Laser
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225977807
2008-07-16T08:29:24Z
Hankwang
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Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/194.74.190.163|194.74.190.163]] ([[User talk:194.74.190.163|talk]]) to last version by ClueBot
{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Military laser experiment.jpg|thumb|300px|Experiment with a laser ([[USAF|U.S. Air Force]])]]
A '''laser''' is an electronic-optical device that emits [[coherence (physics)|coherent]] light [[radiation]]. The term "laser" is an [[acronym]] for ''Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation''.<ref name="Gould1959">{{cite book |last=Gould |first= R. Gordon |authorlink=Gordon Gould |year=1959 |chapter=The LASER, Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation |editor= Franken, P.A. and Sands, R.H. (Eds.) | title = The Ann Arbor Conference on Optical Pumping, the University of Michigan, June 15 through June 18, 1959 |pages=p. 128 |oclc=02460155}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-05-15|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/laser|title=laser |publisher=[[Reference.com]] }}</ref> A typical laser emits light in a narrow, low-[[Beam divergence|divergence]] beam, with a narrow [[wavelength]] [[electromagnetic spectrum|spectrum]] ("monochromatic" light). In this respect, laser light is in sharp contrast with such [[light source]]s as the [[incandescent light bulb]], which emits incoherent light (out of phase with itself) over a wide area and over a wide spectrum of wavelengths, and differs from LED light which is not coherent.
The first working laser was demonstrated on [[May 16]], [[1960]] by [[Theodore Maiman]] at [[Hughes Research Laboratories]].<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-05-15|url=http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/284158_townes.html|title=The first laser |publisher=[[University of Chicago]]|author=[[Charles Hard Townes|Townes, Charles Hard]] }}</ref> Since then, lasers have become a multi-billion dollar industry. The most widespread{{Fact|date=May 2008}} use of lasers is in [[optical storage]] devices such as [[compact disc]] and [[DVD]] players, in which the laser (a few millimeters in size) scans the surface of the disc. Other common applications of lasers are [[bar code]] readers, [[laser printers]] and [[laser pointer]]s.
In industry, lasers are used for [[Laser cutting|cutting]] steel and other metals and for inscribing patterns (such as the letters on computer keyboards). Lasers are also commonly used in various fields in [[science]], especially [[spectroscopy]], typically because of their well-defined wavelength or short pulse duration in the case of pulsed lasers. Lasers are used by the military for rangefinding, target identification and illumination for weapons delivery. Lasers have also recently begun to be used as weapons. Lasers used in medicine are used for internal surgery and cosmetic applications.
== Design ==
[[Image:Laser.svg|thumb|Principal components:<br>1. Gain medium<br>2. Laser pumping energy<br>3. High reflector<br>4. [[Output coupler]]<br>5. Laser beam]]
{{main|Laser construction}}
A laser consists of a [[Active laser medium|gain medium]] inside a highly reflective [[optical cavity]], as well as a means to supply energy to the gain medium. The gain medium is a material with properties that allow it to amplify light by [[stimulated emission]]. In its simplest form, a cavity consists of two mirrors arranged such that light bounces back and forth, each time passing through the gain medium. Typically one of the two mirrors, the [[output coupler]], is partially transparent. The output laser beam is emitted through this mirror.
Light of a specific wavelength that passes through the gain medium is [[optical amplifier|amplified]] (increases in power); the surrounding mirrors ensure that most of the light makes many passes through the gain medium, being amplified repeatedly. Part of the light that is between the mirrors (that is, within the cavity) passes through the partially transparent mirror and escapes as a beam of light.
The process of supplying the energy required for the amplification is called [[laser pumping|pumping]]. The energy is typically supplied as an electrical current or as light at a different wavelength. Such light may be provided by a [[flash lamp]] or perhaps another laser. Most practical lasers contain additional elements that affect properties such as the wavelength of the emitted light and the shape of the beam.
==Terminology==
[[Image:Spectre.svg|thumb|right|From left to right: [[gamma rays]], [[X-rays]], [[ultraviolet]] rays, [[visible spectrum]], [[infrared]], [[microwaves]], [[radio waves]]]]
The word ''laser'' originated as an acronym for ''light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation''. The word ''light'' in this phrase is used in the broader sense, referring to electromagnetic radiation of any frequency, not just that in the [[visible spectrum]]. Hence there are ''[[infrared]] lasers'', ''[[ultraviolet]] lasers'', ''[[X-ray]] lasers'', etc. Because the [[microwave]] equivalent of the laser, the ''[[maser]]'', was developed first, devices that emit microwave and [[Radio frequency|radio]] frequencies are usually called ''masers''. In early literature, particularly from researchers at [[Bell Telephone Laboratories]], the laser was often called the ''optical maser''. This usage has since become uncommon, and as of 1998 even Bell Labs uses the term ''laser''.<ref> {{cite web
| title = Schawlow and Townes invent the laser
| publisher = Lucent Technologies
|date=1998
| url = http://www.bell-labs.com/about/history/laser/
| accessdate = 2006-10-24 }}</ref>
The [[back-formation|back-formed]] verb ''to lase'' means "to produce laser light" or "to apply laser light to".<ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/lase Dictionary.com - "lase"]</ref> The word "laser" is sometimes used to describe other non-light technologies. For example, a source of atoms in a coherent state is called an "[[atom laser]]".
==Laser physics==
[[Image:Laser DSC09088.JPG|thumb|A [[helium-neon laser]] demonstration at the [[Kastler-Brossel Laboratory]] at [[Paris VI|Univ. Paris 6]]. The glowing ray in the middle is an electric discharge producing light in much the same way as a neon light. It is the [[active laser medium|gain medium]] through which the laser passes, ''not'' the laser beam itself, which is visible there. The laser beam crosses the air and marks a red point on the screen to the right.]]
[[Image:Helium neon laser spectrum.png|thumb|Spectrum of a helium neon laser showing the very high spectral purity intrinsic to nearly all lasers. Compare with the relatively broad [[:Image:Red-YellowGreen-Blue LED spectra.png|spectral emittance of a light emitting diode]].]]
{{seealso|Laser science}}
The gain medium of a laser is a material of controlled purity, size, concentration, and shape, which amplifies the beam by the process of stimulated emission. It can be of any [[state of matter|state]]: [[gas]], [[liquid]], [[solid]] or [[plasma (physics)|plasma]]. The gain medium absorbs pump energy, which raises some electrons into higher-energy ("[[excited state|excited]]") [[quantum state]]s. Particles can interact with light both by absorbing photons or by emitting photons. Emission can be spontaneous or stimulated. In the latter case, the photon is emitted in the same direction as the light that is passing by. When the number of particles in one excited state exceeds the number of particles in some lower-energy state, [[population inversion]] is achieved and the amount of stimulated emission due to light that passes through is larger than the amount of absorption. Hence, the light is amplified. By itself, this makes an [[optical amplifier]]. When an optical amplifier is placed inside a resonant optical cavity, one obtains a laser.
The light generated by stimulated emission is very similar to the input signal in terms of wavelength, [[phase (waves)|phase]], and polarization. This gives laser light its characteristic coherence, and allows it to maintain the uniform polarization and often monochromaticity established by the optical cavity design.
The optical cavity, a type of [[cavity resonator]], contains a coherent beam of light between reflective surfaces so that the light passes through the gain medium more than once before it is emitted from the output aperture or lost to diffraction or absorption. As light circulates through the cavity, passing through the gain medium, if the gain (amplification) in the medium is stronger than the resonator losses, the power of the circulating light can rise [[exponential growth|exponentially]]. But each stimulated emission event returns a particle from its excited state to the ground state, reducing the capacity of the gain medium for further amplification. When this effect becomes strong, the gain is said to be ''saturated''. The balance of pump power against gain saturation and cavity losses produces an equilibrium value of the laser power inside the cavity; this equilibrium determines the operating point of the laser. If the chosen pump power is too small, the gain is not sufficient to overcome the resonator losses, and the laser will emit only very small light powers. The minimum pump power needed to begin laser action is called the ''[[lasing threshold]]''. The gain medium will amplify any photons passing through it, regardless of direction; but only the photons aligned with the cavity manage to pass more than once through the medium and so have significant amplification.
The beam in the cavity and the output beam of the laser, if they occur in free space rather than waveguides (as in an [[optical fiber]] laser), are, at best, low order [[Gaussian beam]]s. However this is rarely the case with powerful lasers. If the beam is not a low-order Gaussian shape, the [[transverse mode]]s of the beam can be described as a superposition of [[Hermite polynomials|Hermite]]-[[Gaussian function|Gaussian]] or [[Laguerre polynomials|Laguerre]]-Gaussian beams (for stable-cavity lasers). Unstable laser resonators on the other hand, have been shown to produce fractal shaped beams.<ref>G.P. Karman, G.S. McDonald, G.H.C. New, J.P. Woerdman, "[http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v402/n6758/abs/402138a0.html Laser Optics: Fractal modes in unstable resonators]", Nature, Vol. 402, 138, 11 November 1999.</ref> The beam may be highly ''[[collimated light|collimated]]'', that is being parallel without [[beam divergence|diverging]]. However, a perfectly collimated beam cannot be created, due to [[diffraction]]. The beam remains collimated over a distance which varies with the square of the beam diameter, and eventually diverges at an angle which varies inversely with the beam diameter. Thus, a beam generated by a small laboratory laser such as a [[helium-neon laser]] spreads to about 1.6 kilometers (1 mile) diameter if shone from the [[Earth]] to the [[Moon]]. By comparison, the output of a typical semiconductor laser, due to its small diameter, diverges almost as soon as it leaves the aperture, at an angle of anything up to 50°. However, such a divergent beam can be transformed into a collimated beam by means of a [[lens (optics)|lens]]. In contrast, the light from non-laser light sources cannot be collimated by optics as well.
Although the laser phenomenon was discovered with the help of [[quantum physics]], it is not essentially more quantum mechanical than other light sources. The operation of a [[free electron laser]] can be explained without reference to [[quantum mechanics]].
===Modes of operation===
The output of a laser may be a continuous constant-amplitude output (known as ''CW'' or ''[[continuous wave]]''); or pulsed, by using the techniques of [[Q-switching]], [[modelocking]], or [[gain-switching]]. In pulsed operation, much higher peak powers can be achieved.
Some types of lasers, such as ''dye lasers'' and ''vibronic solid-state lasers'' can produce light over a broad range of wavelengths; this property makes them suitable for generating extremely short pulses of light, on the order of a few [[1 E-15 s|femtosecond]]s (10<sup>-15</sup> s).
==== Continuous wave operation ====
In the [[continuous wave]] (CW) mode of operation, the output of a laser is relatively consistent with respect to time. The population inversion required for lasing is continually maintained by a steady pump source.
==== Pulsed operation ====
In the pulsed mode of operation, the output of a laser varies with respect to time, typically taking the form of alternating 'on' and 'off' periods. In many applications one aims to deposit as much energy as possible at a given place in as short time as possible. In [[laser ablation]] for example, a small volume of material at the surface of a work piece might evaporate if it gets the energy required to heat it up far enough in very short time. If, however, the same energy is spread over a longer time, the heat may have time to [[disperse]] into the bulk of the piece, and less material evaporates. There are a number of methods to achieve this.
=====Q-switching=====
{{main|Q-switching}}
In a Q-switched laser, the population inversion (usually produced in the same way as CW operation) is allowed to build up by making the cavity conditions (the 'Q') unfavorable for lasing. Then, when the pump energy stored in the laser medium is at the desired level, the 'Q' is adjusted (electro- or acousto-optically) to favorable conditions, releasing the pulse. This results in high peak powers as the average power of the laser (were it running in CW mode) is packed into a shorter time frame.
===== Modelocking =====
{{main|Modelocking}}
A modelocked laser emits extremely short pulses on the order of tens of [[picosecond]]s down to less than 10 [[femtoseconds]]. These pulses are typically separated by the time that a pulse takes to complete one round trip in the resonator cavity. Due to the [[Fourier transform#Localization property|Fourier limit]] (also known as energy-time [[Uncertainty principle|uncertainty]]), a pulse of such short temporal length has a spectrum which contains a wide range of wavelengths. Because of this, the laser medium must have a broad enough gain profile to amplify them all. An example of a suitable material is [[titanium]]-doped, artificially grown [[sapphire]] ([[Ti-sapphire laser|Ti:sapphire]]).
The modelocked laser is a most versatile tool for researching processes happening at extremely fast time scales also known as femtosecond physics, [[femtosecond chemistry]] and [[ultrafast science]], for maximizing the effect of [[nonlinear optics|nonlinearity]] in optical materials (e.g. in [[second-harmonic generation]], [[parametric down-conversion]], [[optical parametric oscillator]]s and the like), and in ablation applications. Again, because of the short timescales involved, these lasers can achieve extremely high powers.
=====Pulsed pumping=====
Another method of achieving pulsed laser operation is to pump the laser material with a source that is itself pulsed, either through electronic charging in the case of flashlamps, or another laser which is already pulsed. Pulsed pumping was historically used with dye lasers where the inverted population lifetime of a dye molecule was so short that a high energy, fast pump was needed. The way to overcome this problem was to charge up large capacitors which are then switched to discharge through flashlamps, producing a broad spectrum pump flash. Pulsed pumping is also required for lasers which disrupt the gain medium so much during the laser process that lasing has to cease for a short period. These lasers, such as the excimer laser and the copper vapour laser, can never be operated in CW mode.
==History==
===Foundations===
In 1917 [[Albert Einstein]], in his paper ''Zur Quantentheorie der Strahlung (On the Quantum Theory of Radiation)'', laid the foundation for the invention of the laser and its predecessor, the [[maser]], in a ground-breaking rederivation of [[Max Planck]]'s law of radiation based on the concepts of probability coefficients (later to be termed 'Einstein coefficients') for the absorption, spontaneous, and stimulated emission.
In 1928, Rudolph W. Landenburg confirmed the existence of stimulated emission and negative absorption.<ref>Steen, W. M. "Laser Materials Processing", 2nd Ed. 1998.</ref> In 1939, Valentin A. Fabrikant (USSR) predicted the use of stimulated emission to amplify "short" waves.<ref>{{it icon}} [http://wwwold.unimib.it/ateneo/presentazione/direzione_ammva/prevenzione_protezione/Semin_sicur_laser.ppt Il rischio da laser: cosa è e come affrontarlo; analisi di un problema non così lontano da noi] ("The risk from laser: what it is and what it is like facing it; analysis of a problem which is thus mot far away from us."), PROGRAMMA CORSO DI FORMAZIONE OBBLIGATORIO ANNO 2004, Dimitri Batani (Powerpoint presentation >7Mb). Retrieved [[1 January]] 2007.</ref>
In 1947, [[Willis E. Lamb]] and R. C. Retherford found apparent stimulated emission in hydrogen spectra and made the first demonstration of stimulated emission.<ref>Steen, W. M. "Laser Materials Processing", 2nd Ed. 1998.</ref>
In 1950, [[Alfred Kastler]] (Nobel Prize for Physics 1966) proposed the method of optical pumping, which was experimentally confirmed by Brossel, Kastler and Winter two years later.<ref>[http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1966/press.html The Nobel Prize in Physics 1966] Presentation Speech by Professor Ivar Waller. Retrieved [[1 January]] 2007.</ref>
===Maser===
In 1953, [[Charles Townes|Charles H. Townes]] and graduate students James P. Gordon and Herbert J. Zeiger produced the first microwave amplifier, a device operating on similar principles to the laser, but amplifying [[microwave]] rather than [[infrared]] or visible radiation. Townes's [[maser]] was incapable of continuous output. [[Nikolay Basov]] and [[Aleksandr Prokhorov]] of the [[Soviet Union]] worked independently on the quantum [[oscillation|oscillator]] and solved the problem of continuous output systems by using more than two energy levels and produced the first maser. These systems could release [[stimulated emission]] without falling to the ground state, thus maintaining a [[population inversion]]. In 1955 Prokhorov and Basov suggested an optical pumping of multilevel system as a method for obtaining the population inversion, which later became one of the main methods of laser pumping.
Townes reports that he encountered opposition from a number of eminent colleagues who thought the maser was theoretically impossible -- including [[Niels Bohr]], [[John von Neumann]], [[Isidor Rabi]], [[Polykarp Kusch]], and Llewellyn H. Thomas[http://books.google.com/books?id=VrbD41GGeJYC&pg=PA69&lpg=PA69&dq=%22niels+bohr%22+rabi+kusch+von+neumann+laser&source=web&ots=0_A7OuramT&sig=4R4yTmk6SmJTN8mZaiOMzgg-LO4].
Townes, Basov, and Prokhorov shared the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] in 1964 "For fundamental work in the field of quantum electronics, which has led to the construction of oscillators and amplifiers based on the maser-laser principle".
===Laser===
In 1957, Charles Hard Townes and [[Arthur Leonard Schawlow]], then at [[Bell Labs]], began a serious study of the infrared laser. As ideas were developed, [[infrared]] frequencies were abandoned with focus on [[visible light]] instead. The concept was originally known as an "optical maser". Bell Labs filed a [[patent]] application for their proposed optical maser a year later. Schawlow and Townes sent a manuscript of their theoretical calculations to [[Physical Review]], which published their paper that year (Volume 112, Issue 6).
[[Image:Gould notebook 001.jpg|thumb|right|The first page of Gordon Gould's laser notebook in which he coined the acronym LASER and described the essential elements for constructing one.]]<!--
FAIR USE of Gould notebook 001.jpg: see image description page at Image:Gould notebook 001.jpg for rationale -->
At the same time [[Gordon Gould]], a graduate student at [[Columbia University]], was working on a [[doctoral thesis]] on the energy levels of excited [[thallium]]. Gould and Townes met and had conversations on the general subject of radiation [[Emission (electromagnetic radiation)|emission]]. Afterwards Gould made notes about his ideas for a "laser" in November 1957, including suggesting using an open [[resonator]], which became an important ingredient of future lasers.
In 1958, Prokhorov independently proposed using an open resonator, the first published appearance of this idea. Schawlow and Townes also settled on an open resonator design, apparently unaware of both the published work of Prokhorov and the unpublished work of Gould.
The term "laser" was first introduced to the public in Gould's 1959 conference paper "The LASER, Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation".<ref name="Gould1959">{{cite book |last=Gould |first= R. Gordon |authorlink=Gordon Gould |year=1959 |chapter=The LASER, Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation |editor= Franken, P.A. and Sands, R.H. (Eds.) | title = The Ann Arbor Conference on Optical Pumping, the University of Michigan, June 15 through June 18, 1959 |pages=p. 128 |oclc=02460155}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Chu |first=Steven |authorlink=Steven Chu |coauthors=[[Charles Hard Townes|Townes, Charles]] |editor=Edward P. Lazear (ed.), |title=Biographical Memoirs |year=2003 |others=vol. 83 |publisher=National Academy of Sciences |id=ISBN 0-309-08699-X |pages=p. 202 |chapter=Arthur Schawlow }}</ref> Gould intended "-aser" to be a suffix, to be used with an appropriate prefix for the spectrum of light emitted by the device (x-rays: ''xaser'', ultraviolet: ''uvaser'', etc.). None of the other terms became popular, although "raser" was used for a short time to describe radio-frequency emitting devices.
Gould's notes included possible applications for a laser, such as [[Spectroscopy|spectrometry]], [[interferometry]], [[radar]], and [[nuclear fusion]]. He continued working on his idea and filed a [[patent application]] in April 1959. The [[United States Patent and Trademark Office|U.S. Patent Office]] denied his application and awarded a patent to [[Bell Labs]] in 1960. This sparked a legal battle that ran 28 years, with scientific prestige and much money at stake. Gould won his first minor patent in 1977, but it was not until 1987 that he could claim his first significant patent victory when a federal judge ordered the government to issue patents to him for the optically pumped laser and the [[gas discharge]] laser.
The first working laser was made by [[Theodore Maiman|Theodore H. Maiman]] in 1960<ref>{{cite journal |last=Maiman |first=T.H. |authorlink=Theodore Harold Maiman |year=1960 |title=Stimulated optical radiation in ruby |journal=Nature |volume=187 |issue=4736 |pages=493–494 |doi=10.1038/187493a0}}</ref> at [[Hughes Research Laboratories]] in [[Malibu, California]], beating several research teams including those of [[Charles H. Townes|Townes]] at [[Columbia University]], Arthur L. Schawlow at Bell Labs,<ref>{{cite book |last=Hecht |first=Jeff |year=2005 |title=Beam: The Race to Make the Laser |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-514210-1}}</ref> and Gould at a company called TRG (Technical Research Group). Maiman used a solid-state [[flashlamp]]-pumped synthetic [[ruby]] [[crystal]] to produce red laser light at 694 nanometres wavelength. Maiman's laser, however, was only capable of pulsed operation due to its three energy level pumping scheme.
Later in 1960 the [[Iran]]ian physicist [[Ali Javan]], working with [[William R. Bennett, Jr.|William R. Bennett]] and [[Donald Herriot]], made the first [[gas laser]] using [[helium]] and [[neon]]. Javan later received the [[Albert Einstein Award]] in 1993.
The concept of the semiconductor [[laser diode]] was proposed by Basov and Javan. The first ''laser diode'' was demonstrated by [[Robert N. Hall]] in 1962. Hall's device was made of [[gallium arsenide]] and emitted at 850 nm in the near-[[infrared]] region of the spectrum. The first semiconductor laser with visible emission was demonstrated later the same year by [[Nick Holonyak|Nick Holonyak, Jr]]. As with the first gas lasers, these early semiconductor lasers could be used only in pulsed operation, and indeed only when cooled to [[liquid nitrogen]] temperatures (77 K).
In 1970, [[Zhores Ivanovich Alferov|Zhores Alferov]] in the Soviet Union and Izuo Hayashi and Morton Panish of [[Bell Telephone Laboratories]] independently developed laser diodes continuously operating at room temperature, using the [[heterojunction]] structure.
===Recent innovations===
[[Image:History of laser intensity.svg|thumb|300px|Graph showing the history of maximum laser pulse intensity throughout the past 40 years.]]
Since the early period of laser history, laser research has produced a variety of improved and specialized laser types, optimized for different performance goals, including:
* new wavelength bands
* maximum average output power
* maximum peak output power
* minimum output pulse duration
* maximum power efficiency
* maximum charging
* maximum firing
and this research continues to this day.
Lasing without maintaining the medium excited into a population inversion, was discovered in 1992 in [[sodium]] gas and again in 1995 in [[rubidium]] gas by various international teams. This was accomplished by using an external maser to induce "optical transparency" in the medium by introducing and destructively interfering the ground electron transitions between two paths, so that the likelihood for the ground electrons to absorb any energy has been cancelled.
In 1985 at the [[University of Rochester]]'s [[Laboratory for Laser Energetics]] a breakthrough in creating ultrashort-pulse, very high-intensity ([[terawatt]]s) laser pulses became available using a technique called [[chirped pulse amplification]], or CPA, discovered by [[Gérard Mourou]]. These high intensity pulses can produce [[filament propagation]] in the atmosphere.
<br style="clear:both">
==Types and operating principles==
:''For a more complete list of laser types see this [[list of laser types]].''
[[Image:Laser spectral lines.svg|thumb|300px|Spectral output of several types of lasers.]]
===Gas lasers===
[[Gas laser]]s using many [[gas]]es have been built and used for many purposes.
The [[helium-neon laser]] (HeNe) emits at a variety of wavelengths and units operating at 633 nm are very common in education because of its low cost.
[[Carbon dioxide laser]]s can emit hundreds of kilowatts<ref>{{cite web
| title = Air Force Research Lab's high power CO2 laser
| work = Defense Tech Briefs
| url = http://www.afrlhorizons.com/Briefs/Feb04/ML0315.html}}</ref><!-- Either link is broken or subscription is required for access --> at 9.6 [[µm]] and 10.6 µm, and are often used in industry for cutting and welding. The efficiency of a CO<sub>2</sub> laser is over 10%.
[[Ion laser|Argon-ion]] lasers emit light in the range 351-528.7 nm. Depending on the optics and the laser tube a different number of lines is usable but the most commonly used lines are 458 nm, 488 nm and 514.5 nm.
A nitrogen [[TEA laser|transverse electrical discharge in gas at atmospheric pressure]] (TEA) laser is an inexpensive gas laser producing UV Light at 337.1 nm.<ref>{{cite web
| last = Csele
| first = Mark
| title = The TEA Nitrogen Gas Laser
| work = Homebuilt Lasers Page
|date=2004
| url = http://www.technology.niagarac.on.ca/people/mcsele/lasers/LasersTEA.htm
| accessdate = 2007-09-15 }}</ref>
Metal ion lasers are gas lasers that generate [[deep ultraviolet]] wavelengths. [[Helium]]-[[silver]] (HeAg) 224 nm and [[neon]]-[[copper]] (NeCu) 248 nm are two examples. These lasers have particularly narrow oscillation [[linewidth]]s of less than 3 [[GHz]] (0.5 [[picometers]]),<ref>{{cite web
| title = Deep UV Lasers
| publisher = Photon Systems, Covina, Calif
| url = http://www.photonsystems.com/pdfs/duv-lasersource.pdf
| accessdate = 2007-05-27 }}</ref> making them candidates for use in [[fluorescence]] suppressed [[Raman spectroscopy]].
====Chemical lasers====
[[Chemical laser]]s are powered by a chemical reaction, and can achieve high powers in continuous operation. For example, in the [[Hydrogen fluoride laser]] (2700-2900 nm) and the [[Deuterium fluoride laser]] (3800 nm) the reaction is the combination of hydrogen or deuterium gas with combustion products of [[ethylene]] in [[nitrogen trifluoride]]. They were invented by [[George C. Pimentel]].
====Excimer lasers====
[[Excimer laser]]s are powered by a chemical reaction involving an ''excited dimer'', or ''[[excimer]]'', which is a short-lived dimeric or heterodimeric molecule formed from two species (atoms), at least one of which is in an [[excited state|excited electronic state]]. They typically produce [[ultraviolet]] light, and are used in semiconductor [[photolithography]] and in [[LASIK]] eye surgery. Commonly used excimer molecules include F<sub>2</sub> ([[fluorine]], emitting at 157 nm), and [[:Category:Noble gas compounds|noble gas compounds]] (ArF [193 nm], KrCl [222 nm], KrF [248 nm], XeCl [308 nm], and XeF [351 nm]).<ref>{{cite book
| first=D. | last=Schuocker | year=1998
| title=Handbook of the Eurolaser Academy
| publisher=Springer | id=ISBN 0412819104 }}</ref>
===Solid-state lasers===
[[Image:Starfield Optical Range - sodium laser.jpg|thumb|A 50 W [[FASOR (laser physics)|FASOR]], based on a Nd:YAG laser, used at the [[Starfire Optical Range]]]]
[[Solid state laser]] materials are commonly made by doping a crystalline solid host with ions that provide the required energy states. For example, the first working laser was a [[ruby laser]], made from [[ruby]] ([[chromium]]-doped [[corundum]]). Formally, the class of solid-state lasers includes also [[fiber laser]], as the active medium (fiber) is in the solid state. Practically, in the scientific literature, [[solid-state laser]] usually means a laser with bulk active medium; while wave-guide lasers are caller [[fiber laser]]s.
[[Neodymium]] is a common dopant in various solid state laser crystals, including [[yttrium orthovanadate]] ([[Neodymium-doped yttrium orthovanadate|Nd:YVO<sub>4</sub>]]), [[yttrium lithium fluoride]] ([[Nd:YLF]]) and [[yttrium aluminium garnet]] ([[Nd:YAG]]). All these lasers can produce high powers in the [[infrared]] spectrum at 1064 nm. They are used for cutting, welding and marking of metals and other materials, and also in [[spectroscopy]] and for pumping [[dye laser]]s. These lasers are also commonly [[nonlinear optics|frequency doubled]], [[nonlinear optics|tripled]] or [[nonlinear optics|quadrupled]] to produce 532 nm ([[green]], visible), 355 nm ([[UV]]) and 266 nm ([[UV]]) light when those wavelengths are needed.
[[Ytterbium]], [[holmium]], [[thulium]], and [[erbium]] are other common dopants in solid state lasers. Ytterbium is used in crystals such as Yb:YAG, Yb:KGW, Yb:KYW, Yb:SYS, Yb:BOYS, Yb:CaF2, typically operating around 1020-1050 nm. They are potentially very efficient and high powered due to a small quantum defect. Extremely high powers in ultrashort pulses can be achieved with Yb:YAG. [[Holmium]]-doped YAG crystals emit at 2097 nm and form an efficient laser operating at [[infrared]] wavelengths strongly absorbed by water-bearing tissues. The Ho-YAG is usually operated in a pulsed mode, and passed through optical fiber surgical devices to resurface joints, remove rot from teeth, vaporize cancers, and pulverize kidney and gall stones.
[[Titanium]]-doped sapphire ([[Ti-sapphire laser|Ti:sapphire]]) produces a highly [[tunable laser|tunable]] [[infrared]] laser, commonly used for [[spectroscopy]] as well as the most common [[ultrashort pulse]] laser.
Thermal limitations in solid-state lasers arise from unconverted pump power that manifests itself as heat and [[phonon]] energy. This heat, when coupled with a high thermo-optic coefficient (d''n''/d''T'') can give rise to thermal lensing as well as reduced quantum efficiency. These types of issues can be overcome by another novel diode-pumped solid state laser, the diode-pumped thin [[disk laser]]. The thermal limitations in this laser type are mitigated by utilizing a laser medium geometry in which the thickness is much smaller than the diameter of the pump beam. This allows for a more even thermal gradient in the material. Thin [[disk laser]]s have been shown to produce up to kilowatt levels of power.<ref>C. Stewen, M. Larionov, and A. Giesen, “Yb:YAG thin disk laser with 1 kW output power,” in OSA Trends in Optics and Photonics, Advanced Solid State Lasers, H. Injeyan, U. Keller, and C. Marshall, ed. (Optical Society of America, Washington, DC., 2000) pp. 35-41.</ref>
====Fiber-hosted lasers====
Solid-state lasers where the light is guided due to the [[total internal reflection]] in an [[optical fiber]] are called [[fiber laser]]s. Guiding of light allows extremely long gain regions providing good cooling conditions; fibers have high surface area to volume ratio which allows efficient cooling. In addition, the fiber's waveguiding properties tend to reduce thermal distortion of the beam. [[Erbium]] and [[ytterbium]] ions are common active species in such lasers.
Quite often, the fiber laser is designed as a [[double-clad fiber]]. This type of fiber consists of a fiber core, an inner cladding and an outer cladding. The index of the three concentric layers is chosen so that the fiber core acts as a single-mode fiber for the laser emission while the outer cladding acts as a highly multimode core for the pump laser. This lets the pump propagate a large amount of power into and through the active inner core region, while still having a high numerical aperture (NA) to have easy launching conditions.
Pump light can be used more efficiently by creating a [[fiber disk laser]], or a stack of such lasers.
Fiber lasers have a fundamental limit in that the intensity of the light in the fiber cannot be so high that optical nonlinearities induced by the local electric field strength can become dominant and prevent laser operation and/or lead to the material destruction of the fiber. This effect is called [[photodarkening]]. In bulk laser materials, the cooling is not so efficient, and it is difficult to separate the effects of photodarkening from the thermal effects, but the experiments in fibers show that the photodarkening can be attributed to the formation of long-living [[color center]]s.{{Fact|date=May 2008}}
====Photonic crystal lasers====
Photonic crystal lasers are lasers based on nano-structures that provide the mode confinement and the [[Density of states|density of optical states]] (DOS) structure required for the feedback to take place{{huh?}}. They are typical micron-sized and tunable on the bands of the photonic crystals. [http://www.eng.yale.edu/images/ArticlPDF/APL04A.PDF]{{huh?}}
====Semiconductor lasers====
Commercial [[laser diode]]s emit at wavelengths from 375 nm to 1800 nm, and wavelengths of over 3 µm have been demonstrated. Low power laser diodes are used in [[laser printer]]s and CD/DVD players. More powerful laser diodes are frequently used to optically [[laser pumping|pump]] other lasers with high efficiency. The highest power industrial laser diodes, with power up to 10 kW (70dBm), are used in industry for cutting and welding. External-cavity semiconductor lasers have a semiconductor active medium in a larger cavity. These devices can generate high power outputs with good beam quality, wavelength-tunable narrow-[[linewidth]] radiation, or ultrashort laser pulses.
[[Image:Diode laser.jpg|thumb|A small laser diode, most likely from a [[CD]] player or a [[DVD]] player.]]
Vertical cavity surface-emitting lasers ([[VCSEL]]s) are semiconductor lasers whose emission direction is perpendicular to the surface of the wafer. VCSEL devices typically have a more circular output beam than conventional laser diodes, and potentially could be much cheaper to manufacture. As of 2005, only 850 nm VCSELs are widely available, with 1300 nm VCSELs beginning to be commercialized,<ref> [http://lfw.pennnet.com/Articles/Article_Display.cfm?ARTICLE_ID=243400&p=12 "Picolight ships first 4-Gbit/s 1310-nm VCSEL transceivers"], ''Laser Focus World'', Dec. 9, 2005, accessed May 27, 2006</ref> and 1550 nm devices an area of research. [[VECSEL]]s are external-cavity VCSELs. [[Quantum cascade laser]]s are semiconductor lasers that have an active transition between energy ''sub-bands'' of an electron in a structure containing several [[quantum well]]s.
The development of a [[silicon]] laser is important in the field of [[optical computing]], since it means that if silicon, the chief ingredient of [[computer chips]], were able to produce lasers, it would allow the light to be manipulated like electrons are in normal integrated circuits. Thus, photons would replace electrons in the circuits, which dramatically increases the speed of the computer. Unfortunately, silicon is a difficult lasing material to deal with, since it has certain properties which block lasing. However, recently teams have produced silicon lasers through methods such as fabricating the lasing material from silicon and other semiconductor materials, such as [[indium(III) phosphide]] or [[gallium(III) arsenide]], materials which allow coherent light to be produced from silicon. These are called [[hybrid silicon laser]]. Another type is a [[Raman laser]], which takes advantage of [[Raman scattering]] to produce a laser from materials such as silicon.
===Dye lasers===
[[Dye laser]]s use an organic dye as the gain medium. The wide gain spectrum of available dyes allows these lasers to be highly tunable, or to produce very short-duration pulses (on the order of a few [[femtosecond]]s)
===Free electron lasers===
[[Free electron laser]]s, or FELs, generate coherent, high power radiation, that is widely tunable, currently ranging in wavelength from microwaves, through [[terahertz radiation]] and infrared, to the visible spectrum, to soft X-rays. They have the widest frequency range of any laser type. While FEL beams share the same optical traits as other lasers, such as coherent radiation, FEL operation is quite different. Unlike gas, liquid, or solid-state lasers, which rely on bound atomic or molecular states, FELs use a relativistic electron beam as the lasing medium, hence the term ''free electron''.
===Exotic laser media===
In September 2007, the [[BBC News]] reported that there was speculation about the possibility of using [[positronium]] [[annihilation]] to drive a very powerful [[gamma ray]] laser.<ref name="Fildes">{{cite web| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6991030.stm |title=Mirror particles form new matter |first=Jonathan |last=Fildes |date=2007-09-12 |work=BBC News |accessdate=2008-05-22}}</ref> Dr. David Cassidy of the [[University of California, Riverside]] proposed that a single such laser could be used to ignite a [[nuclear fusion]] reaction, replacing the hundreds of lasers used in typical [[inertial confinement fusion]] experiments.<ref name="Fildes"/>
Space-based X-ray lasers pumped by a nuclear explosion have also been proposed as antimissile weapons.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Jeff |last=Hecht |title=The history of the x-ray laser |journal=Optics and Photonics News |volume=19|issue=5 |date=May, 2008 |publisher=Optical Society of America |pages=26–33}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=Clarence A. |last=Robinson |title=Advance made on high-energy laser |journal=Aviation Week & Space Technology |issue=February 23, 1981 |year=1981 |pages=25–27}}</ref> Such devices would be one-shot weapons.
==Uses==
[[Image:Laser sizes.jpg|thumb|Lasers range in size from microscopic [[diode laser]]s (top) with numerous applications, to football field sized [[neodymium]] [[glass]] lasers (bottom) used for [[inertial confinement fusion]], [[nuclear weapon]]s research and other high energy density physics experiments]]
{{main|Laser applications}}
When lasers were invented in 1960, they were called "a solution looking for a problem".<ref>{{cite book|title=A Century of Nature: Twenty-One Discoveries that Changed Science and the World|author= Charles H. Townes |authorlink=Charles Hard Townes|chapter=The first laser|chapterurl=http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/284158_townes.html|editor= Laura Garwin and Tim Lincoln|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2003|pages=107-12|isbn=0-226-28413-1|accessdate=2008-02-02}}</ref> Since then, they have become ubiquitous, finding utility in thousands of highly varied applications in every section of modern society, including [[consumer electronics]], [[information technology]], [[science]], [[medicine]], [[industry]], [[Laser_applications#Military.2Fpolice_applications|law enforcement]], [[entertainment]], and the [[military]].
The first application of lasers visible in the daily lives of the general population was the supermarket [[barcode]] scanner, introduced in 1974. The [[laserdisc]] player, introduced in 1978, was the first successful consumer product to include a laser, but the [[compact disc]] player was the first laser-equipped device to become truly common in consumers' homes, beginning in 1982, followed shortly by [[laser printer]]s.
Some of the other applications include:
* [[Medicine]]: [[Bloodless surgery]], laser healing, [[surgery|surgical treatment]], [[kidney stone]] treatment, [[Laser eye surgery|eye treatment]], [[dentistry]]
* [[Industry]]: Cutting, [[welding]], material heat treatment, marking parts
* [[Defense (military)|Defense]]: Marking targets, guiding [[munition]]s, [[Airborne Laser|missile defence]], [[DIRCM|electro-optical countermeasures (EOCM)]], alternative to [[radar]]
* [[Research]]: [[Spectroscopy]], [[laser ablation]], Laser [[annealing]], laser [[scattering]], laser [[interferometry]], [[LIDAR]]
* Product development/commercial: [[laser printer]]s, [[Compact disc|CDs]], [[barcode]] scanners, [[thermometer]]s, [[laser pointer]]s, [[holograms]], [[bubblegram]]s.
* Laser skin procedures such as acne treatment, cellulite reduction, and [[Laser hair removal|hair removal]].
In 2004, excluding diode lasers, approximately 131,000 lasers were sold world-wide, with a value of US$2.19 billion.<ref>Kincade, Kathy and Stephen Anderson (2005) "Laser Marketplace 2005: Consumer applications boost laser sales 10%", ''Laser Focus World'', vol. 41, no. 1. ([http://lfw.pennnet.com/Articles/Article_Display.cfm?Section=ARCHI&ARTICLE_ID=219847&VERSION_NUM=2&p=12 online])</ref> In the same year, approximately 733 million diode lasers, valued at $3.20 billion, were sold.<ref>Steele, Robert V. (2005) "Diode-laser market grows at a slower rate", ''Laser Focus World'', vol. 41, no. 2. ([http://lfw.pennnet.com/Articles/Article_Display.cfm?Section=ARCHI&ARTICLE_ID=221439&VERSION_NUM=4&p=12 online])</ref>
===Examples by power===
Different uses need lasers with different output powers. Lasers that produce a continuous beam or a series of short pulses can be compared on the basis of their average power. Lasers that produce pulses can also be characterized based on the ''peak'' power of each pulse. The peak power of a pulsed laser is many [[orders of magnitude]] greater than its average power. The average output power is always less than the power consumed.
The continuous or average power required for some uses:
* 5 mW – [[CD-ROM]] drive
* 5–10 mW – [[DVD player]] or [[DVD-ROM drive]]
* 100 mW – [[CD-RW]] drive
* 100 mW – High-speed [[CD-R]] burner
* 250 mW – Consumer [[DVD-R]] burner
* 1 W – green laser in current [[Holographic Versatile Disc]] prototype development
* 1–20 W – output of the majority of commercially available solid-state lasers used for micro machining
* 30–100 W – typical sealed CO<sub>2</sub> surgical lasers<ref>George M. Peavy, "[http://www.veterinary-laser.com/expert-opinion.php How to select a surgical veterinary laser]", ''veterinary-laser.com''. URL accessed March 14, 2008.</ref>
* 100–3000 W (peak output 1.5 kW) – typical sealed CO<sub>2</sub> lasers used in industrial [[laser cutting]]
* 1 kW – Output power expected to be achieved by a prototype 1 cm diode laser bar<ref>Tyrell, James, "[http://optics.org/optics/Articles.do?channel=technology&type=ole&volume=11&issue=3&article=3&page=1 Diode lasers get fundamental push to higher power]", ''Optics.org''. URL accessed May 27, 2006.</ref>
Examples of pulsed systems with high peak power:
* 700 [[terawatt|TW]] (700×10<sup>12</sup> W) – The [[National Ignition Facility]] is working on a system that, when complete, will contain a 192-beam, 1.8-megajoule laser system adjoining a 10-meter-diameter target chamber.<ref>Heller, Arnie, "[http://www.llnl.gov/str/JulAug05/VanArsdall.html Orchestrating the world's most powerful laser]." ''Science and Technology Review''. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, July/August 2005. URL accessed May 27, 2006.</ref> The system is expected to be completed in April of 2009.
* 1.3 [[petawatt|PW]] (1.3×10<sup>15</sup> W) – world's most powerful laser [[as of 1998]], located at the [[Lawrence Livermore Laboratory]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://newton.ex.ac.uk/aip/physnews.401.html#3 |title=Physics News Update 401 |accessdate=2008-03-15 |last=Schewe |first=Phillip F. |coauthors=Stein, Ben |date=November 9, 1998 |publisher=American Institute of Physics }}</ref>
=== Hobby uses ===
In recent years, some hobbyists have taken interests in lasers. Lasers used by hobbyists are generally of class IIIa or IIIb, although some have made their own class IV types.<ref>[http://www.powerlabs.org/laser.htm PowerLabs CO2 LASER!] Sam Barros [[21 June]] [[2006]]. Retrieved [[1 January]] [[2007]].</ref> However, compared to other hobbyists, laser hobbyists are far less common, due to the cost and potential dangers involved. Due to the cost of lasers, some hobbyists use inexpensive means to obtain lasers, such as extracting diodes from [[DVD burner]]s.<ref>[http://www.felesmagus.com/pages/lasers-howto.html Howto: Make a DVD Burner into a High-Powered Laser]</ref>
Hobbyists also have been taking surplus pulsed lasers from retired military applications and modifying them for pulsed holography. Pulsed Ruby and Pulsed YAG lasers have been used.
==Laser safety==
[[Image:DIN 4844-2 Warnung vor Laserstrahl D-W010.svg|thumb|100px|Warning symbol for lasers]]
{{main|Laser safety|Lasers and aviation safety}}
Even the first laser was recognized as being potentially dangerous. [[Theodore Maiman]] characterized the first laser as having a power of one "[[List_of_unusual_units_of_measurement#Gillette:_Laser_power|Gillette]]"; as it could burn through one [[Global Gillette|Gillette]] [[razor blade]]. Today, it is accepted that even low-power lasers with only a few milliwatts of output power can be hazardous to human eyesight.
At wavelengths which the [[cornea]] and the lens can focus well, the coherence and low divergence of laser light means that it can be focused by the [[eye]] into an extremely small spot on the [[retina]], resulting in localized burning and permanent damage in seconds or even less time. Lasers are classified into safety classes numbered I (inherently safe) to IV (even scattered light can cause eye and/or skin damage). Laser products available for consumers, such as CD players and laser pointers are usually in class I, II, or III. Certain infrared lasers with wavelengths beyond about 1.4 micrometres are often referred to as being "eye-safe". This is because the intrinsic molecular vibrations of [[water]] molecules very strongly absorb light in this part of the spectrum, and thus a laser beam at these wavelengths is attenuated so completely as it passes through the eye's [[cornea]] that no light remains to be focused by the lens onto the [[retina]]. The label "eye-safe" can be misleading, however, as it only applies to relatively low power continuous wave beams and any high power or [[q-switched]] laser at these wavelengths can burn the cornea, causing severe eye damage.
'High Powered' green handheld 125milliwatt lasers (considered 'High Power' compared to a normal laser pointer) have recently been used in attacks on aircraft pilots landing at Australian airports. The risk is that if the laser hit the pilots eyes it could cause temporary blindness at a critical point in the flight. In 2007 penalties under the Australian Civil Aviation Act for shining laser beams at aircraft were increased to two years' jail and fines of up to $30,000.{{Fact|date=May 2008}}
==Fictional predictions==
:''For lasers in fiction, see also the [[raygun]].''
Before [[stimulated emission]] was discovered, [[novelist]]s used to describe machines that we can identify as "lasers".
*The first fictional device similar to a military CO<sub>2</sub> laser (see [[Heat-Ray]]) appears in the sci-fi novel ''[[The War of the Worlds (novel)|The War of the Worlds]]'' by [[H. G. Wells]] in 1898.
*A laser-like device was described in [[Alexey Tolstoy]]'s sci-fi novel ''[[The Hyperboloid of Engineer Garin]]'' in 1927.
*[[Mikhail Bulgakov]] exaggerated the biological effect (laser biostimulation) of intensive red light in his sci-fi novel ''[[Fatal Eggs]]'' (1925), without any reasonable description of the source of this red light. (In that novel, the red light first appears occasionally from the illuminating system of an advanced microscope; then the protagonist Prof. Persikov arranges the special set-up for generation of the red light.)
==See also==
{{multicol}}
* [[Laser acronyms]]
* [[Laser applications]]
* [[Laser beam profiler]]
* [[Laser construction]]
* [[Laser converting]]
* [[Laser cutting]]
* [[Laser engraving]]
* [[Laser bonding]]
* [[Laser ablation]]
* [[Laser scalpel]]
* [[3D scanning|Laser scanning]]
{{multicol-break}}
* [[Laser accelerometer]]
* [[Laser science]]
* [[Laser cooling]]
* [[Laser welding]]
* [[Bessel beam]]
* [[Laser lighting display]]
* [[Laser pointer]]
* [[Laser turntable]]
* [[Holography]]
* [[Induced gamma emission]]
* [[Injection seeder]]
{{multicol-break}}
* [[International Laser Display Association]]
* [[List of light sources]]
* [[Maser]]
* [[Optical amplifier]]
* [[Raygun]]
* [[Reference beam]]
* [[Selective laser sintering]]
* [[Speckle pattern]]
* [[Tophat beam]]
* [[Homogeneous broadening]]
* US Air Force's YAL-1 [[Airborne Laser]]
{{multicol-end}}
== Notes and references ==
{{reflist|2}}
==Further reading==
; Books
*Bertolotti, Mario (1999, trans. 2004). ''The History of the Laser'', Institute of Physics. ISBN 0-750-30911-3
*Csele, Mark (2004). ''Fundamentals of Light Sources and Lasers'', Wiley. ISBN 0-471-47660-9
*Koechner, Walter (1992). ''Solid-State Laser Engineering'', 3rd ed., Springer-Verlag. ISBN 0-387-53756-2
*Siegman, Anthony E. (1986). ''Lasers'', University Science Books. ISBN 0-935702-11-3
*Silfvast, William T. (1996). ''Laser Fundamentals'', Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-55617-1
*Svelto, Orazio (1998). ''Principles of Lasers'', 4th ed. (trans. David Hanna), Springer. ISBN 0-306-45748-2
*{{cite book |last=Taylor |first=Nick |title=LASER: The inventor, the Nobel laureate, and the thirty-year patent war |year=2000 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |location=New York |id=ISBN 0-684-83515-0 }}
*Wilson, J. & Hawkes, J.F.B. (1987). ''Lasers: Principles and Applications'', Prentice Hall International Series in Optoelectronics, [[Prentice Hall]]. ISBN 0-13-523697-5
*Yariv, Amnon (1989). ''Quantum Electronics'', 3rd ed., Wiley. ISBN 0-471-60997-8
; Periodicals
*''Applied Physics B: Lasers and Optics'' (ISSN 0946-2171)
*''IEEE Journal of Lightwave Technology'' (ISSN 0733-8724)
*''IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics'' (ISSN 0018-9197)
*''IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics'' (ISSN 1077-260X)
*''IEEE Photonics Technology Letters''
*''Journal of the Optical Society of America B: Optical Physics'' (ISSN 0740-3224)
*''[[Laser Focus World]]'' (ISSN 0740-2511)
*''[[Optics Letters]]'' (ISSN 0146-9592)
*''Photonics Spectra'' (ISSN 0731-1230)
==External links==
{{Commonscat|Lasers}}
*[http://www.rp-photonics.com/encyclopedia.html Encyclopedia of laser physics and technology] by Dr. Rüdiger Paschotta
*[http://www.repairfaq.org/sam/lasersam.htm A Practical Guide to Lasers for Experimenters and Hobbyists] by Samuel M. Goldwasser
*[http://www.technology.niagarac.on.ca/staff/mcsele/lasers/index.html Homebuilt Lasers Page] by Professor Mark Csele
*[http://space.newscientist.com/article/dn13634-powerful-laser-is-brightest-light-in-the-universe.html?feedId=online-news_rss20 Powerful laser is 'brightest light in the universe'] - The world's most powerful laser as of 2008 might create supernova-like shock waves and possibly even antimatter (''New Scientist'', 9 April 2008)
*{{HSW|page=laser|name=How Lasers Work}}
*[http://www.instructables.com/id/Laser-Flashlight-Hack!!/ Homemade laser project] by Kip Kedersha
*"[http://prn1.univ-lemans.fr/prn1/siteheberge/optique/M1G1_FBalembois_ang/co/M1G1_anglais_web.html The Laser: basic principles]" an online course by Prof. F. Balembois and Dr. S. Forget. ''Instrumentation for Optics'', 2008
*[http://laserati.com Laserati, a community website for laser people.]
[[Category:Lasers| ]]
[[Category:Optical devices]]
[[Category:Quantum optics]]
[[Category:Photonics]]
[[Category:Acronyms]]
[[Category:Directed-energy weapons]]
[[Category:Orphan initialisms]]
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