative 6th century eruption in his book ''Catastrophe: An Investigation into the Origins of the Modern World''. Additionally, in recent times, it has been argued that it was this eruption which created the islands of Verlaten and Lang (remnants of the original) and the beginnings of [[Rakata]] &mdash; all indicators of early Krakatoa's [[caldera]]'s size. However, there seems to be little, if any, datable charcoal from that eruption, even if there is plenty of circumstantial evidence. ===1600s=== At least three Dutch travelers reported that Danan and Perboewatan were seen erupting in May 1680 and February 1681. ===Visit by HMS ''Discovery''=== In February 1780, the crews of [[HMS Resolution (Cook)|HMS ''Resolution'']] and [[HMS Discovery (1774)|HMS ''Discovery'']], on the way home after Captain [[James Cook]]'s death in [[Hawaii]], stopped for a few days on Krakatoa. They found two springs on the island, one fresh water and the other hot. They described the natives who then lived on the island as "friendly" and made several sketches. (In his journal, [[John Ledyard]] calls the island 'Cocoterra'.) ===Dutch activity=== In 1809, the Dutch established a [[penal colony]] at an unspecified location on the islands. It was in operation for about a decade. {{Fact|date=March 2008}} In 1880, [[Rogier Verbeek]] made an official survey of the islands and published a comprehensive report in 1884/5. This proved helpful in judging the geological and biological impact of the 1883 eruption. {{Fact|date=March 2008}} ==The 1883 eruption== <!-- Image with disputed fair use status removed: [[Image:Krakatoa_before_and_after.jpg|thumb|Krakatoa before and after the explosion]] --> ===Early eruptions=== In the years before the 1883 eruption, seismic activity around the volcano was intense, with some [[earthquake]]s felt as far distant as [[Australia]]. Beginning [[20 May]] [[1883]], three months before the final explosion, [[steam]] venting began to occur regularly from Perboewatan, the northernmost of the island's three cones. Eruptions of ash reached an altitude of 6 km (20,000 ft) and explosions could be heard in Batavia ([[Jakarta]]) 160 km (100 miles) away. Activity died down by the end of May. The volcano began erupting again around [[20 July]]. The seat of the eruption is believed to have been a new vent or vents which formed between Perboewatan and Danan, more or less where the current volcanic cone of Anak Krakatau is. The violence of the eruption caused tides in the vicinity to be unusually high, and ships at anchor had to be moored with chains as a result. On [[11 August]] larger eruptions began, with ashy plumes being emitted from at least eleven vents. On [[24 August]], eruptions further intensified. At about 1pm (local time) on [[26 August]], the volcano went into its [[Volcanic Explosivity Index#Classification|paroxysmal]] phase, and by 2pm observers could see a black cloud of ash 27 km (17 miles) high. At this point, the eruption was virtually continuous and explosions could be heard every ten minutes or so. Ships within 20 km (11 [[nautical mile]]s) of the volcano reported heavy ash fall, with pieces of hot [[pumice]] up to 10 cm in diameter landing on their decks. A small [[tsunami]] hit the shores of [[Java (island)|Java]] and [[Sumatra]] some 40 km (28 miles) away between 6pm and 7pm. ===Cataclysmic stage=== On [[August 27]], the volcano entered the final cataclysmic stage of its eruption. Four enormous explosions took place at 05:30 hrs, 06:42 hrs, 08:20 hrs, and 10:02 hrs, local time. The last explosion was the loudest. Each was accompanied by very large [[tsunami]]s, which are believed to have been over 30 meters (100 ft) high in places. A large area of the [[Sunda Strait]] and a number of places on the Sumatran coast were affected by [[pyroclastic flow]]s from the volcano. The explosions were so violent that they were heard 3,500 km (~2200 mi) away in [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]], [[Western Australia]] and the island of [[Rodrigues (island)|Rodrigues]] near [[Mauritius]], 4,800 km (~3000 mi) away; the sound of Krakatoa's destruction is the loudest sound in recorded history, reaching levels of 180 [[dBSPL]] 100 miles (160 km) away.<ref>[http://news.independent.co.uk/world/science_technology/article361665.ece The Independent, May 3 2006.]"How Krakatoa made the biggest bang."</ref>. The pressure wave from the final explosion was recorded on [[barograph]]s around the world, which continued to register it up to 5 days after the explosion. The recordings show that the shockwave from the final explosion reverberated around the globe 7 times in total. Ash was propelled to a height of 80 km. The eruptions diminished rapidly after that point, and by the morning of August 28 Krakatoa was quiet. ==="The Burning Ashes of Ketimbang"=== Around noon on [[August 27]], a rain of hot ash fell around Ketimbang in Sumatra. Around a thousand people were killed, the only large number of victims killed by Krakatoa itself, and not the waves or after-effects.<ref name="winchester">Winchester, ''Krakatoa: The Day the World Exploded: August 27, 1883,'' 2003.</ref> Verbeek and later writers believe this unique event was a lateral blast or [[pyroclastic flow]], similar to what happened in 1980 at [[Mt. St. Helens]], which crossed the water. The region of the ashfall ended to the northwest of Ketimbang, where the bulk of Sebesi Island offered protection from any horizontal surges. ===After eruptions=== [[Image:Krakatoa eruption.jpg|thumb|upright|Eruption in 1999]] Small eruptions continued through October, and were reported through February 1884 (although any after mid October were discounted by Verbeek). In the aftermath of the eruption, it was found that the island of Krakatoa had almost entirely disappeared, except for the southern half of Rakata cone cut off along a vertical cliff, leaving behind a 250-meter-deep [[caldera]]. ===Effects=== The combined effects of [[pyroclastic flows]], volcanic ashes and [[tsunami]]s had disastrous results in the region. There were no survivors from 3,000 people located at the island of [[Sebesi]], about 13 km from Krakatoa. Pyroclastic flows killed around 1,000 people at [[Ketimbang]] on the coast of Sumatra some 40 km north from Krakatoa. The official death toll recorded by the Dutch authorities was 36,417, although some sources put the estimate at 120,000 or more. Many settlements were destroyed, including [[Teluk Betung]] and Ketimbang in [[Sumatra]], and [[Sirik]] and [[Semarang]] in [[Java (island)|Java]]. The areas of [[Banten]] on [[Java (island)|Java]] and the [[Lampung]] on [[Sumatra]] were devastated. There are numerous documented reports of groups of human [[skeleton]]s floating across the [[Indian Ocean]] on rafts of volcanic [[pumice]] and washing up on the east coast of [[Africa]], up to a year after the eruption. Some land on Java was never repopulated; it reverted to [[jungle]] and is now the [[Ujung Kulon National Park]]. ====Tsunamis and distant effects==== Ships as far away as [[South Africa]] rocked as tsunamis hit them, and the bodies of victims were found floating in the ocean for weeks after the event. The tsunamis which accompanied the eruption are believed to have been caused by gigantic [[pyroclastic flow]]s entering the sea; each of the five great explosions was accompanied by a massive pyroclastic flow resulting from the gravitational collapse of the eruption column. This caused several cubic kilometers of material to enter the sea, displacing an equally huge volume of seawater. The town Merak was destroyed by a 46 metre-high tsunami. Some of the pyroclastic flows reached the Sumatran coast as much as 25 miles (40 km) away, having apparently moved across the water on a "cushion" of superheated steam. There are also indications of submarine pyroclastic flows reaching 10 miles (15 km) from the volcano. A recent documentary film showed tests made by a research team at [[Kiel University]], [[Germany]] of pyroclastic flows moving over water[http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=14575991]. The tests revealed that hot ash traveled over the water on a cloud of superheated steam, continuing to be a pyroclastic flow after crossing water; the heavy matter precipitated out of the flow shortly after initial contact with the water, creating a tsunami due to the precipitate mass. Smaller waves were recorded on tidal gauges as far away as the [[English Channel]].<ref name="press">{{cite journal | last = Press | first = Frank | title = Volcanoes, ice, and destructive waves | journal = Engineering and Science | volume = 20 | issue = 2 | date = November 1956 | pages = 26–30 | url = http://calteches.library.caltech.edu/170/01/press.pdf | format = PDF | accessdate = 2007-04-05 | quote = Fortunately, the tide gauges of 1883 were sufficiently well designed to provide fairly good records of the Krakatoa waves. Thus we have instrumental data for the Krakatoa sea waves from such widely separated places as Honolulu, San Francisco, Colon, South Georgia and English Channel ports. }}</ref> These occurred too soon to be remnants of the initial tsunamis, and may have been caused by concussive air waves from the eruption. These air waves circled the globe several times and were still detectable using [[barograph]]s five days later.<ref name="tsunamis">{{Citation | last=Pararas-Carayannis | first=George | year=2003 | title=Near and far-field effects of tsunamis generated by the paroxysmal eruptions, explosions, caldera collapses and massive slope failures of the Krakatau volcano in Indonesia on August 26-27, 1883 | periodical=Science of Tsunami Hazards | publisher=The Tsunami Society | volume=21 | issue=4 | pages=191–201 | url=http://library.lanl.gov/tsunami/ts214.pdf | issn=8755-6839 | accessdate=2007-12-29 }}</ref> ====Geographic effects==== As a result of the huge amount of material deposited by the volcano, the surrounding ocean floor was drastically altered. It is estimated that as much as 18-21 km³ of [[ignimbrite]] was deposited over an area of 1.1 million km², largely filling the 30-40 m deep basin around Krakatoa. The land masses of Verlaten and Lang were increased, and volcanic ash continues to be a significant part of the geological composition of these islands. [[Poolsche Hoed]] ("Polish Hat") disappeared. A new rock islet called Bootsmansrots ('[[Bosun]]'s Rock', a fragment of Danan) was left. Two nearby [[sandbank]]s (called Steers and Calmeyer after the two naval officers who investigated them) were built up into islands by ashfall, but the sea later washed them away. Seawater on hot volcanic deposits on Steers and Calmeyer caused steam which some people mistook for continued eruption. The fate of Krakatoa itself has been the subject of some dispute among geologists. It was originally proposed that the island had been blown apart by the force of the eruption. However, most of the material deposited by the volcano is clearly magmatic in origin and the caldera formed by the eruption is not extensively filled with deposits from the 1883 eruption. This indicates that the island subsided into an empty [[magma chamber]] at the end of the eruption sequence, rather than having been destroyed during the eruptions. ====Global climate==== In the year following the eruption, average global temperatures fell by as much as 1.2 degrees Celsius. Weather patterns continued to be chaotic for years, and temperatures did not return to normal until 1888. The eruption injected an unusually large amount of [[sulfur dioxide]] (SO<sub>2</sub>) gas high into the [[stratosphere]] which was subsequently transported by high-level winds all over the planet. This led to a global increase in [[sulfurous acid]] (H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>3</sub>) concentration in high-level [[cirrus cloud]]s. The resulting increase in cloud [[reflectivity]] (or [[albedo]]) would reflect more incoming light from the sun than usual, and cool the entire planet until the suspended [[sulfur]] fell to the ground as [[acid precipitation]].<ref>[http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Hazards/What/VolGas/SO2Aerosols.html volcanoes.usgs.gov]</ref> ====Global optical effects==== {{main|Noctilucent cloud}} [[Image:The Scream.jpg|right|thumb|upright|The dramatic skyline in [[Edvard Munch]]'s ''[[The Scream]]'' (1893) is thought to be based on the global optical effects caused by the eruption and seen over [[Oslofjord]], [[Norway]].]] The eruption darkened the sky for days afterwards, and produced spectacular sunsets throughout the world for many months. British artist [[William Ashcroft]] made thousands of colour sketches of the red sunsets half-way around the world from Krakatoa in the years after the eruption. In 2004, researchers proposed the idea that the blood-red sky shown in [[Edvard Munch]]'s famous 1893 painting ''[[The Scream]]'' is also an accurate depiction of the sky over [[Norway]] after the eruption.<ref>{{Citation | last =Reuters | first = | author-link =Reuters | last2 = | first2 = | author2-link = | title =Krakatoa provided backdrop to Munch's scream | newspaper =The Age | year =2003 | date =11 December | url =http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2003/12/10/1070732277751.html}}; {{Citation | last =Reuters | first = | author-link =Reuters | title =Why the sky was red in Munch's 'The Scream' | date =10 December | year =2003 | url =http://www.cnn.com/2003/TECH/space/12/10/scream.munch.reut/ | accessdate =6-08-2007 }}; {{Citation | last =Panek | first =Richard | author-link = | title ='The Scream,' East of Krakatoa | newspaper =[[New York Times]] | pages = | year =2004 | date =8 February | url =http://www.nytimes.com/2004/02/08/arts/design/08PANE.html?ex=1391576400&en=f2b9a24eb769711d&ei=5007&partner=USERLAND }}</ref> Munch said: "suddenly the sky turned blood red ... I stood there shaking with fear and felt an endless scream passing through nature." Also, a so called [[blue moon]] had been seen for two years as a result of the eruption. ===Possible causes=== The cause of the violent explosions has also attracted debate. Four theories are: *Contemporary investigators believed that the volcano's vents had sunk below sea level on the morning of 27 August, letting seawater flood into it and causing a massive series of [[phreatic]] (interaction of ground water and magma) explosions. *The seawater could have chilled the [[magma]], causing it to crust over and producing a "pressure cooker" effect relieved only when explosive pressures were reached. Both these ideas assumed that the island subsided before the explosions; however, the evidence does not support that conclusion and the pumice and ignimbrite deposits are not of a kind consistent with a magma-seawater interaction. *A massive underwater land slump or partial subsidence suddenly left the highly pressurized magma chamber wide open. *The final explosions may have been caused by [[magma mixing]] caused by a sudden infusion of hot basaltic magma into the cooler and lighter magma in the chamber below the volcano. This would have resulted in a rapid and unsustainable increase in pressure, leading to a cataclysmic explosion. Evidence for this theory is the existence of pumice consisting of light and dark material, the dark material being of much hotter origin. However, such material reportedly is less than 5% of the content of the Krakatoa [[ignimbrite]] and some investigators have rejected this as a prime cause of the 27 August explosions. ==Subsequent volcanism== ===Verbeek investigation=== [[Image:Map krakatau.gif|200px|right|thumb|Map of Krakatau after 1883 eruption, showing the change in geography.]] [[Image:Landsat krakatau 18may92 cropped.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Anak Krakatau and surrounding islands, 18 May 1992.]] Although the violent engulfment phase of the eruption was over by late afternoon of [[August 27]], after light returned by the 29th, reports continued for months that Krakatoa was still in eruption. One of the earliest duties of Verbeek's committee was to determine if this was true and also verify reports of other volcanoes erupting on Java and Sumatra. In general, these were found to be false, and Verbeek discounted any claims of Krakatoa still erupting after mid October as due to steaming of hot material, landslides due to heavy monsoon rains that season, and "hallucinations due to electrical activity" seen from a distance. No signs of activity were seen in the next several years until 1913, when an eruption was reported. Investigation could find no evidence the volcano was awakening, and it was determined that what had been mistaken for renewed activity had actually been a major landslide (possibly the one which formed the second arc to Rakata's cliff). ===Anak Krakatau=== Verbeek, in his report on the eruption, predicted that any new activity would manifest itself in the region which had been between Perboewatan and Danan. This prediction came true in June 1927 when evidence of a submarine eruption was seen in this area. A few days later, a new island volcano, named ''Anak Krakatau'' ("Child of Krakatoa"), broke water. Initially, the eruptions were of pumice and ash, and it (and 2 more islands) was quickly eroded away by the sea; but eventually Anak Krakatoa #4 produced lava flows faster than the waves could erode them. Of considerable interest to [[volcanology|volcanologists]], this has been the subject of extensive study since the new island broke water permanently in August 1930. ===Current activity=== The island is still active, with its most recent eruptive episode having begun in 1994. Since then, quiet periods of a few days have alternated with almost continuous eruptions, with occasional much larger explosions. Since the 1950s, the island has grown at an average rate of five [[inch]]es (13 cm) per week. This volcano started erupting again in October and November 2007, when hot gases, rocks, and lava were released. Scientists monitoring the volcano have warned people to stay out of a 3 km zone around the island.<ref name="in.reuters">[http://in.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idINIndia-30436520071111?sp=true Indonesia's Krakatau roars, dazzles with fireworks - in.reuters.com] Nov 11, 2007.</ref> ==Biological research== The islands have become a major case study of [[biogeography|island biogeography]] and [[founder population]]s in an ecosystem being built from the ground up in an environment virtually sterilized. ==='The Krakatau problem'=== Biologically, the 'Krakatau problem' refers to the question of whether the islands were completely sterilized by the 1883 eruption or whether some life survived. When the first researchers reached the islands in May 1884, the only living thing they found was a spider in a crevice on the south side of Rakata. Life quickly recolonized the islands, however. The eastern side of the island has been extensively vegetated by trees and shrubs, presumably brought there as seeds washed up by ocean currents or carried in birds' droppings. It is, however, in a somewhat fragile position and the vegetated area has been badly damaged by recent eruptions. ===Handl's occupancy=== A German, Johann Handl, obtained a permit to mine [[pumice]] in October 1916 (Thornton). His lease was for 8.7 square kilometres, which was basically the eastern half of the island, for 30 years. He occupied the south slope of Rakata from 1915 to 1917, when he left due to "violation of the terms of the lease" (Winchester gives the date of Handl's leaving as late 1917-1921). Handl built a house and planted a garden with "4 European families and about 30 coolies". He is also believed to have introduced ''Rattus rattus'' (Black Rat). He also found unburned wood below the 1883 ash deposits when digging, and fresh water was found below {{convert|18|ft|m|0}}. ===National park=== After Handl's departure, the western half of Rakata and Verlaten were designated a [[national monument]] in July 1919. The eastern half was added in 1925, and the islands were included in the [[Ujung Kulon]] Reserve, which had been established in 1921. In 1982, Ujung Kulon was made a [[national park]]. This led to a political problem since the Krakatau Islands are part of a Javan Park, and therefore are politically controlled by the [[Lampung]] province of Sumatra. This paradox was resolved in 1990, when the Krakatau were made a separate [[nature reserve]]. Park Rangers have a station on Sertung, from which they patrol, but as of 1996, they have no permanent patrol boats. ==See also== {{portal|Indonesia}} *[[Plinian eruption]] *[[San Benedicto Island]] *[[List of volcanoes in Indonesia]] *[[Volcanic Explosivity Index]] (includes list of large eruptions) *[[List of deadliest natural disasters]] *[[Krakatoa in media and popular culture]] *[[Noctilucent cloud]] ==Notes== {{reflist}} ==References== * Dickins, Rosie "The Children's Book of Art (An introduction to famous paintings)" Usborne Publishing Ltd., Usborne House, 83-85 Saffron Hill, London ISBN-13: 978-0-439-88981-0 (2005) * Furneaux, Rupert (1964) Krakatoa * {{cite journal | author = Self, Stephen & Rampino, Michael R. | year = 1981 | title = The 1883 eruption of Krakatau | journal = [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | volume = 294 | pages = 699–704 | doi = 10.1038/294699a0 }} * Simkin, Tom and Richard S, Fiske (editors) ''Krakatau, 1883--the volcanic eruption and its effects'' Washington, D.C. : Smithsonian Institution Press, 1983.ISBN 0-87474-841-0 * Symons, G.J. (ed) ''The Eruption of Krakatoa and Subsequent Phenomena'' (Report of the Krakatoa Committee of the Royal Society). London, 1888 * {{cite journal | author = Verbeek, R. D. M. | year = 1884 | title = The Krakatoa eruption | journal = Nature | volume = 30 | pages = 10–15| doi = 10.1038/030010a0 <!--Retrieved from CrossRef by DOI bot-->}} * Verbeek, R.D.M. (Rogier Diederik Marius) ''Krakatau''. Batavia, 1886 *Winchester, Simon. ''Krakatoa: The Day the World Exploded: August 27, 1883.'' New York: HarperCollins, 2003. ISBN 0066212855 ==External links== * [http://volcano.und.nodak.edu/vwdocs/volc_images/southeast_asia/indonesia/krakatau.html Krakatau image gallery] from Volcano World, Public Outreach project of the North Dakota and Oregon Space Grant Consortia administered by the Department of Geosciences at [[Oregon State University]]. * [http://www.vansandick.com/familie/archief/In_het_Rijk_van_Vulcaan/10.htm#h1 "In het Rijk van Vulcaan"] — "In the Realm of the Volcano", eye witness account by R.A. van Sandick (in Dutch). * [http://ce.eng.usf.edu/pharos/wonders/Natural/krakatoa.html Natural wonders: Krakatau] basic info about the 1883 eruption from the [[University of South Florida]]. * [http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Volcanoes/Indonesia/description_krakatau_1883_eruption.html 1883 Eruption of Krakatau] from the [[United States Geological Survey]]'s Cascades Volcano Observatory. * [http://www.geology.sdsu.edu/how_volcanoes_work/Krakatau.html Krakatau, Indonesia (1883)] information from [[San Diego State University]] about the 1883 eruption. * [http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4074651 Krakatoa Volcano: The Son Also Rises] — Companion website to the NPR programme. * [http://www.scienceandsociety.co.uk/results.asp?image=10316149&wwwflag=&imagepos=8 On-line images of some of Ashcroft's sunset sketches.] [[Category:Volcanic calderas of Indonesia]] [[Category:Subduction volcanoes]] [[Category:Active volcanoes]] [[Category:Mountains of Indonesia]] [[Category:Volcanoes of Indonesia]] [[Category:Islands of Indonesia]] [[Category:VEI-6 volcanoes]] [[Category:Natural disasters in Indonesia]] [[Category:1883 natural disasters]] [[Category:Volcanic events]] [[bn:ক্রাকাতোয়া]] [[bs:Krakatoa]] [[bg:Кракатау]] [[ca:Krakatoa]] [[cs:Krakatoa]] [[cy:Krakatoa]] [[da:Krakatau]] [[de:Krakatau]] [[es:Krakatoa]] [[eo:Krakatoa]] [[eu:Krakatoa]] [[fa:کراکاتوآ]] [[fr:Krakatoa]]{{Link FA|fr}} [[fy:Krakatau]] [[gl:Krakatoa]] [[hi:एनैक क्राकाटाओ]] [[hr:Krakatoa]] [[id:Gunung Krakatau]] [[it:Krakatoa]] [[he:קרקטואה]] [[jv:Gunung Krakatau]] [[pam:Krakatoa]] [[lt:Krakatau]] [[hu:Krakatau]] [[ms:Krakatau]] [[nl:Krakatau (vulkaan)]] [[ja:クラカタウ]] [[no:Krakatau]] [[pl:Krakatau]] [[pt:Krakatoa]] [[ro:Krakatau]] [[ru:Кракатау]] [[simple:Krakatoa]] [[sk:Krakatoa]] [[sr:Кракатау]] [[fi:Krakatau]] [[sv:Krakatoa]] [[th:ภูเขาไฟกรากะตัว]] [[uk:Кракатау]] [[zh:喀拉喀托火山]]