Krishna
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{{Hdeity infobox| <!--Wikipedia:WikiProject Hindu mythology-->
Image = RadheShyam07.jpg
| Caption = Krishna with [[Radha]], 18th C Rajasthani painting
| Name = Krishna
| Sanskrit_Transliteration = Kṛṣṇa
| Devanagari = कृष्ण
| Kannada =
| Pali_Transliteration =
| Tamil_script =
| Script = <!--Enter the name of the deity in the local script used -->
| Affiliation = [[Avatar]] of [[Vishnu]], [[Svayam bhagavan]]
| Mantra =
| Weapon = Discus ([[Sudarshana Chakra]])
| Consort = [[Radha]], [[Rukmini]], [[Satyabhama]], [[Jambavati]].
| Abode = [[Vrindavan]], [[Dwarka]]
| Mount = [[Garuda]]
| Shastra = [[Bhagavata Purana]], [[Bhagavad-gita]]
}}
:''This article is about the Hindu deity. For other meanings, see [[Krishna (disambiguation)]].
'''Krishna''' (कृष्ण in Devanagari, ''{{IAST|kṛṣṇa}}'' in [[IAST]], {{pronounced|ˈkr̩ʂɳə}} in classical Sanskrit) is a deity worshiped across many traditions of [[Hinduism]].
Krishna is often described as a dark-skinned man during his earthly descent,<ref>{{Harvnb|Goswami|1998|pp=149-150}}</ref> often depicted as a baby, as a young boy playing a [[Bansuri|flute]] as in the [[Bhagavata Purana]],<ref name=Knott56>{{Harvnb|Knott|2000|p=56}}</ref> or as a youthful prince giving philosophical direction and guidance as in the [[Bhagavad Gita]].<ref name=Knott2000>{{Harvnb|Knott|2000|loc=p. 36, p. 15}}</ref>
The stories of Krishna appear across a broad spectrum of [[Hindu philosophy|Hindu philosophical]] and theological traditions.<ref>[http://vedabase.net/cc/madhya/20/165/en Chaitanya Charitamrita ''Madhya'' 20.165]</ref><ref name = Thomson>{{cite journal
| author = Richard Thompson, Ph. D.
| year = December 1994
| title = Reflections on the Relation Between Religion and Modern Rationalism
| url = http://www.iskcon.com/icj/1_2/12thompson.html
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
}}</ref> Though they sometimes differ in details reflecting the concerns of a particular tradition, some core features are shared by all.<ref name = Mahony1987>{{cite journal| author = Mahony, W.K. | year = 1987 | title = Perspectives on Krsna's Various Personalities | journal = History of Religions | volume = 26| issue = 3 | pages = 333–335 | url = http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0018-2710(198702)26%3A3%3C333%3APOKVP%3E2.0.CO%3B2-0 | doi = 10.2307/599733
}}</ref> These include a divine incarnation, a pastoral childhood and youth, and life as a heroic warrior and teacher.
The worship of Krishna is part of [[Vaishnavism]], which regards [[Vishnu]] as the supreme god and venerates his associated avatars, their consorts, and related saints and teachers. Krishna is especially looked upon as a full manifestation of [[Vishnu]], and as one with Vishnu himself.<ref>{{cite book |author=John Dowson |title=Classical Dictionary of Hindu Mythology and Religion, Geography, History and Literature |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |location= |year=2003 |pages= |isbn=0-7661-7589-8}} [http://books.google.com/books?id=6JB-KOXy5k8C&pg=PA361&dq=Vishnu+Sahasranama+Krishna&lr=&ei=bd5WSKD6CYe4jgHqyeWNDA&sig=aGU7ZPp35xBWhLj4_2BAWCWrTUA p. 361])</ref> However the exact relationship between Krishna and Vishnu is complex and diverse,<ref name = Beck>See Beck, Guy, ''"Introduction"'' in {{Harvnb|Beck|2005|pp=1-18}}</ref> where Krishna is considered an independent deity, supreme in its own right.<ref name=Knott55>{{Harvnb|Knott|2000|p=55}}</ref>
All Vaishnava traditions recognise Krishna as an [[avatar]] of Vishnu; others identify Krishna with Vishnu; while traditions, such as [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism]],<ref name = McDaniel>See McDaniel, June, ''"Folk Vaishnavism and {{IAST|Ṭhākur Pañcāyat}}: Life and status among village Krishna statues"'' in {{Harvnb|Beck|2005|p=39}}</ref><ref name=Kennedy1925>{{cite book| author = Kennedy, M.T.| year = 1925 | title = The Chaitanya Movement: A Study of the Vaishnavism of Bengal| publisher = H. Milford, Oxford university press| isbn = }}</ref> [[Vallabha Sampradaya]] and the [[Nimbarka Sampradaya]], regard Krishna as the ''[[svayam bhagavan]]'', original form of God, or the Lord himself.<ref name="KK">{{cite book |author=K. Klostermaier | other = Crotty, Robert B. |title=The Charles Strong Trust Lectures, 1972-1984 |publisher=Brill Academic Pub |location= |year=1997 |pages=206 |isbn=90-04-07863-0 |quote= For his worshippers he is not an avatara in the usual sense, but svayam bhagavan, the Lord himself.|url= http://books.google.com/books?id=F_0UAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA109&dq=Svayam+bhagavan&as_brr=3&sig=0MqNO6X3nyfgZTNDC1nVI_OLd0A |accessdate=}} p.109</ref><ref name = VaisnavaInstitute1956>[http://books.google.com/books?id=yEMB3RBwjTsC Indian Philosophy & Culture ][http://books.google.com/books?q=+subject:%22Philosophy,+Indic%22&lr=&num=50&as_brr=0 Philosophy, Indic]1956. Page 148: "On the touch-stone of this definition of the final and positive characteristic of Sri Krsna as the Highest Divinity as Svayam-rupa Bhagavan."</ref><ref name=Delmonico> Delmonico, N., ''The History Of Indic Monotheism And Modern Chaitanya Vaishnavism'' in {{Harvnb|Ekstrand|2004}}</ref> <ref name=De1960>{{cite book
| author = De, S.K.
| year = 1960
| title = Bengal's contribution to Sanskrit literature & studies in Bengal Vaisnavism
| publisher = KL Mukhopadhyaya
| isbn =
}} p. 113: "The Bengal School identifies the Bhagavat with Krishna depicted in the Shrimad-Bhagavata and presents him as its highest personal god."</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Bryant|2007|p=381}}</ref> In the list of the epithets attributed to Krishna, he is described as the 'source of all incarnations' by [[Rupa Goswami]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Goswami|1998|p=136}}</ref>
==Etymology and names==
[[Image:Lord Jagannath.jpg|thumb|Krishna as [[Jaganatha]] in a typical Oriya style, shown at the far right, with sister [[Subhadra]] in the center and brother [[Balarama]] on the left.]]
{{main|List of titles and names of Krishna}}
The [[Sanskrit]] word ''{{IAST|kṛṣṇa}}'' has the literal meaning of "black", "dark" or "dark-blue",<ref>[http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/cgi-bin/serveimg.pl?file=/scans/MWScan/MWScanjpg/mw0306-kRzanAvat.jpg Monier Williams (1899) p.306]</ref> and is used as a name to describe someone with dark skin. Krishna is often depicted in [[murti]]s (images) as black, and is generally shown in paintings with blue skin.
Krishna is also known by various [[List of titles and names of Krishna|other names, epithets and titles]], which reflect his many associations and attributes. Among the most common names are ''[[Govinda]]'', "finder of cows", or ''Gopala'', "protector of cows", which refer to Krishna's childhood in [[Vraja]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Bryant|2007|p=17}}</ref><ref name="Hilt">{{cite book
|author=Hiltebeitel, Alf
|title=Rethinking the Mahābhārata: a reader's guide to the education of the dharma king
|publisher=University of Chicago Press
|location=Chicago
|year=2001
|pages=pp. 251-53, 256, 259
|isbn=0-226-34054-6
}}</ref> Some of the distinct names may be regionally important; for instance, ''[[Jagannatha]]'' (lit. "lord of the Universe")<ref>{{cite book
|author=Bryant, Edwin H.
|title=Krishna: A Sourcebook
|publisher=Oxford University Press, USA
|year=2007
|pages=p. 139
|isbn=0-19-514891-6
}}</ref> in eastern India.
Some Hindu traditions often ascribe varying interpretations and powers to the names. The [[Mahabharata]]'s Udyoga-parva (Mbh 5.71.4) divides ''{{IAST|kṛṣṇa}}'' into elements ''{{IAST|kṛṣ}}'' and ''{{IAST|ṇa}}'', ''{{IAST|kṛṣ}}'' (a verbal root meaning "to plough, drag") being taken as expressing ''{{IAST|bhū}}'' "being; earth" and ''{{IAST|ṇa}}'' being taken as expressing ''{{IAST|nirvṛti}}'' "bliss".
In the {{IAST|Brahmasambandha mantra}} of the [[Pushtimarg|Vallabha sampradaya]], the syllables of the name ''Krishna'' are assigned the power to destroy sin relating to material, self and divine causes.<ref>{{Harvnb|Beck|1993|p=195}}</ref> Mahabharata verse 5.71.4 is also quoted in [[Chaitanya Charitamrita]] and [[Prabhupada]] in his commentary, translates the ''{{IAST|bhū}}'' as "attractive existence", thus Krishna is also interpreted as meaning "all-attractive one".<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://vedabase.net/cc/madhya/9/30/en
|title=Chaitanya Charitamrta ''Madhya-lila'' Chapter 9 Verse 30
|publisher=vedabase.net
|accessdate=2008-06-15
|last=[[Bhaktivedanta Swami]]
|first=[[Prabhupada]]
}}
</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Lynne Gibson |title=Modern World Religions: Hinduism - Pupils Book Foundation (Modern World Religions) |publisher=Heinemann Educational Publishers |location=Oxford [England] |year=2002 |pages=p. 7 |isbn=0-435-33618-5 |url=http://books.google.ie/books?id=jnwffnGT0tEC&pg=PA7 }}</ref> This quality of Krishna is stated in the ''atmarama'' verse of Bhagavatam 1.7.10<ref>{{Harvnb|Goswami|1998|p=141}}</ref>
==Iconography==
[[Image:Krishna with flute.jpg|thumb|250px|Krishna with Gopis - Painting from [[Smithsonian Institution]]]]
Krishna is easily recognized by his representations. Though his skin colour may be depicted as black or dark particularly in [[murti]]s, in other images especially modern pictorial representations, Krishna is usually shown with blue skin. He often wears a yellow silk [[dhoti]] and peacock feather headgear. Common depictions show him as a little boy, or as a young man in a characteristic relaxed pose, playing the [[bansuri|flute]].<ref name="Grolier">{{cite book
|author=
|title=The Encyclopedia Americana
|publisher=Grolier
|location=[s.l.]
|year=1988
|pages=p. 589
|isbn=0-7172-0119-8
|oclc=
|doi=
|accessdate=
}}</ref><ref>William Benton, Chicago University,(1974) [http://books.google.ie/books?id=G8YqAAAAMAAJ&q=Krsna+blue+skin+deity&dq=Krsna+blue+skin+deity&ei=Wz5VSLa2HZOcjgGeoISTDA&client=firefox-a] The New Encyclopaedia Britannica - p. 885</ref> In this form, he usually stands with one leg bent in front of the other and raises a flute to his lips, accompanied by cows, emphasising his position as the divine herdsman -''Govinda'', or with the [[gopi]]s (milkmaids).
The scene on the battlefield of [[Kurukshetra]], notably where he addresses [[Arjuna]] in the [[Bhagavad Gita]], is another common subject. Here, he is shown as a man, often shown with typical god-like characteristics of Hindu religious art, such as multiple arms or heads, denoting power, and with attributes of Vishnu, such as the [[chakra]] or in his two-armed form as a charioteer.
Representations in temples often show Krishna as a man standing in an upright, formal pose. He may be alone, or with associated figures;<ref>{{cite book |author=Harle, J. C. |title=The art and architecture of the Indian Subcontinent |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven, Conn |year=1994 |pages=p. 410 |isbn=0-300-06217-6 |quote=figure 327. Manaku, Radha's messenger describing Krishna standing with the cow-girls, from Basohli.|doi= |accessdate=}}</ref> his brother [[Balabhadra]] (also known as Balarama) and sister [[Subhadra]] or with his main queens [[Rukmini]] and [[Satyabhama]]. Often, Krishna is pictured with his gopi-consort [[Radha]]. [[Vaishnavism in Manipur|Manipuri Vaishnavas]] do not worship Krishna alone, but as [[Radha Krishna]].<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=g-wbAAAAIAAJ&q=Manipur+Radha&dq=Manipur+Radha&lr=&client=firefox-a Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature - p. 4290], Amaresh Datta, Mohan Lal, 1994</ref> This is also a feature of [[Rudra Sampradaya]]<ref>The penny cyclopædia [ed. by G. Long]. 1843, p.390 [http://books.google.com/books?id=_8cWRilIuE0C&pg=RA1-PA390&dq=rudra+sampradaya&as_brr=3#PRA1-PA390,M1]</ref> and the school of [[Nimbarka]],<ref>Ramesh M. Dave, K. K. A. Venkatachari, ''The Bhakta-bhagawan Relationship: Paramabhakta Parmeshwara Sambandha''. Sya. Go Mudgala, Bochasanvasi Shri Aksharpurushottama Sanstha, 1988. p.74</ref> as well as that of [[Swaminarayan faith]]. Caitanyaites celebrate one of the self manifested deities called [[Radharamana]], who is viewed as a form of Radha Krishna.<ref>{{Harvnb|Valpey|2006|p=52}}</ref> Krishna is also depicted and worshipped as a small child (''[[Bala Krishna|bāla kṛṣṇa]]'', the child Krishna) crawling on his hands and knees or dancing with butter in his hand.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=kEj-2a7pmVMC&pg=PA251&dq=Bala+Krishna&lr=&as_brr=3&sig=YZ2AcCNXeVfLs5TcNzx9GXHjYzI Students' Britannica India By Dale Hoiberg, Indu Ramchandani p.251]</ref><ref>{{citation | title = The Qualities of Sri Krsna | author = Satsvarupa dasa Goswami| authorlink = Satsvarupa dasa Goswami | publisher = GNPress | date = 1998 | pages = 152 pages | isbn = 0911233644}}</ref>
Regional variations in the iconography of Krishna are seen in his different forms, such as [[Jaganatha]] of [[Orissa]], [[Vithoba]] of [[Maharashtra]]<ref name = "vithoba">[[Vithoba]] is not only viewed as a form of Krishna. He is also by some considered that of [[Vishnu]], [[Shiva]] and [[Gautama Buddha]] according to various traditions. See: ''Ecyclopaedia of Indian Literature'' Volume 5 (1996) Article: ''Srivitthal''; [http://books.google.ie/books?id=KnPoYxrRfc0C&pg=PA4179&sig=0WHJ4sGcLGYNiZDwjR9YHwDA75k p. 4179] ISBN 8126012218, and D. B. Mokashi, Philip C. Engblom (1987) [http://books.google.com/books?id=vgLZGFH1ZTIC&pg=PA35&dq=Vithoba+Vishnu+Shiva+Buddha&ei=UwpWSPy9K5W-jgHAouGIDA&client=firefox-a&sig=Mu3DBYgafctPVPa39EpKJgSgXhg ''Palkhi, an Indian Pilgrimage: An Indian Pilgrimage'', p. 35 ]</ref> and [[Shrinathji]] in [[Rajasthan]].
==Literary sources==
{{seealso|Krishna in Mahābhārata}}
[[Image:Meister der Bhâgavata-Purâna-Handschrift 001.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Yashoda]] bathing the child Krishna. (Western Indian illustrated Bhagavata Purana Manuscript)]]
The earliest text to explicitly provide detailed descriptions of Krishna as a personality is the epic [[Mahābhārata]] which depicts Krishna as an incarnation of [[Vishnu]].<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-357806/Mahabharata Britannica: Mahabharata]</ref> Krishna is central to many of the main stories of the epic. The eighteen chapters of the sixth book (''Bhishma Parva'') of the epic that constitute the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' contain the advice of Krishna to [[Arjuna]], on the battlefield. Krishna is already an adult in the epic, although there are allusions to his earlier exploits. The ''[[Harivamsa]]'', a later appendix to this epic, contains the earliest detailed version of Krishna's childhood and youth.
Virtually every one of the later [[Purana]]s tells Krishna's life-story or some highlights from it. Two ''Puranas'', the ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'' and the ''[[Vishnu Purana]]'', that contain the most elaborate telling of Krishna’s story and teachings are the most theologically venerated by the [[Gaudiya Vaishnava]] schools.<ref name = "Elkman1986">{{cite book
| author = Elkman, S.M.
| coauthors = Gosvami, J.
| year = 1986
| title = Jiva Gosvamin's Tattvasandarbha: A Study on the Philosophical and Sectarian Development of the Gaudiya Vaisnava Movement
| publisher = Motilal Banarsidass Pub
| isbn =
}}</ref> Roughly one quarter of the ''Bhagavata Purana'' is spent extolling his [[life]] and [[philosophy]].
[[Yāska]]'s ''[[Nirukta]]'', an etymological dictionary around the 5th century BCE, contains a reference to the Shyamantaka jewel in the possession of [[Akrura]], a motif from well known Puranic story about Krishna.<ref name = bryant4/>''Satha-patha-brahmana'' and ''Aitareya-Aranyaka'', associate Krishna with his Vrishni origins.<ref>
Sunil Kumar Bhattacharya ''Krishna-cult in Indian Art''. 1996
M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. ISBN 8175330015 p.128: Satha-patha-brahmana and Aitareya-Aranyaka with reference to first chapter.</ref> In early texts, such as [[Rig Veda]], there is no obvious references to Krishna, however some, like [[Ramakrishna Gopal Bhandarkar]] attempted to show that "the very same Krishna" made an appearance, e.g as the ''drapsa ... krishna'' "black drop" of [[RV 8]].96.13.<ref>
Sunil Kumar Bhattacharya ''Krishna-cult in Indian Art''. 1996
M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. ISBN 8175330015 p.126: "According to (D.R.Bhadarkar), the word Krishna referred to in the expression 'Krishna-drapsah' in the Rig- Veda, denotes the very same Krishna".</ref><ref name = bryant4/>
==Life==
This summary is based on details from the ''[[Mahābhārata]]'', the ''[[Harivamsa]]'', the ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'' and the ''[[Vishnu Purana]]''. The scenes from the narrative are set in north [[India]], mostly in the present states of [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Bihar]], [[Haryana]], [[Delhi]] and [[Gujarat]].
===Birth===
[[Image:Krishna carried over river yamuna.jpg|thumb|Krishna is carried by his father [[Vasudeva]] across river [[Yamuna]] to [[Vrindavana]], mid 18th century painting.]]
Traditional belief based on scriptural details and [[Jyotisha|astrological calculations]] gives the date of Krishna's birth, known as [[Krishna Janmashtami|Janmashtami]],<ref name = Knott61>{{Harvnb|Knott|2000|p=61}}</ref> as either 18th or 21st July [[33rd century BC|3228 BCE]].<ref name="Krishna was born">See also: [http://www.planetarypositions.com/notes/2006/11/26/rama-and-krishna/ Astrology Notes] and [http://www.avatara.org/krishna/lila.html Sri Krishna: His Birth and Activities]. [[N.S. Rajaram]] takes these dates at face value when he opines that "We have therefore overwhelming evidence showing that Krishna was a historical figure who must have lived within a century on either side of that date, i.e., in the 3200-3000 BC period".({{cite web
|url=http://veda.harekrsna.cz/encyclopedia/historical-krsna.htm
|title=Search for the Historical Krishna
|publisher=www.swordoftruth.com September 4th, 1999
|accessdate=2008-06-15
|last=Prof. N. S. Rajaram
}}</ref>
Krishna belonged to the royal family of [[Mathura]], and was the eighth son born to the princess [[Devaki]], and her husband [[Vasudeva]]. Mathura was the capital of the [[Yadava]]s (also called the [[Surasena]]s), to which Krishna's parents Vasudeva and Devaki belonged to. The king [[Kamsa]], Devaki's brother, had ascended the throne by imprisoning his father, King [[Ugrasena]]. Afraid of a prophecy that predicted his death at the hands of [[Devaki]]'s eighth son, he had locked the couple into a prison cell. After killing the first six children, and Devaki's apparent miscarriage of the seventh, Krishna took birth. It was believed that Krishna was born without a sexual union.<ref name = Knott61/> Since Vasudeva believed Krishna's life was in danger, Krishna was secretly taken out of the prison cell to be raised by his foster parents, [[Yasoda]] and [[Nanda (mythology)|Nanda]] in [[Gokul]]. Two of his other siblings also survived, [[Balarama]] (Devaki's seventh child, transferred to the womb of [[Rohini]], Vasudeva's first wife) and [[Subhadra]] (daughter of Vasudeva and Rohini, born much later than Balarama and Krishna).<ref>{{Harvnb|Bryant|2007|pp=124-130,224}}</ref>
===Childhood and youth===
[[Image:Krishna Holding Mount Govardhan.jpg|thumb|Krishna holding [[Govardhan hill]]. <small>From the [[Smithsonian Institution]] collections.</small>]]
Nanda was the head of a community of cow-herders, and he settled in [[Vrindavana]]. The stories of Krishna's childhood and youth tell of his mischievious pranks as ''Makhan Chor'' (butter thief), his foiling of attempts on his life, and his role as a protector of the people of Vrindavana. Krishna is said to have killed the demons like Putana, sent by Kamsa for Krishna's life. He tamed the serpent [[Kaliya]], who poisoned the waters of [[Yamuna]] river, thus leading to the death of the cow-herders. In Hindu art, Krishna is often depicted dancing on the multi-hooded Kaliya. Krishna is believed to have lifted the [[Govardhan hill]] and defeated [[Indra]] - the kings of the [[Deva (Hinduism)|gods]] and rain -to protect native people of Vrindavana from prosecution by Indra and prevent the devastation of the pasture land of Govardhan.<ref name="UC">{{cite book
|author=Lynne Gibson
|title=Calcutta Review
|publisher=University of Calcutta Dept. of English
|location=India
|year=1844
|pages=p. 119
|accessdate=2008-06-07
}}</ref><ref name="MW">{{cite book
|author=Lynne Gibson
|title=Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions
|publisher=Merriam-Webster
|location=
|year=1999
|pages=p. 503
|accessdate=2008-06-07
}}</ref> In the view of some, the spiritual movement started by Krishna had something in it which went against the orthodox forms of worship of the [[Vedic]] gods such as Indra.<ref name="RT">{{cite book
|author=The English Writings of Rabindranath Tagore (ed. Sisir Kumar
Das)
|title=A Vision of Indias History
|location=Sahitya Akademi
|year=1996
|pages=p. 444
|ISBN = 8126000945
|accessdate=2008-06-07
}}</ref>
The stories of his play with the [[gopi]]s (milkmaids) of Vrindavana became known as the ''[[Rasa lila]]'' and were romanticised in the poetry of [[Jayadeva]], author of the [[Gita Govinda]]. These became important as part of the development of the Krishna [[bhakti]] traditions worshiping [[Radha Krishna]].<ref>{{cite book
| author = Schweig, G.M.
| year = 2005
| title = Dance of divine love: The Rasa Lila of Krishna from the Bhagavata Purana, India's classic sacred love story.
| publisher = Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ; Oxford
| isbn = 0691114463
}}</ref>
===The prince===
On his return to Mathura as a young man, Krishna overthrew and killed his uncle Kamsa. He re-installed Kamsa's father, Ugrasena, as the king of the Yadavas and became a leading prince at the court.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bryant|2007|p=290}}</ref> In this period, he became a friend of [[Arjuna]] and the other [[Pandava]] princes of the [[Kuru]] kingdom, who were his cousins. Later, he took his Yadava subjects to the city of [[Dwaraka]] (in modern [[Gujarat]]) and established his own kingdom there.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bryant|2007|pp=28-29}}</ref>
Krishna married [[Rukmini]], the princess of [[Vidarbha]], by abducting her from her wedding. According to some texts, Krishna had 16,108 wives,<ref>Charudeva Shastri, Suniti Kumar Chatterji(1974) [http://books.google.com/books?id=WiAhAAAAMAAJ&q=16108+wives&dq=16108+wives Charudeva Shastri Felicitation Volume, p. 449]</ref><ref>David L. Haberman, (2003) Motilal Banarsidass, [http://books.google.com/books?id=DsRb6gjUa1oC The Bhaktirasamrtasindhu of Rupa Gosvamin, p. 155], ISBN 812081861X</ref> of which eight were chief - including Rukmini, [[Satyabhama]] and [[Jambavati]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Bryant|2007|p=152}}</ref> Krishna also married 16,100 maidens who were being held in captivity by demon [[Narakasura]], to save their honor. Krishna killed the demon and released them all. According to strict social custom of the time all of the captive women were degraded, and would be unable to marry, as they had been under the control of Narakasura, however Krishna decided to marry them to reinstate their status in the society.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bryant|2007|pp=130-133}}</ref> In Vaishnava traditions, Krishna's wives are believed to be forms of the goddess [[Lakshmi]] - consort of Vishnu.
===The Kurukshetra war and the Bhagavad Gita===
{{main|Kurukshetra war|Bhagavad Gita}}
[[Image:Krishna-arjun.jpg|thumb|left|Krishna reveals his ''[[Vishvarupa]]'' form to Arjuna during their discourse of the [[Bhagavad Gita]].]]
Krishna was a cousin to the [[Pandava]]s and [[Kaurava]]s - the two parties in the [[Kurukshetra war]] (the Mahabharata war). Once battle seemed inevitable, Krishna offered both sides to choose between having either his army or simply himself, but on the condition that he personally would not raise any weapon. Arjuna, on behalf of the Pandavas, chose to have Krishna on their side, and [[Duryodhana]], chief of the Kauravas, chose Krishna's army. At the time of the great battle, Krishna thus acted as Arjuna's charioteer. The ''Bhagavad Gita'' is the advice given to Arjuna by Krishna on the battlefield just prior to the start of the fighting.<ref>Krishna in the Bhagavad Gita, by Robert N. Minor in {{Harvnb|Bryant|2007|pp=77-79}}</ref>
===Later life===
Following the war Krishna lived at Dwaraka for thirty-six years. Then at a festival, a fight broke out between the Yadavas who exterminated each other. His elder brother [[Balarama]] then gave up his body using [[Yoga]]. Krishna retired into the forest and sat under a tree in meditation. A hunter mistook his partly visible left foot for a deer and shot an [[arrow (weapon)|arrow]] wounding him mortally.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bryant|2007|pp=148}}</ref> According to the Mahābhārata, Krishna's death was caused by a curse by [[Gandhari]]. Her bitter anger after witnessing the death of her sons caused her to utter this curse, because she believed that Krishna did not do enough to stop the war when he had the full capability to do so. Upon learning of the curse, Krishna smiled and accepted it, stating that his duty was to fight for, and protect, the righteous people, not to prevent the war.
According to [[Purana|Puranic sources]]<ref>The Bhagavata Purana (1.18.6), Vishnu Purana (5.38.8), and Brahma Purana (212.8) state that the day Krishna left the earth was the day that the Dvapara Yuga ended and the Kali Yuga began.</ref>, Krishna's death marks the end of [[Dvapara Yuga]] and the start of [[Kali Yuga]], which is dated to February 17/18, 3102 [[BCE]].<ref> See: Matchett, Freda, ''"The Puranas"'', p 139 and Yano, Michio, ''"Calendar, astrology and astronomy"'' in {{Citation|last=Flood| first=Gavin (Ed)| year=2003| title=Blackwell companion to Hinduism| place=| publisher= [[Blackwell Publishing]]| edition=| isbn=0-631-21535-2}}</ref>
==Early historical references==
One of the earliest recorded instances of a Krishna who could potentially be identified with the deity can be found in the ''[[Chandogya Upanishad]]'', where he is mentioned as the son of Devaki, and to whom Ghora Angirasa was a teacher.<ref name = ERE>{{Cite book||title=Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics |last=Hastings |first=James |authorlink= |coauthors= Selbie, John Alexander|year=2003 |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |location= |isbn=0766136884 |pages=195-196}}</ref><ref> See Chandogya Upanishad(III, xvii, 6) in {{citation|last = Müller| first = Max| authorlink = Max Müller| title = Sacred Books of the East| volume =1| year = 1879| url= http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe01/sbe01075.htm}}</ref> The Upansihads, namely ''{{IAST|Nārāyaṇātharvaśirsa}}'' and ''{{IAST|Ātmabodha}}'', specifically regard Krishna as a god and associate him with Vishnu.<ref name = ERE/>
References to Vāsudeva also occur in early Sanskrit literature. [[Aranyakas#Taittiriya-Aranyaka|Taittiriya Aranyaka]] (X,i,6) identifies him with ''Narayana'' and ''Vishnu''. [[Panini (grammarian)|Panini]], ca. 4th century BCE, in his [[Ashtadhyayi]] explains the word "Vāsudevaka" as a ''Bhakta'' (devotee) of Vāsudeva.<ref name = bryant4>{{Harvnb|Bryant|2007|p=4}}</ref> This, along with the mention of [[Arjuna]] in the same context, indicates that the [[Vāsudeva]] here is Krishna.<ref> {{cite book
| author = Singh, R.R.
| year = 2007
| title = Bhakti And Philosophy
| publisher = Lexington Books
| isbn = 0739114247
}}Page 10: Panini, the fifth-century BC Sanskrit grammarian also refers to the term Vaasudevaka, explained by the second century B.C commentator Patanjali, as referring to "the follower of Vasudeva, God of gods." </ref> At some stage during the Vedic period, Vasudeva and Krishna became one deity, and by the time of composition of the redaction of [[Mahabharata]] that survives till today, Krishna (Vasudeva) was generally acknowledged as an ''avatar'' of Vishnu and often as the Supreme God.<ref name = ERE/>
In the 4th century BCE, [[Megasthenes]] the Greek ambassador to the court of [[Chandragupta Maurya]] says that the Sourasenoi ([[Surasena]]), who lived in the region of Mathura worshipped [[Herakles]]. This Herakles is usually identified with Krishna <ref name = Rosen>{{cite book||title=Essential Hinduism |last= Rosen |first=Steven |authorlink= |coauthors= |year= 2006|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=VlhX1h135DMC| publisher=Greenwood Publishing
Group |location= |isbn=0275990060 |pages=126}}</ref> due to the regions mentioned by Megasthenes as well as similarities between some of the herioc acts of the two.
The [[Greco-Bactrian]] ruler [[Agathocles]] issued coins bearing the images of Krishna and Balarama in around 180-165 BCE.<ref name = Rosen/>
[[Image:Heliodoruspillar.gif|thumb|320px|The first inscription of the [[Heliodorus pillar]] that was made by Heliodorus 110 BCE after his conversion to [[Bhagavata]] [[Monotheism]].]]
At [[Ghosundi]], near the town of [[Udaipur, Rajasthan|Udaipur]], is an inscription
by a devotee mentioning Vasudeva and Narayana engraved around 150 BCE.<ref name = Rosen/> In the 1st century BCE, [[Heliodorus#Votive erector|Heliodorus]] from Greece erected the [[Heliodorus pillar]] at [[Besnagar]] near [[Bhilsa]]<ref name = Rosen/> with the inscription:
''This [[Garuda]]-column of Vasudeva the god of gods was erected here by Heliodorus, a worshipper of the Lord [[Bhagavata]], the son of Diya Greek Dion and an inhabitant of [[Taxila]], who came as ambassador of the Greeks from the Great King Amtalikita [Greek Antialcidas] to King Kasiputra Bhagabhadra the saviour, who was flourishing in the fourteenth year of his reign [...] three immortal steps [...] when practiced, lead to heaven—self-control, charity, and diligence.''
Another 1st century BCE inscription from Mathura records the building of a part of a sanctuary to Vasudeva by the great ''[[satrap]]'' [[Sodasa]].
The renowned grammar scholar [[Patanjali]], who wrote his commentary on Panini's grammar rules around 150 BCE (known as the ''[[Mahabhashya]]''), quotes a verse: ''May the might of Krishna accompanied by Samkarshana increase!''
Other verses are mentioned. One verse speaks of ''Janardana with himself as fourth'' (Krishna with three companions, the three possibly being Samkarshana, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha). Another verse mentions musical instruments being played at meetings in the temples of Rama ([[Balarama]]) and Kesava (Krishna). Patanjali also describes dramatic and mimetic performances (Krishna-Kamsopacharam) representing the killing of Kamsa by Vasudeva.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bryant|2007|p=5}}</ref>
[[Image:Krishna lifting Govardhana - over a doorway in Angkor Wat.jpg|thumb|220px|Krishna depicted in [[Angkor Wat]] holding [[Govardhan]] over his head in order to shield his devotees in [[Vrindavana]].]]
Also in the 1st century BCE, there seems to be evidence for a worship of five Vrishni heroes (Balarama, Krishna, [[Pradyumna]], [[Aniruddha]] and [[Samba]]) for an inscription has been found at [[Mora]] near Mathura, which apparently mentions a son of the great ''satrap'' [[Rajuvula]], probably the ''satrap'' Sodasa, and an image of Vrishni, "probably Vasudeva, and of the "Five Warriors".<ref>Hindu Gods and Heroes: Studies in the History of the Religion of India
Lionel David Barnett, 1922, [http://books.google.com/books?id=R-5KAAAAMAAJ Page 93]</ref> Brahmi inscription on the Mora stone slab, now in the Mathura Museum. <ref name=Puri1968>{{cite book
| author = Puri, B.N.
| year = 1968
| title = India in the Time of Patanjali
| publisher = Bhartiya Vidya Bhavan
| isbn =
}}Page 51: The coins of Raj uvula have been recovered from the Sultanpur District..
the Brahmi inscription on the Mora stone slab, now in the Mathura Museum,</ref><ref> Hindu Gods and Heroes: Studies in the History of the Religion of India
Lionel David Barnett, 1922, [http://books.google.com/books?id=R-5KAAAAMAAJ Page 92]</ref>
Many inscriptions and references to worship of Krishna can be found from the early centuries of the [[Common Era]].
==Early worship==
The deity ''Krishna-Vasudeva'' (''{{IAST|kṛṣṇa vāsudeva}}'' "Krishna, the son of [[Vasudeva]]") is historically one of the earliest forms of worship in [[Krishnaism]] and [[Vaishnavism]]. <ref name = bryant4/><ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.jstor.org/pss/1062622
|title=A Revolution in {{IAST|Kṛṣṇaism}}: The Cult of Gopāla: History of Religions, Vol. 25, No. 4 (May, 1986 ), pp. 296-317
|publisher=www.jstor.org
|accessdate=2008-05-24
|last=Hein
|first=Norvin
}}</ref> It is believed to be a significant tradition of the early history of the worship of Krishna in antiquity.<ref name = "Hastings540"/><ref>Bhattacharya, Gouriswar: ''Vanamala of Vasudeva-Krsna-Visnu and Sankarsana-Balarama''. In: Vanamala. Festschrift A.J. Gail. Serta Adalberto Joanni Gail LXV. diem natalem celebranti ab amicis collegis discipulis dedicata.</ref> This tradition is considered as earliest to other traditions that led to [[amalgamation]] at a later stage of the historical development. Other traditions are [[Bhagavatism]] and Cult of [[Gopala]], that along with Cult of [[Bala Krishna]] form the basis of current tradition of monotheistic religion of Krishna.<ref name = kk20072>
{{citation
| author = Klostermaier, Klaus K.
| pages = p.206
| year = 2005
| title = A Survey of Hinduism
| publisher = State University of New York Press; 3 edition
| isbn = 0791470814
| quote = Present day Krishna worship is an amalgam of various elements. According to historical testimonies Krishna-Vasudeva worship already flourished in and around Mathura several centuries before Christ. A second important element is the cult of Krishna Govinda. Still later is the worship of Bala-Krishna, the Divine Child Krishna - a quite prominent feature of modern Krishnaism. The last element seems to have been Krishna Gopijanavallabha, Krishna the lover of the Gopis, among whom Radha occupies a special position. In some books Krishna is presented as the founder and first teacher of the Bhagavata religion.
}}</ref><ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.jstor.org/pss/2051211
|title=Review:''Krishna: Myths, Rites, and Attitudes.'' by Milton Singer; Daniel H. H. Ingalls, The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 27, No. 3 (May, 1968 ), pp. 667-670
|publisher=www.jstor.org
|accessdate=2008-05-24
|last=Basham
|first=A. L.
}}
</ref> Some early scholars would equate it with Bhagavatism,<ref name = "Hastings540">{{cite book
|author= Hastings, James Rodney
|authorlink=James Hastings
|editor=
|others=John A Selbie
|title=Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics
|edition=Volume 4 of 24 ( Behistun (continued) to Bunyan.)
|language=
|publisher=Kessinger Publishing, LLC
|location=Edinburgh
|year=2nd edition 1925-1940, reprint 1955, 2003
|origyear=1908-26
|pages=476
|quote=The encyclopedia will contain articles on all the religions of the world and on all the great systems of ethics. It will aim at containing articles on every religious belief or custom, and on every ethical movement, every philosophical idea, every moral practice.
|isbn=0-7661-3673-6
|oclc=
|doi=
|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Kaz58z--NtUC&pg=PA540&vq=Krishna&source=gbs_search_r&cad=1_1&sig=lo3NqA31k8hJZw7qNc9QDEAYyYA
|accessdate=2008-05-03
}}pp.540-42}}</ref> and the founder of this religious tradition is believed to be Krishna, who is the son of Vasudeva, thus his name is ''Vāsudeva'', he is belonged to be historically part of the Satvata tribe, and according to them his followers called themselves Bhagavatas and this religion had formed by the 2nd century BC (the time of [[Patanjali]]), or as early as the 4th century BC according to evidence in [[Megasthenes]] and in the [[Arthasastra]] of [[Kautilya]], when ''Vāsudeva'' was worshiped as supreme Deity in a strongly monotheistic format, where the supreme Being was perfect, eternal and full of grace.<ref name = "Hastings540"/>
In many sources outside of the cult, devotee or [[bhakta]] is defined as ''Vāsudevaka''.<ref>{{cite book
| author = Singh, R.R.
| year = 2007
| title = Bhakti And Philosophy
| publisher = Lexington Books
| isbn = 0739114247
}}
:p. 10: "[Panini's] term Vāsudevaka, explained by the second century B.C commentator Patanjali, as referring to "the follower of Vasudeva, God of gods."</ref> The [[Harivamsa]] describes intricate relationships between Krishna Vasudeva, Sankarsana, Pradyumna and Aniruddha that would later form a [[Vaishnava]] concept of primary quadrupled expansion, or [[avatara]].<ref>Couture, André: ''The emergence of a group of four characters (Vasudeva, Samkarsana, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha) in the Harivamsa: points for consideration''. Journal of Indian Philosophy 34,6 (2006) 571-585.</ref>
==Bhakti tradition==
{{main|Bhakti|Krishnaism}}
Bhakti, meaning devotion, is not confined to any one deity. However Krishna is an important and popular focus of the [[devotional]] and [[ecstatic]] aspects of Hindu religion, particularly among the [[Vaishnava]] sects.<ref name = McDaniel/><ref name = "Klostermaier1974">{{cite journal
| author = Klostermaier, K.
| year = 1974
| title = The Bhaktirasamrtasindhubindu of Visvanatha Cakravartin
| journal = Journal of the American Oriental Society
| volume = 94
| issue = 1
| pages = 96–107
| url = http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-0279(197401%2F03)94%3A1%3C96%3ATBOVC%3E2.0.CO%3B2-E
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| doi = 10.2307/599733 <!--Retrieved from CrossRef by DOI bot-->
}}</ref>
Devotees of Krishna subscribe to the concept of ''[[lila]]'', meaning 'divine play', as the central principle of the [[universe]]. The ''lilas'' of Krishna, with their expressions of personal love that transcend the boundaries of formal reverence, serve as a counterpoint to the actions of another avatar of Vishnu: [[Rama]], "He of the straight and narrow path of ''maryada,'' or rules and regulations."<ref name = "Kennedy1925"/>
The Bhakti movements devoted to Krishna became prominent in southern India in the 7th to 9th centuries CE. The earliest works included those of the [[Alvars|Alvar]] saints of the [[Tamil language|Tamil]] country.<ref name=Vaudeville1962>{{cite journal
| author = Vaudeville, C.
| year = 1962
| title = Evolution of Love-Symbolism in Bhagavatism
| journal = Journal of the American Oriental Society
| volume = 82
| issue = 1
| pages = 31–40
| url = http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-0279(196201%2F03)82%3A1%3C31%3AEOLIB%3E2.0.CO%3B2-S
| accessdate = 2008-06-20
| doi = 10.2307/595976
}}</ref> A major collection of their works is the ''[[Divya Prabandham]]''. The Alvar [[Andal]]'s popular collection of songs [[Tiruppavai]], in which she conceives of herself as a gopi, is perhaps the most well know of the oldest works in this genre.<ref name="cassel">{{cite book |author=Bowen, Paul |title=Themes and issues in Hinduism |publisher=Cassell |location=London |year=1998 |pages=p. 64-65 |isbn=0-304-33851-6 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref><ref name=Radhak1975>{{cite book
| author = Radhakrisnasarma, C.
| year = 1975
| title = Landmarks in Telugu Literature: A Short Survey of Telugu Literature
| publisher = Lakshminarayana Granthamala
| isbn =
}}</ref>
<ref name=histor>{{cite book
| author = Sisir Kumar Das
| year = 2005
| title =A History of Indian Literature, 500-1399: From Courtly to the Popular
| publisher = Sahitya Akademi
|pages = p. 49
| isbn = 8126021713
}}</ref> [[Kulasekaraazhvaar]]'s [[Mukundamala]] was another notable work of this early stage.
===Spread of the Krishna-bhakti movement===
[[Image:Westindischer Maler um 1550 001.jpg|right|300px|thumb|[[Gita Govinda]] by [[Jayadeva]].]]
The movement spread rapidly from northern India into the south, with the [[Sanskrit]] poem ''[[Gita Govinda]]'' of [[Jayadeva]] (12th century CE) becoming a landmark of devotional, Krishna-based literature. It elaborated a part of the Krishna legend - his love for one particular [[gopi]], called [[Radha]], a minor character in ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'' but a major one in other texts like ''[[Brahma Vaivarta Purana]]''. By the influence of ''Gita Govinda'', Radha became inseparable from devotion to Krishna.<ref name= "Mahony1987"/>
While the learned sections of the society well versed in Sanskrit could enjoy works like ''Gita Govinda'' or [[Bilvamangala]]'s ''[[Krishna-Karnamritam]]'', the masses sang the songs of the devotee-poets, who composed in the regional languages of India. These songs expressing intense personal devotion were written by devotees from all walks of life. The songs of [[Mirabai]] and [[Surdas]] became epitomes of Krishna-devotion in north India.
These devotee-poets, like the Alvars before them, were aligned to specific theological schools only loosely, if at all. But by the 11th century CE, [[Vaishnava]] Bhakti schools with elaborate theological frameworks around the worship of Krishna were established in north India. [[Nimbarka]] (11th century CE), [[Vallabhacharya]] (15th century CE) and [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] (16th century CE) were the founders of the most influential schools. These schools, namely [[Nimbarka sampradaya]], [[Vallabha Sampradaya]] and [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism]] respectively, see Krishna as the supreme god, rather than an avatar, as generally seen.
In the [[Deccan]], particularly in [[Maharashtra]], saint poets of the [[Varkari]] sect such as [[Dnyaneshwar]], [[Namdev]], [[Janabai]], [[Eknath]] and [[Tukaram]] promoted the worship of [[Vithoba]]<ref name = "vithoba"/>, a local form of Krishna, from the beginning of the 13th century until the late 18th century.<ref name= "Mahony1987"/> In southern India, [[Purandara Dasa]] and [[Kanakadasa]] of [[Karnataka]] composed songs devoted to the Krishna image of [[Udupi]]. [[Rupa Goswami]] of Gaudiya Vaishnavism, has compiled a comprehensive summary of bhakti named [[Bhakti-rasamrita-sindhu]].<ref name = "Klostermaier1974"/>
===In the West===
[[Image:Radhakrishna manor.JPG|thumb|200pright|Krishna (left) with the flute with gopi-consort Radha, [[Bhaktivedanta Manor]], [[Watford]], England]]
Since 1966, the Krishna ''bhakti'' movement has also spread outside India.<ref name="Iskcon">{{Cite web|url=http://www.iskcon.com/worldwide/centres/index.html|title=Iskcon address listing|accessdate=2008-04-19|publisher=iskcon.com|format=html|language=engl}}</ref> This is largely due to the evangelistic ''[[Hare Krishna]]'' movement, the largest part of which is the [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness]] (ISKCON).<ref> {{citation |last = Selengut |first= Charles| title = Charisma and Religious Innovation:Prabhupada and the Founding of ISKCON| journal = ISKCON Communications Journal| volume= 4| issue = 2|year = 1996|url=http://www.iskcon.com/icj/4_2/4_2charisma.html}}</ref> The movement was founded by [[Prabhupada]], who was instructed by his [[guru]], [[Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakura]], to write about Krishna in English and to share the Gaudiya Vaishnava philosophy with people in the Western world.<ref> ''Prabhupada - He Built a House, Satsvarupa dasa Goswami, Bhaktivedanta Book Trust, 1983, ISBN 0-89213-133-0'' page xv</ref>
==In the performing arts==
While discussing the origin of Indian theatre, Horwitz talks about the mention of the Krishna story in [[Patanjali]]'s [[Mahabhashya]] (c. 150 BC), where the episodes of slaying of Kamsa (Kamsa Vadha) and "Binding of the heaven storming titan" (Bali Bandha) are described.<ref>Varadpande p.231</ref> [[Bhasa]]'s ''Balacharitam'' and ''Dutavakyam'' (c. 400 BC) are the only [[Sanskrit]] plays written by a major classical dramatist. The former dwells only on his childhood exploits and the latter is a one-act play based on a single episode from the ''Mahābhārata'' when Krishna tries to make peace between the warring cousins.<ref>Varadpande p.232-3</ref>
From the 10th century AD, with the growing Bhakti movement, Krishna became a favourite subject of the arts. The songs of the ''[[Gita Govinda]]'' became popular across India, and had many imitations. The songs composed by the Bhakti poets added to the repository of both folk and classical singing.
[[Image:Kathakali Kerala India.jpg|thumb|left|[[Kathakali]] performer as Krishna.]]
The classical dances of India, especially [[Odissi]] and [[Manipuri dance|Manipuri]], draw heavily on the story. The '[[Rasa lila]]' dances performed in [[Vrindavana]] shares elements with [[Kathak]], and the [[Krisnattam]], with some cycles, such as Krishnattam, traditionally restricted to the [[Guruvayur temple]], the precursor of [[Kathakali]].<ref name=Zarrilli2000>{{cite book
| author = Zarrilli, P.B.
| year = 2000
| title = Kathakali Dance-Drama: Where Gods and Demons Come to Play
| publisher = Routledge
| pages = p. 246
}}</ref> The [[Sattriya]] dance, founded by the [[Assam]]ese Vaishnava saint [[Srimanta Sankardeva|Sankardeva]], extols the virtues of Krishna.
Medieval [[Maharashtra]] gave birth to a form of storytelling known as the ''Hari-Katha'', that told Vaishnava tales and teachings through music, dance, and narrative sequences, and the story of Krishna one of them. This tradition spread to [[Tamil Nadu]] and other southern states, and is now popular in many places throughout India.
[[Narayana Tirtha]]'s (17th century CE) ''Krishna-Lila-Tarangini'' provided material for the musical plays of the ''Bhagavata-Mela'' by telling the tale of Krishna from birth until his marriage to [[Rukmini]]. [[Tyagaraja]] (18th century CE) wrote a similar piece about Krishna called ''Nauka-Charitam''. The narratives of Krishna from the Puranas are performed in [[Yakshagana]], a performance style native to [[Karnataka]]'s coastal districts.
Many movies in all Indian languages have been made based on these stories. These are of varying quality and usually add various songs, melodrama, and special effects.
==In other religions==
[[Image:Holi.JPG|thumb|200px|"[[Celebration]] of Spring by Krishna and [[Radha]]," 18th century miniature; in the [[Guimet Museum]], [[Paris]]]]
;Jainism
The most exalted figures in Jainism are the twenty-four Tirthankaras. Krishna, when he was incorporated into the [[Jain]] list of heroic figures presented a problem with his activities which are not pacifist or non-violent. The concept of Baladeva, Vasudeva and Prati-Vasudeva was used to solve it. The Jain list of sixty-three Shalakapurshas or notable figures includes amongst others, the twenty-four Tirthankaras and nine sets of this triad. One of these triads is Krishna as the Vasudeva, Balarama as the Baladeva and Jarasandha as the Prati-Vasudeva. He was a cousin of the twenty-second Tirthankara, Neminatha. The stories of these triads can be found in the ''Harivamsha'' of Jinasena (not be confused with its namesake, the addendum to ''Mahābhārata'') and the ''Trishashti-shalakapurusha-charita'' of Hemachandra.<ref name = Jer>See Jerome H. Bauer ''""Hero of Wonders, Hero in Deeds: [http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&ie=UTF-8&id=0SJ73GHSCF8C&oi=fnd&pg=PA151&dq=Prati+Vasudeva&ots=i1khlTWF0z&sig=1N2BAr9x5mXAMagaZcPmiFfVLak '''Vasudeva '''Krishna in Jaina Cosmohistory] '' in {{Harvnb|Beck|2005|pp=167-169}}</ref>
In each age of the Jain cyclic time is born a Vasudeva with an elder brother termed the Baladeva. The villain is the Prati-vasudeva. Baladeva is the upholder of the Jain principle of non-violence. However, Vasudeva has to forsake this principle to kill the Prati-Vasudeva and save the world. The Vasudeva then has to descend to hell as punishment for this violent act. Having undergone the punishment he is then reborn as a Tirthankara.<ref name=Jaini1993>{{cite journal
| author = Jaini, P.S.
| year = 1993
| title = Jaina Puranas: A Puranic Counter Tradition
| url = http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&ie=UTF-8&id=-kZFzHCuiFAC&oi=fnd&pg=PA207&dq=Prati+Vasudeva&ots=SrTawB327V&sig=Dhq7DR07iyRfYr9gCgeoXwg0THs
| doi = 10.2307/599733
| journal = Journal of the American Oriental Society
| volume = 94
| pages = 96
}}</ref><ref name=Cort1993>{{cite journal
| author = Cort, J.E.
| year = 1993
| title = An Overview of the Jaina Puranas
| url = http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&ie=UTF-8&id=-kZFzHCuiFAC&oi=fnd&pg=PA185&dq=Prati+Vasudeva&ots=SrTawB33eW&sig=egXiuHioIMmhMHNtwFS9f6stvtk
| doi = 10.2307/599733
| journal = Journal of the American Oriental Society
| volume = 94
| pages = 96
}}</ref>
;Buddhism
[[Image:Krishna depictions in Todai-ji Temple of Nara.png|thumb|200px|Depiction of Krishna playing flute in the temple constructed in 752 CE on the order of Emperor Shomu; Todai-ji Temple, Great Buddha Hall in Nara, [[Japan]]]]
The story of Krishna occurs in the [[Jataka]] tales in [[Buddhism]],<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.vipassana.info/ay/andhakavenhu_puttaa.htm
|title=Andhakavenhu Puttaa
|publisher=www.vipassana.info
|accessdate=2008-06-15
}}
</ref> in the Ghatapandita Jataka as a prince and legendary conqueror and king of India.<ref name=Law1941>{{cite book
| author = Law, B.C.
| year = 1941
| title = India as Described in Early Texts of Buddhism and Jainism
| publisher = Luzac
| isbn =
}}</ref> In the Buddhist version, Krishna is called ''Vasudeva'', ''Kanha'' and [[Keshava]], and [[Balarama]] is his younger brother, Baladeva. These details resemble that of the story given in the [[Bhagavata Purana]]. Vasudeva, along with his nine other brothers (each son a powerful wrestler) and one elder sister (Anjana) capture all of [[Jambudvipa]] (many consider this to be India) after beheading their evil uncle, King [[Kamsa]], and later all other kings of Jambudvipa with his [[Sudarshana Chakra]]. Much of the story involving the defeat of [[Kamsa]] follows the story given in the [[Bhagavata Purana]].<ref name=Jaiswal>{{cite journal
| author = Jaiswal, S.
| year = 1974
| title = Historical Evolution of the Ram Legend'
| journal = Social Scientist
| url = http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0970-0293(199303%2F04)21%3A3%2F4%3C89%3AHEOTRL%3E2.0.CO%3B2-T
| doi = 10.2307/599733
| volume = 94
| pages = 96
}}</ref>
As depicted in the [[Mahābhārata]], all of the sons are eventually killed due to a curse of sage Kanhadipayana ([[Veda Vyasa]], also known as Krishna Dwaipayana). Krishna himself is eventually speared by a hunter in the foot by mistake, leaving the sole survivor of their family being their sister, Anjanadevi of whom no further mention is made.<ref name=Hiltebeitel1990>{{cite book
| author = Hiltebeitel, A.
| year = 1990
| title = The Ritual of Battle: Krishna in the Mahabharata
| publisher = State University of New York Press
| isbn =
}}</ref>
Since Jataka tales are given from the perspective of [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]]'s previous lives (as well as the previous lives of many of Buddha's followers), Krishna appears as one of the lives of [[Sariputra]], one of Buddha's foremost disciples and the "Dhammasenapati" or "Chief General of the Dharma" and is usually shown being Buddha's "right hand man" in Buddhist art and iconography.<ref>''[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/nyanaponika/wheel090.html#turner The Turner of the Wheel]''. The Life of Sariputta, compiled and translated from the Pali texts by Nyanaponika Thera</ref> The [[Bodhisattva]], is born in this tale as one of his youngest brothers named Ghatapandita, and saves Krishna from the grief of losing his son.<ref name=Law1941/> The 'divine boy' Krishna as an embodiment of wisdom and endearing prankster is forming a part of worshipable pantheon in Japanese Buddhism.<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.jstor.org/pss/2385037
|title=Monumenta Nipponica, Vol. 42, No. 1 (Spring, 1987 ), pp. 1-23
|publisher=www.jstor.org
|accessdate=2008-07-02
|last=Guth
|first=C.M.E
}}
</ref>
;Bahá'í Faith
Bahá'ís believe that Krishna was a "[[Manifestation of God]]," or one in a line of prophets who have revealed the Word of God progressively for a gradually maturing humanity. In this way, Krishna shares an exalted station with [[Abraham]], [[Moses]], [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]], [[Zoroaster]], [[Jesus]], [[Muhammad]], the [[Báb]], and the founder of the [[Bahá'í Faith]], [[Bahá'u'lláh]].<ref>{{cite book |author= Esslemont, J.E. |authorlink=John Esslemont |year= 1980 |title= Bahá'u'lláh and the New Era |edition= 5th ed. |publisher=Bahá'í Publishing Trust |location=Wilmette, Illinois, USA |id= ISBN 0-87743-160-4 |url= http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/je/BNE/bne-6.html#gr5 |pages = pp. 2}}</ref>
;Ahmadiyya Islam
Members of the [[Ahmadiyya Muslim Community]] believe Krishna to be a great prophet of God as described by their founder, [[Mirza Ghulam Ahmad]]:
:''Let it be clear that Lord Krishna, according to what has been revealed to me, was such a truly great man that it is hard to find his like among the [[rishis]] and avatars of the Hindus. He was an avatar (i.e. a prophet) of his time upon whom the Holy Spirit would descend from God. He was from God, victorious and prosperous. He cleansed the land of the [[Arya]] from sin and was in fact the prophet of his age whose teaching was later corrupted in numerous ways. He was full of love for God, a friend of virtue and an enemy of evil.''<ref>{{cite book | title = Lecture Sialkot | first = Mirza Ghulam | last = Ahmad | publisher = Islam International Publications Ltd. | location = Tilford | date = 2007 |id = ISBN 1-85372-917-5 | url = http://alislam.org/library/books/LectureSialkot.pdf}}</ref>
;Other
Krishna worship or reverence has been adopted by several [[new religious movements]] since the 19th century, and he is sometimes a member of an eclectic pantheon in [[occult]] texts, along with [[Greek mythology|Greek]], [[Buddhist]], [[Bible|Biblical]] and even historical figures.<ref> {{cite journal |last= Harvey |first= D. A. |authorlink= |year= 2003|month= |title= Beyond Enlightenment: Occultism, Politics, and Culture in France from the Old Regime to the ''Fin-de-Siècle'' |journal= [[The Historian (journal)|The Historian]] |volume= 65 |issue= 3 |pages= 665–694| publisher = [[Blackwell Publishing]] |quote=|doi= 10.1111/1540-6563.00035}}</ref> For instance, [[Édouard Schuré]], an influential figure in [[perennial philosophy]] and occult movements, considered Krishna a ''Great Initiate''; while [[Theosophist]]s regard him as one of the ''Masters'', a spiritual teacher for humanity.<ref name = Schure>{{cite book|last = Schure| first = Edouard| authorlink = Édouard Schuré |title=Great Initiates: A Study of the Secret History of Religions| publisher = Garber Communications| year = 1992|isbn = 0893452289}}</ref><ref name = Others> See for example: {{cite book|last = Hanegraaff |first = Wouter J. | authorlink = Wouter Hanegraaff |title = New Age Religion and Western Culture: Esotericism in the Mirror of Secular Thought |publisher = [[Brill Publishers]] |year= 1996|pages =p. 390 |isbn=9004106960}}, {{cite book|last = Hammer |first =Olav| authorlink = Olav Hammer |title = Claiming Knowledge: Strategies of Epistemology from Theosophy to the New Age|publisher =[[Brill Publishers]] |year=2004 |pages =p. 62, 174 |isbn = 900413638X}}, and {{cite book|last = Ellwood |first = Robert S. |title =Theosophy: A Modern Expression of the Wisdom of the Ages | publisher = Quest Books |pages= p. 139 |year =1986 |isbn=0835606074 }}</ref> Krishna was canonized by [[Aleister Crowley]] and is [[Saints of Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica|recognized as a saint]] in the [[Gnostic Mass]] of [[Ordo Templi Orientis]].<ref>Crowley associated Krishna with Roman god [[Dionysus]] and [[Magick|Magickal formulae]] IAO, [[Aum|AUM]] and [[INRI]]. See {{Cite book|last = Crowley|first = Aleister| authorlink = Aleister Crowley | title = Liber Aleph| |publisher = Weiser Books| isbn=0877287295| pages = 71|url = http://sacred-texts.com/oto/aleph_3.htm}} and {{cite book | last = Crowley|first = Aleister| authorlink = Aleister Crowley| title = [[The Book of Lies (Crowley)|The Book of Lies]]| publisher = Red Wheels| year = 1980|isbn = 0877285160| pages = 24-25}}</ref><ref> {{cite book|last = Apiryon |first = Tau |coauthors = Apiryon |title = Mystery of Mystery: A Primer of Thelemic Ecclesiastical Gnosticism | publisher = Red Flame|location= Berkeley, CA|year = 1995| isbn = 0971237611}} </ref>
==Krishnology==
{{main|Krishnology}}
Vaishnava theology has been a subject of study for many devotees, philosophers and scholars within [[India]] for centuries.<ref name = "Thomson"/> In recent decades this study called ''[[Krishnology]]'', has also been taken on by a number of academic institutions in Europe, such as the [[Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies]] and [[Bhaktivedanta College]]. The Vaishnava scholars instrumental in this western discourse include [[Tamala Krishna Goswami]], [[Hridayananda dasa Goswami]], [[Graham Schweig]], [[Kenneth R. Valpey]], [[Ravindra Svarupa dasa]], [[Sivarama Swami]], [[Satyaraja Dasa]], and [[Guy Beck]], among others.<ref name = Delmonico/>
==See also==
{{Krishna|state=autocollapse}}
==Footnotes==
{{Reflist|3}}
==References==
<div class="references-small">
*{{citation
|last=Beck
|first = Guy L.
|authorlink= Guy Beck
|title=Sonic theology: Hinduism and sacred sound
|publisher=University of South Carolina Press
|location=Columbia, S.C
|year=1993
|pages=
|isbn=0-87249-855-7
}}
*{{citation
| last = Bryant
| first = Edwin H.
|year=2007
|title=Krishna: A Sourcebook
|publisher=Oxford University Press, USA
|pages=
|isbn=0-19-514891-6
}}
* ''The Mahabharata'' of Krishna-Dwaipayana Vyasa, translated by [[Kisari Mohan Ganguli]], published between 1883 and 1896
* ''The Vishnu-Purana'', translated by H. H. Wilson, (1840)
* ''The Srimad Bhagavatam'', translated by [[A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada]], (1988) copyright [[Bhaktivedanta Book Trust]]
* {{citation | last = Knott | first = Kim | year = 2000 | pages = 160 | title = Hinduism: A Very Short Introduction | publisher = Oxford University Press, USA | isbn = 0192853872 }}
* ''The Jataka or Stories of the Buddha's Former Births'', edited by E. B. Cowell, (1895)
* {{citation |first=Maria|last= Ekstrand|editor= Bryant, Edwin H. |title=The Hare Krishna movement: the postcharismatic fate of a religious transplant |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |year=2004 |pages= |isbn=0-231-12256-X }}
* {{citation | title = The Qualities of Sri Krsna | first = S.D |last=Goswami| authorlink = Satsvarupa dasa Goswami | publisher = GNPress | date = 1998 | isbn = 0911233644}}
* ''Garuda Pillar of Besnagar'', Archaeological Survey of India, Annual Report (1908-1909). Calcutta: Superintendent of Government Printing, 1912, 129.
* {{citation | title =Alternative Krishnas: Regional and Vernacular Variations on a Hindu Deity | last = Beck| first = Guy L. (Ed.) | authorlink = Guy Beck |url = http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=0SJ73GHSCF8C | publisher = SUNY Press | year = 2005 | isbn =0791464156}}
*{{citation
|last = Valpey
|first = Kenneth R.
|year=2006
|title=Attending {{IAST|Kṛṣṇa}}'s image: {{IAST|Caitanya Vaiṣṇava mūrti-sevā}} as devotional truth
|publisher=Routledge
|location=New York
|pages=
|isbn=0-415-38394-3
|url=http://books.google.ie/books?id=X_guAAAACAAJ
}}
*A. L. Dallapiccola (1982), London ''Krishna the Divine Lover: Myth and Legend Through Indian Art''
* ''History of Indian Theatre'' By M. L. Varadpande. Chapter ''Theatre of Krishna'', pp.231-94. Published 1991, Abhinav Publications, ISBN 8170172780.
</div>
==External links==
;Articles
*[http://www.krishna.com All about Krishna (various articles)] (krishna.com)
*[http://veda.harekrsna.cz/encyclopedia/historical-krsna.htm The Search for the Historical Krishna, by Prof. N.S. Rajaram] (veda.harekrsna.cz)
*[http://www.stephen-knapp.com/sri_krishna.htm Sri Krishna - Differences in Realisation & Perception of the Supreme] (stephen-knapp.com)
*[http://srimadbhagavatam.com/1/3/28/en1 The full text of the Bhagavata Purana (Srimad-Bhagavatam)] (srimadbhagavatam.com)
*[http://www.hinduwisdom.info/Dwaraka.htm. Hindu Wisdom - Dwarka] (http://www.hinduwisdom.info/Dwaraka.htm)
*[http://www.gosai.com/chaitanya/saranagati/html/vedic-upanisads/vedic-archeology.html Vedic Archeology (A Vaishnava Perspective)] (gosai.com)
*[http://www.hindujagruti.org/hinduism/knowledge/category/lord-krushna Good series of articles about Sri Krishna]
*[http://csr.uchicago.edu/content/1-2-fisher.html The Devious God: Mythological Roots of Krishna’s Trickery in the Mahabharata by Elaine Fisher]
*[http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/mythology/krishna/index.htm Exploits of Lord Krishna]
*[http://www.exoticindiaart.com/article/krishnaimage/ Iconographic Perceptions of Krishna's Image; - by P. C. Jain]
;Miscellaneous
*[http://www.sreecgmath.org Shri Chaitanya Gaudiya Math - The bhakti tradition and Gaudiya Vaishnavism] (sreecgmath.org)
*[http://www.ISKCON.com The International Society for Krishna Consciousness] (iskcon.com)
*[http://www.vrindavan.com/darshan/albums.php Krishna Deity Gallery] (vrindavan.com)
*[http://krishna.avatara.org/ Krishna - His life] (krishna.avatara.org)
*[http://www.krishnajanmashtami.com Krishna 'Janmashtami' - The celebration of Krishna's birth] (krishnajanmashtami.com)
*[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/msid-844211,curpg-1.cms Article on the chronology of Krishna] (timesofindia.indiatimes.com)
*[http://www.stutimandal.com/poems_krishna.htm Devotional hymns and eulogies on Krishna] (stutimandal.com)
* For chronology of Krishna's life see: [http://in.news.yahoo.com/040910/43/2fzje.html "Yahoo! India News, Thu, Sep 16, 2004: Top Stories, Friday September 10, 8:41 AM, Chronicling Krishna's life - to the last second, by Ashish Mehta, Indo-Asian News Service"]
* [http://www.hindunet.org/hindu_history/ancient/mahabharat/mahab_vartak.html Scientific Dating of the Mahabharat War]
{{VishnuAvatars|state = collapsed}}
{{Mahābhārata|state = collapsed}}
{{Hindu Culture and Epics|state = collapsed}}
[[Category:Characters in the Mahābhārata]]
[[Category:Forms of Vishnu]]
[[Category:Hindu gods]]
[[Category:Krishna| ]]
[[Category:Manifestations of God in the Bahá'í Faith]]
[[Category:Titles and names of Krishna]]
[[Category:Vaishnavism]]
[[Category:Sanskrit words and phrases]]
[[Category:Characters in Bhagavatam]]
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