Leadership 130918 226181601 2008-07-17T05:23:35Z El C 92203 you're removing all the citations in that section, though {{cleanup-rewrite}} {{redirect|Leader||Leader (disambiguation)}} {{redirect|Ringleader}} The word '''leadership''' can refer to: # Those entities that perform one or more acts of leading. # The ability to affect human behavior so as to accomplish a mission. # Influencing a group of people to move towards its goal setting or goal achievement. (Stogdill 1950: 3) == Categories and types of leadership == Leadership has a formal aspect (as in most political or business leadership) or an informal one (as in most friendships). Speaking of "leadership" (the abstract term) rather than of "leading" (the action) usually it implies that the entities doing the leading have some "leadership skills" or [[Competence (human resources)|competencies]]. ===Types of leadership styles=== The '''bureaucratic leader ''' ([[Max Weber|Weber]], 1905)<ref name="Weber">{{cite book | last = Weber | first = Max | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism: and Other Writings | publisher = Penguin Group | date = 1905 | location = New York | pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = }}</ref> is very structured and follows the procedures as they have been established. This type of leadership has no space to explore new ways to solve problems and is usually slow paced to ensure adherence to the ladders stated by the company. Leaders ensure that all the steps have been followed prior to sending it to the next level of authority. Universities, hospitals, banks and government usually require this type of leader in their organizations to ensure quality, increase security and decrease corruption. Leaders that try to speed up the process will experience frustration and anxiety. The '''charismatic leader''' (Weber, 1905)<ref name="Weber"/> leads by infusing energy and eagerness into their team members. This type of leader has to be committed to the organization for the long run. If the success of the division or project is attributed to the leader and not the team, charismatic leaders may become a risk for the company by deciding to resign for advanced opportunities. It takes the company time and hard work to gain the employees' confidence back with other type of leadership after they have committed themselves to the magnetism of a charismatic leader. The '''autocratic leader''' ([[Kurt Lewin|Lewin]], [[Ronald Lippitt|Lippitt]], & White, 1939)<ref name="Lewin, Lippitt, & White">{{Citation | last = Lewin | first = K. | author-link = | last2 = Lippitt | first2 = R. | author2-link = | last3 = White | first3 = R. | author3-link = | title = Patterns of aggressive behavior in experimentally created social climates | journal = Journal of Social Psychology | volume = | issue = | pages = 271-301 | date = | year = | url = | doi = | id = }}</ref> is given the power to make decisions alone, having total authority. This leadership style is good for employees that need close supervision to perform certain tasks. Creative employees and team players resent this type of leadership, since they are unable to enhance processes or decision making, resulting in job dissatisfaction. The '''democratic leader''' (Lewin, Lippitt, & White, 1939)<ref name="Lewin, Lippitt, & White"/> listens to the team's ideas and studies them, but will make the final decision. Team players contribute to the final decision thus increasing employee satisfaction and ownership, feeling their input was considered when the final decision was taken. When changes arises, this type of leadership helps the team assimilate the changes better and more rapidly than other styles, knowing they were consulted and contributed to the decision making process, minimizing resistance and intolerance. A shortcoming of this leadership style is that it has difficulty when decisions are needed in a short period of time or at the moment. The '''laissez-faire''' ("let do") '''leader''' (Lewin, Lippitt, & White, 1939)<ref name="Lewin, Lippitt, & White"/> gives no continuous feedback or supervision because the employees are highly experienced and need little supervision to obtain the expected outcome. On the other hand, this type of style is also associated with leaders that don’t lead at all, failing in supervising team members, resulting in lack of control and higher costs, bad service or failure to meet deadlines. The '''people-oriented leader''' ([[Fred Fiedler|Fiedler]], 1967)<ref name="Fiedler">{{cite book | last = Fiedler | first = F. E. | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = A theory of leadership effectiveness | publisher = Harper and Row Publishers Inc. | date = 1967 | location = McGraw-Hill | pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = }}</ref> is the one that, in order to comply with effectiveness and efficiency, supports, trains and develops his personnel, increasing job satisfaction and genuine interest to do a good job. The '''task-oriented leader''' (Fiedler, 1967)<ref name="Fiedler"/> focus on the job, and concentrate on the specific tasks assigned to each employee to reach goal accomplishment. This leadership style suffers the same motivation issues as autocratic leadership, showing no involvement in the teams needs. It requires close supervision and control to achieve expected results. The '''servant leader''' ([[Robert K. Greenleaf|Greenleaf]], 1977)<ref>{{cite book | last = Greenleaf | first = R. K. | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Servant Leadership: A Journey Into the Nature of Legitimate Power and Greatness | publisher = Paulist Press | date = 1977 | location = New Jersey | pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = }}</ref> facilitates goal accomplishment by giving its team members what they need in order to be productive. This leader is an instrument employees use to reach the goal rather than an commanding voice that moves to change. This leadership style, in a manner similar to democratic leadership, tends to achieve the results in a slower time frame than other styles, although employee engagement is higher. The '''transaction leader''' ([[James MacGregor Burns|Burns]], 1978)<ref name="Burns">{{cite book | last = Burns | first = J. M. | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Leadership | publisher = Harper and Row Publishers Inc. | date = 1978 | location = New York | pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = }}</ref> is given power to perform certain tasks and reward or punish for the team’s performance. It gives the opportunity to the manager to lead the group and the group agrees to follow his lead to accomplish a predetermined goal in exchange for something else. Power is given to the leader to evaluate, correct and train subordinates when productivity is not up to the desired level and reward effectiveness when expected outcome is reached. The '''transformation leader''' (Burns, 1978)<ref name="Burns"/> motivates its team to be effective and efficient. Communication is the base for goal achievement focusing the group in the final desired outcome or goal attainment. This leader is highly visible and uses chain of command to get the job done. Transformational leaders focus on the big picture, needing to be surrounded by people who take care of the details. The leader is always looking for ideas that move the organization to reach the company’s vision. The '''environment leader''' (Carmazzi, 2005)<ref name="Carmazzi">{{cite book | last = Carmazzi | first = Arthur | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = The Directive Communication Leadership Field Manual | publisher = Veritas Publishing | date = 2005 | location = Singapore | pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = }}</ref> is the one who nurtures group or organisational environment to affect the emotional and psychological perception of an individual’s place in that group or organisation. An understanding and application of group psychology and dynamics is essential for this style to be effective. The leader uses organisational culture to inspire individuals and develop leaders at all levels. This leadership style relies on creating an education matrix where groups interactively learn the fundamental psychology of group dynamics and culture from each other. The leader uses this psychology, and complementary language, to influence direction through the members of the inspired group to do what is required for the benefit of all. == Leadership associated with positions of authority == According to [[Thomas Carlyle]], leadership emerges when an [[entity]] as "leader" contrives to receive deference from other entities who become "followers". The process of getting deference can become competitive in that the emerging "leader" draws "followers" from the factions of the prior or alternative "leaders". <ref name=heros> [http://ibiblio.org/gutenberg/etext97/heros10.txt ibiblio.org]</ref> ===Representative democracy=== In [[representative democracies]] the [[people]] retain [[sovereignty]] ([[popular sovereignty]]) but delegate day-to-day [[administration (government)|administration]] and leadership to elected officials. In the [[United States]], for example, the [[Constitution]] provides an example of recycling authority. In the [[Philadelphia Convention|Constitutional Convention]] of 1787, the American [[Founding Fathers of the United States|Founder]]s rejected the idea of a [[monarch]], but they still proposed leadership by people in positions of authority, with the authority split into [[separation of powers|three powers]]: in this case the legislative, the executive, and the judiciary. Under the American theory, the authority of the leadership derives from the power of the voters as conveyed through the [[U.S. Electoral College|electoral college]]. Many individuals share authority, including the many legislators in the [[United States Senate|Senate]] and the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]]. <sup>[http://www.constitution.org/dfc/dfc_0917.htm]</sup> === Leadership cycles === If a group or an organization wants or expects identifiable leadership, it will require processes for appointing/acquiring and replacing leaders. Traditional closed groups rely on [[dynasty|bloodlines]] or [[gerontocracy|seniority]] to select leaders and/or leadership candidates: [[monarchy|monarchies]], [[tribe|tribal]] [[chiefdom]]s, [[oligarchy|oligarchies]] and [[aristocracy|aristocratic]] societies rely on (and often define their [[institution]]s by) such methods. Competence or perceived competence provides a possible basis for selecting leadership [[elite]]s from a broader pool of potential talent. Political [[lobbying]] may prove necessary in [[electoral system]]s, but immediately demonstrated [[skill]] and [[moral character|character]] may secure leadership in smaller groups such as [[gang]]s. Many organizations and groups aim to identify, grow, foster and promote what they see as leadership potential or ability - especially among younger members of society. See for example the [[Scouting]] movement. For a specific environment, see [[leadership development]]. The issues of [[succession planning]] or of [[legitimation]] become important at times when leadership (particularly individual leadership) might or must change due to term-expiry, accident or [[senescence]]. === Titles emphasizing authority === At certain stages in their development, the hierarchies of social ranks implied different degrees or ranks of leadership in society. Thus a [[knight]] led fewer men in general than did a [[duke]]; a [[baronet]] might in theory control less land than an [[earl]]. See [[peerage]] for a systematization of this hierarchy, and [[order of precedence]] for links to various systems. In the course of the 18th and 20th centuries, several political operators took non-traditional paths to become dominant in their societies. They or their systems often expressed a belief in strong individual leadership, but existing titles and labels ("King", "Emperor", "President" and so on) often seemed inappropriate, insufficient or downright inaccurate in some circumstances. The formal or informal titles or descriptions they or their flunkies employe express and foster a general veneration for leadership of the inspired and autocratic variety. The definite article when used as part of the title (in languages which use definite articles) emphasizes the existence of a sole "true" leader. === Symbolism of leadership === Various symbolic attributes — often varying according to the cultural milieu — mark out authority-figures and help make them seem special and revered or feared. == Leadership among primates == [[Richard Wrangham]] and [[Dale Peterson]], in ''[[Demonic Males: Apes and the Origins of Human Violence]]'' present evidence that only [[Homo sapiens|humans]] and [[chimpanzee]]s, among all the [[animal]]s living on [[earth]], share a similar tendency for a cluster of behaviors: [[violence]], [[Territory (animal)|territoriality]], and [[competition]] for uniting behind the one chief male of the land. <sup>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/books/chap1/demonicmales.htm]</sup> This position is contentious. Many animals beyond apes are territorial, compete, exhibit violence, and have a social structure controlled by a dominant male (lions, wolves, etc.), suggesting Wrangham and Peterson's evidence is not empirical. By comparison, [[bonobo]]s, the second-closest species-relatives of man, do ''not'' unite behind the chief male of the land. The bonobos show deference to an alpha or top-ranking female that, with the support of her coalition of other females, can prove as strong as the strongest male in the land. Thus, if leadership amounts to getting the greatest number of followers, then among the bonobos, a female almost always exerts the strongest and most effective leadership. However, not all scientists agree on the allegedly "peaceful" nature of the bonobo or its reputation as a "[[hippie]] chimp".<sup>[http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2007/07/30/070730fa_fact_parker]</sup> Some have argued that, since the bonobo pattern inverts the dominant pattern among chimpanzees and men with regard to whether a female can get more followers than a male, humans and chimpanzees both likely inherited gender-bias against women from the ancestors of the chimpanzees; [[bias|gender-bias]] features as a [[genetics|genetic]] condition of [[men]]. And the bias against women having leadership as a position of authority occurs in most [[culture]]s in the world. As of 2002, Sweden had the highest percentage of women in the legislature: but only 43%. And the United States, Andorra, Israel, Sierra Leone, and Ireland tied for 57th place with less than 15% of the legislature women.<sup>[http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif.htm]</sup> Admittedly, those percentages significantly outclass the occurrence of female chimpanzees becoming [[Alpha male|alpha]] of the community by getting the most followers, but similar trends exist in manifesting a general gender-bias across cultures against females gaining leadership as a position of authority over followers. An alternative explanation suggests that those individuals best suited to lead the a group will somehow rise to the occasion and that followers (for some reason) will accept them as leaders or as proto-leaders. In this scenario, the traits of the leaders (such as gender, aggressiveness, etc.) will depend on the requirements of a given situation, and ongoing leadership may become extrapolated from a series of such situations. In [[cultural anthropology]], much speculation on the origins of human leadership relates to the perceived increasing need for [[dispute resolution]] in increasingly densely-populated and increasingly complex [[society|societies]]. The image of swarms of [[lemming]]s which follow the first lemming off a cliff appears frequently in characterizing followers. The animal kingdom also provides the actual model of the [[bellwether]] function in a mob of [[sheep]]. And human society also offers many examples of emulation. The [[fashion]] industry, for example, depends on it. Fashion marketers design clothing for celebrities, then offer less expensive variations/imitations for those who emulate the celebrities. Unintentional leadership can also occur from more pro-active forms followership. For example, in organizations which punish both leadership inaction and mistakes, and in which a predicament has no good solution, a common tendency involves declaring oneself a follower of someone else — metaphorically [[pass the buck|passing the buck]]. Another example of followership without intentional leadership comes with the market leadership of a pioneering company, or the [[price leadership]] of a [[monopoly|monopolist]]. Other companies will emulate a successful strategy, product, or price, but originators may certainly not desire this — in fact they often do all they can legally do to prevent such direct competition. The term "leadership" sometimes applies (confusingly) to a winning position in a race. One can speak of a front-runner in a sprint or of the "leader" in an election or poll as in a position of leadership. But such "leadership" does not involve any influence processes, and the "leader" will have followers who may not willingly choose to function as followers. Once again: one can make an important distinction between "in the lead" and the process of leadership. Once again, leadership implies a [[Interpersonal relationship|relationship]] of [[power (sociology)|power]] - the power to [[guide]] others. == Scope of leadership == One can govern oneself, or one can govern the whole earth. In between, we may find leaders who operate primarily within: * [[youth]] * [[family|families]] * [[band society|bands]] * [[tribe]]s * [[organizations]] * [[states]] and [[nations]] * [[empires]] Intertwined with such categories, and overlapping them, we find for example religious leaders potentially with their own internal hierarchies,work-place leaders=corporate officer|executives,senior management-senior/upper managers; middle management|middle managers, staff-managers, line-managers,team leader, supervisors and leaders of voluntary associations. Some anthropological ideas envisage a widespread but by no means universal pattern of progression in the organization of society in ever-larger groups,with the needs and practices of leadership changing accordingly. Thus simple dispute resolution may become legalistic dispensation of justice before developing into proactive legislature/legislative activity. Some leadership careers parallel this sort of progression: today's school-board chairperson may become tomorrow's city councilor, then take in say a mayor dom before graduating to nation-wide politics. Compare the "[[cursus honorum]]" in ancient Rome. ==Leadership in organizations== ===Leadership in formal organizations=== An organization that is established as an [[instrument]] or means for achieving defined [[objective]]s has been referred to as a '''formal organization'''. Its design specifies how goals are subdivided and reflected in subdivisions of the organization. Divisions, departments, sections, positions, [[job]]s, and [[task]]s make up this work [[structure]]. Thus, the formal organization is expected to behave impersonally in regard to relationships with clients or with its members. According to Weber's definition, entry and subsequent advancement is by merit or seniority. Each employee receives a salary and enjoys a degree of tenure that safeguards him from the arbitrary influence of superiors or of powerful clients. The higher his position in the hierarchy, the greater his presumed expertise in adjudicating problems that may arise in the course of the work carried out at lower levels of the organization. It is this bureaucratic structure that forms the basis for the appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative subdivisions in the organization and endows them with the authority attached to their position. <ref name="Cecil">{{cite book |author= Cecil A Gibb|title= Leadership (Handbook of Social Psychology)|publisher=Addison-Wesley|location=Reading, Mass.|year=1970|pages=884-89|isbn=0140805176 9780140805178|oclc=174777513|doi=}}</ref> ===Leadership in informal organizations=== In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit, a leader emerges within the context of the '''informal organization''' that underlies the formal structure. The informal organization expresses the personal [[objective]]s and [[goal]]s of the individual [[wiktionary:Membership|membership]]. Their objectives and goals may or may not coincide with those of the formal organization. The informal organization represents an extension of the social structures that generally characterize human life — the spontaneous emergence of groups and organizations as ends in themselves. In prehistoric times, man was preoccupied with his personal security, maintenance, protection, and survival. Now man spends a major portion of his waking hours working for organizations. His need to identify with a community that provides security, protection, maintenance, and a feeling of belonging continues unchanged from prehistoric times. This need is met by the informal organization and its emergent, or unofficial, leaders.<ref name="Henry">{{cite book |author=Henry P. Knowles; Borje O. Saxberg|title=Personality and Leadership Behavior|publisher=Addison-Wesley|location=Reading, Mass.|year=1971|pages=884-89|isbn=0140805176 9780140805178|oclc= 118832|doi=}}</ref> Leaders emerge from within the structure of the informal organization. Their personal qualities, the demands of the situation, or a combination of these and other [[factor]]s attract followers who accept their leadership within one or several overlay structures. Instead of the authority of position held by an appointed head or chief, the emergent leader wields influence or power. Influence is the ability of a person to gain co-operation from others by means of persuasion or control over rewards. Power is a stronger form of influence because it reflects a person's ability to enforce action through the control of a means of punishment.<ref name="Henry">{{cite book |author=Henry P. Knowles; Borje O. Saxberg|title=Personality and Leadership Behavior|publisher=Addison-Wesley|location=Reading, Mass.|year=1971|pages=884-89|isbn=0140805176 9780140805178|oclc= 118832|doi=}}</ref> ===Leader in organizations=== An individual who is appointed to a managerial position has the right to command and enforce obedience by virtue of the authority of his position. However, he must possess adequate personal attributes to match his authority, because authority is only potentially available to him. In the absence of sufficient personal competence, a manager may be confronted by an emergent leader who can challenge his role in the organization and reduce it to that of a figurehead. However, only authority of position has the backing of formal sanctions. It follows that whoever wields personal influence and power can legitimize this only by gaining a formal position in the hierarchy, with commensurate authority.<ref name="Henry">{{cite book |author=Henry P. Knowles; Borje O. Saxberg|title=Personality and Leadership Behavior|publisher=Addison-Wesley|location=Reading, Mass.|year=1971|pages=884-89|isbn=0140805176 9780140805178|oclc= 118832|doi=}}</ref> Leadership can be defined as one's ability to get others to willingly follow. Every organization needs leaders at every level.<ref name=The Top 10 Leadership Qualities>[http://www.hrworld.com/features/top-10-leadership-qualities-031908/. The Top 10 Leadership Qualities - HR World<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> == Orthogonality and leadership == Those who praise leadership may encounter problems in implementing consistent leadership structures. For example, a pyramidal structure in which authority consistently emanates from the summit can stifle initiative and leave no path for grooming future leaders in the ranks of subordinate levels. Similarly, a belief in universal direct democracy may become unwieldy, and a system consisting of nothing but representative leaders may well become stymied in committees. Thus many leadership systems promote different rules for different levels of leadership. Hereditary autocrats meet in the United Nations on equal representative terms with elected governments in a collegial leadership. Or individual local democracies may assign some of their powers to temporary [[dictator]]s in emergencies, as in ancient Rome. Hierarchies intermingle with equality of opportunity at different levels. == Support-structures for leadership == [[Charisma]] and [[Wiktionary:personality|personality]] alone can work miracles, yet most leaders operate within a structure of supporters and executive agents who carry out and monitor the expressed or filtered-down [[will (philosophy)|will]] of the leader. This undercutting of the importance of leadership may serve as a reminder of the existence of the follower: compare [[followership]]. A more or less formal [[bureaucracy]] (in the [[Max Weber|Weber]]ian sense) can throw up a colorless nonentity as an entirely effective leader: this phenomenon may occur (for example) in a [[politburo]] environment. Bureaucratic organizations can also raise incompetent people to levels of leadership (see [[Peter Principle]]). In modern dynamic environments formal bureaucratic organizations have started to become less common because of their inability to deal with fast-changing circumstances. Most modern business organizations (and some government departments) encourage what they see as "leadership skills" and reward identified potential leaders with promotions. In a potential down-side to this sort of development, a big-picture grand-vision leader may foster another sort of [[hierarchy]]: a fetish of leadership amongst subordinate sub-leaders, encouraged to seize resources for their own sub-empires and to apply to the supreme leader only for ultimate [[arbitration]]. Some leaders build coalitions and alliances: political parties abound with this type of leader. Still others depend on rapport with the masses: they labor on the shop-floor or stand in the front-line of battle, leading by example. == Determining what makes "effective leadership" == Leadership maintains its effectiveness sometimes by natural succession according to established rules, and sometimes by the imposition of brute force. The simplest way to measure the effectiveness of leadership involves evaluating the size of the following that the leader can muster. By this standard, [[Adolf Hitler]] became a very effective leader for a period — even if through delusional promises and coercive techniques. However, this approach may measure power rather than leadership. To measure leadership more specifically, one may assess the extent of influence on the followers, that is, the amount of leading. Within an organizational context this means financially valuing productivity. Effective leaders generate higher productivity, lower costs, and more opportunities than ineffective leaders. Effective leaders create results, attain goal, realize vision, and other objectives more quickly and at a higher level of quality than ineffective leaders. James MacGregor Burns introduced a normative element: an effective Burnsian leader will unite followers in a shared [[Goal (management)|vision]] that will improve an organization and society at large. Burns calls leadership that delivers "true" value, integrity, and trust ''[[transformational leadership]]''. He distinguishes such leadership from "mere" ''[[transactional leadership]]'' that builds [[power (sociology)|power]] by doing whatever will get more followers. <sup>[http://fecolumnists.expressindia.com/full_column.php?content_id=35970]</sup> But problems arise in quantifying the transformational [[quality]] of leadership - evaluation of that quality seems more difficult to quantify than merely counting the followers that the straw man of transactional leadership James MacGregor Burns has set as a primary standard for effectiveness. Thus transformational leadership requires an evaluation of quality, independent of the [[Aggregation of individual demand to total, or market, demand|market demand]] that exhibits in the number of followers. [[as of 2006|Current]] assessments of transformational and transactional leadership commonly make use of the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ), developed by Bass and Avolio in 1990 and revised in 1995. It measures five dimensions of transformational leadership: # idealized influence - attributions # idealized influence - behaviors # inspirational motivation # individualized consideration # intellectual stimulation The three dimensions of transactional leadership measured by the MLQ{{Fact|date=February 2007}} cover: # contingent reward # management by exception (active) # management by exception (passive) The [[functional leadership model]] conceives leadership as a set of behaviors that helps a group perform a task, reach their goal, or perform their function. In this model, effective leaders encourage functional behaviors and discourage dysfunctional ones. In the [[path-goal model]] of leadership, developed jointly by Martin Evans and [[Robert House]] and based on the "Expectancy Theory of Motivation", a leader has the function of clearing the path toward the goal(s) of the group, by meeting the needs of subordinates. Some commentators use the metaphor of an [[orchestra]]l [[Conductor (music)|conductor]] to describe the quality of the leadership process. An effective leader resembles an orchestra conductor in some ways. He/she has to somehow get a group of potentially diverse and talented people - many of whom have strong [[Wiktionary:personality|personalities]] - to work together toward a common output. Will the conductor harness and blend all the gifts his or her players possess? Will the players accept the degree of creative expression they have? Will the audience enjoy the sound they make? The conductor may have a clear determining influence on all of these questions. === Suggested qualities of leadership === Studies of leadership have suggested qualities that people often associate with leadership. They include: * Technical/specific skill at some task at hand * [[Charisma]]tic [[inspiration]] - attractiveness to others and the ability to leverage this esteem to motivate others * Preoccupation with a role - a dedication that consumes much of leaders' life - service to a cause * A clear sense of purpose (or [[Strategic planning|mission]]) - clear goals - focus - commitment * Results-orientation - directing every action towards a mission - prioritizing activities to spend time where results most accrue *[[Cooperation]] - work well with others * [[Optimism]] - very few pessimists become leaders * Rejection of determinism - belief in one's ability to "make a difference" * Ability to encourage and nurture those that report to them - delegate in such a way as people will grow * [[Role model]]s - leaders may adopt a ''[[persona]]'' that encapsulates their mission and lead by example * [[Self-knowledge]] (in non-bureaucratic structures) * [[Self-awareness]] - the ability to "lead" (as it were) one's own self prior to leading other selves similarly *Awareness of environment - the ability to understand the environment they lead in and how they affect and are affected by it * With regards to people and to projects, the ability to choose winners - recognizing that, unlike with skills, one cannot (in general) teach attitude. ''Note that "picking winners" ("choosing winners") carries implications of [[gambling|gambler]]s' luck as well as of the capacity to take [[risk]]s, but "true" leaders, like gamblers but unlike "false" leaders, base their decisions on realistic insight (and usually on many other factors partially derived from "real" wisdom).'' * [[Empathy]] - Understanding ''what'' others say, rather than listening to ''how'' they say things - this could partly sum this quality up as "walking in someone else's shoes" (to use a common cliché). * [[Integrity]] - the integration of outward actions and inner values. * Sense of Humour - Men work better when they're happy. In 2008 Burman and Evans<ref>Burman, R. & Evans, A.J. (2008) Target Zero: A Culture of safety, Defence Aviation Safety Centre Journal 2008, 22-27. http://www.mod.uk/NR/rdonlyres/849892B2-D6D2-4DFD-B5BD-9A4F288A9B18/0/DASCJournal2008.pdf</ref> published a 'charter' for leaders: # Leading by example in accordance with the company’s core values. # Building the trust and confidence of the people with which they work. # Continually seeking improvement in their methods and effectiveness. # Keeping people informed. # Being accountable for their actions and holding others accountable for theirs. # Involving people, seeking their views, listening actively to what they have to say and representing these views honestly. # Being clear on what is expected, and providing feedback on progress. # Showing tolerance of people’s differences and dealing with their issues fairly. # Acknowledging and recognizing people for their contributions and performance. # Weighing alternatives, considering both short and long-term effects and then being resolute in the decisions they make. The approach of listing leadership qualities, often termed "[[trait theory]] of leadership", assumes certain traits or characteristics will tend to lead to effective leadership. Although trait theory has an intuitive appeal, difficulties may arise in proving its tenets, and opponents frequently challenge this approach. The "strongest" versions of trait theory see these "leadership characteristics" as innate, and accordingly labels some people as "born leaders" due to their psychological makeup. On this reading of the theory, [[leadership development]] involves identifying and measuring leadership qualities, screening potential leaders from non-leaders, then training those with potential. [[David McClelland]] saw leadership skills, not so much as a set of traits, but as a pattern of motives. He claimed that successful leaders will tend to have a high need for power, a low need for affiliation, and a high level of what he called ''activity inhibition'' (one might call it [[self control|self-control]]). [[Situational leadership theory]] offers an alternative approach. It proceeds from the assumption that different situations call for different characteristics. According to this group of theories, no single optimal psychographic profile of a leader exists. The situational leadership model of Hersey and Blanchard, for example, suggest four leadership-styles and four levels of follower-development. For effectiveness, the model posits that the leadership-style must match the appropriate level of followership-development. In this model, leadership behavior becomes a function not only of the characteristics of the leader, but of the characteristics of followers as well. Other situational leadership models introduce a variety of situational variables. These determinants include: * the nature of the task (structured or routine) * organizational policies, climate, and culture * the preferences of the leader's superiors * the expectations of peers * the reciprocal responses of followers The contingency model of Vroom and Yetton uses other situational variables, including: * the nature of the problem * the requirements for accuracy * the acceptance of an initiative * time-constraints * cost constraints However one determines leadership behavior, one can categorize it into various ''leadership styles''. Many ways of doing this exist. For example, the [[Managerial Grid Model]], a behavioral leadership-model, suggests five different leadership styles, based on leaders' strength of concern for people and their concern for goal achievement. [[Kurt Lewin]], Ronald Lipitt, and R. K. White identified three leadership styles: authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire, based on the amount of influence and power exercised by the leader. The [[Fiedler contingency model]] bases the leader’s effectiveness on what [[Fred Fiedler]] called ''situational contingency''. This results from the interaction of leadership style and situational favorableness (later called "situational control"). === Leadership "styles" (per House and Podsakoff) === In 1994 House and Podsakoff attempted to summarize the behaviors and approaches of "outstanding leaders" that they obtained from some more modern theories and research findings. These leadership behaviors and approaches do not constitute '''specific''' styles, but cumulatively they probably{{Fact|date=February 2007}} characterize the most effective style of [[as of 1994|today]]'s leaders/managers. The listed leadership "styles" cover: # [[Vision statement|Vision]]. Outstanding leaders articulate an ideological vision congruent with the deeply-held values of followers, a vision that describes a better future to which the followers have an alleged moral right. # Passion and [[self-sacrifice]]. Leaders display a passion for, and have a strong conviction of, what they regard as the moral correctness of their vision. They engage in outstanding or extraordinary behavior and make extraordinary self-sacrifices in the interest of their vision and [[mission]]. # [[Confidence]], determination, and [[persistence]]. Outstanding leaders display a high degree of [[faith]] in themselves and in the attainment of the vision they [[articulation|articulate]]. Theoretically, such leaders need to have a very high degree of self-confidence and moral conviction because their mission usually challenges the ''status quo'' and, therefore, may offend those who have a stake in preserving the established order. # [[Brand|Image]]-building. House and Podsakoff regard outstanding leaders as self-conscious about their own image. They recognize the desirability of followers perceiving them as competent, credible, and trustworthy. # [[role model|Role-modeling]]. Leader-image-building sets the stage for effective role-modeling because followers identify with the values of role models whom they perceived in positive terms. # External representation. Outstanding leaders act as [[spokesperson]]s for their respective organizations and symbolically represent those organizations to external [[constituency|constituencies]]. # Expectations of and confidence in followers. Outstanding leaders communicate expectations of high [[performance]] from their followers and strong confidence in their followers’ ability to meet such expectations. # Selective [[motivation|motive]]-arousal. Outstanding leaders selectively arouse those motives of followers that the outstanding leaders see as of special relevance to the successful accomplishment of the vision and mission. # Frame alignment. To persuade followers to accept and implement [[change]], outstanding leaders engage in "frame alignment". This refers to the linkage of individual and leader interpretive orientations such that some set of followers’ interests, values, and beliefs, as well as the leader’s activities, goals, and [[ideology]], becomes [[congruence|congruent]] and complementary. # [[Inspiration]]al [[communication]]. Outstanding leaders often, but not always, communicate their message in an inspirational manner using vivid [[narrative|stories]], [[slogan]]s, [[symbol]]s, and [[ceremony|ceremonies]]. Even though these ten leadership behaviors and approaches do not really equate to specific styles, evidence has started to accumulate{{Fact|date=February 2007}} that a leader’s style can make a [[difference]]<!-- a difference to what, exactly? -->. Style becomes the key to the formulation and implementation of strategy{{Fact|date=February 2007}} and plays an important role in [[workgroup|work-group]] members’ activity and in [[team]] [[citizenship]]. Little doubt exists that the ''way'' (style) in which leaders influence work-group members can make a difference in their own and their people’s performance{{Fact|date=February 2007}}. (Adopted from: Robert House and Philip M. Podsakoff, "Leadership Effectiveness: Past Perspectives and Future Directions for Research" in Greenberg, Jerald ed.),pp. 45-82 ''Organizational Behavior: The State of the Science'', Hillsdale, NJ, England: Erlbaum Associates, Inc, 1994. x, 312 pp.}} .) == Leadership and vision == Many definitions of leadership involve an element of Goal management|vision — except in cases of involuntary leadership and often in cases of traditional leadership. A vision provides direction to the influence process. A leader or group of leaders can have one or more visions of the future to aid them to move a group successfully towards this goal. A vision, for effectiveness, should allegedly: * appear as a simple, yet vibrant, image in the mind of the leader * describe a future state, credible and preferable to the present state * act as a bridge between the current state and a future optimum state * appear desirable enough to energize followers * succeed in speaking to followers at an emotional or spiritual level (logical appeals by themselves seldom muster a following) For leadership to occur, according to this theory, some people "leaders" must communicate the vision to others "followers" in such a way that the followers adopt the vision as their own. Leaders must not just see the vision themselves, they must have the ability to get others to see it also. Numerous techniques aid in this process, including: narratives, metaphors, symbolic actions, leading by example,incentives, and penalty|penalties. Stacey (1992) has suggested that the emphasis on vision puts an unrealistic burden on the leader. Such emphasis appears to perpetuate the myth that an organization must depend on a single, uncommonly talented individual to decide what to do. Stacey claims that this fosters a culture of dependency and conformity in which followers take no pro-active incentives and do not think independently. Kanungo's charismatic leadership model describes the role of the vision in three stages that are continuously ongoing, overlapping one another. Assessing the status quo, formulation and articulation of the vision, and implementation of the vision. == Leadership's relation with management == Some commentators link leadership closely with the idea of management. Some regard the two as synonymous, and others consider management a subset of leadership. If one accepts this premise, one can view leadership as: * centralized or decentralized * broad or focused * decision-oriented or morale-centred * intrinsic or derived from some authority Any of the bipolar labels traditionally ascribed to management style could also apply to leadership style. Hersey and Blanchard use this approach: they claim that management merely consists of leadership applied to business situations; or in other words: management forms a sub-set of the broader process of leadership. They put it this way: "Leadership occurs any time one attempts to influence the behavior of an individual or group, regardless of the reason.Management is a kind of leadership in which the achievement of organizational goals is paramount." However, a clear distinction between management and leadership may nevertheless prove useful. This would allow for a reciprocal relationship between leadership and management, implying that an effective manager should possess leadership skills, and an effective leader should demonstrate management skills. One clear distinction could provide the following definition: * Management involves power by position. * Leadership involves power by influence. Abraham Zaleznik (1977),for example, delineated differences between leadership and management. He saw leaders as inspiring visionaries, concerned about substance; while managers he views as planners who have concerns with process.Warren Bennis (1989) further explicated a dichotomy between managers and leaders. He drew twelve distinctions between the two groups: * Managers administer, leaders innovate * Managers ask how and when, leaders ask what and why * Managers focus on systems, leaders focus on people * Managers do things right, leaders do the right things * Managers maintain, leaders develop * Managers rely on control, leaders inspire trust * Managers have a short-term perspective, leaders have a longer-term perspective * Managers accept the status-quo, leaders challenge the status-quo * Managers have an eye on the bottom line, leaders have an eye on the horizon * Managers imitate, leaders originate * Managers emulate the classic good soldier, leaders are their own person * Managers copy, leaders show originality Paul Birch (1999) also sees a distinction between leadership and management. He observed that, as a broad generalization, managers concerned themselves with tasks while leaders concerned themselves with people. Birch does not suggest that leaders do not focus on "the task." Indeed, the things that characterise a great leader include the fact that they achieve. Effective leaders create and sustain competitive advantage through the attainment of cost leadership, revenue leadership, time leadership, and market value leadership. Managers typically follow and realize a leader's vision. The difference lies in the leader realising that the achievement of the task comes about through the goodwill and support of others (influence), while the manager may not. This goodwill and support originates in the leader seeing people as people, not as another resource for deployment in support of "the task". The manager often has the role of organizing resources to get something done. People form one of these resources, and many of the worst managers treat people as just another interchangeable item. A leader has the role of causing others to follow a path he/she has laid out or a vision he/she has articulated in order to achieve a task. Often, people see the task as subordinate to the vision. For instance, an organization might have the overall task of generating profit, but a good leader may see profit as a by-product that flows from whatever aspect of their vision differentiates their company from the competition. Leadership does not only manifest itself as purely a business phenomenon. Many people can think of an inspiring leader they have encountered who has nothing whatever to do with business: a politician, an officer in the armed forces, a Scout or Guide leader, a teacher, etc. Similarly, management does not occur only as a purely business phenomenon. Again, we can think of examples of people that we have met who fill the management niche in non-business organisationsNon-business organizations should find it easier to articulate a non-money-driven inspiring vision that will support true leadership. However, often this does not occur. Differences in the mix of leadership and management can define various management styles. Some management styles tend to de-emphasize leadership. Included in this group one could include participatory management, democratic management, and collaborative management styles. Other management styles, such as authoritarian management, micro-management, and top-down management, depend more on a leader to provide direction. Note, however, that just because an organisation has no single leader giving it direction, does not mean it necessarily has weak leadership. In many cases group leadership (multiple leaders) can prove effective. Having a single leader (as in dictatorship) allows for quick and decisive decision-making when needed as well as when not needed. Group decision-making sometimes earns the derisive label "committee-itis" because of the longer times required to make decisions, but group leadership can bring more expertise, experience, and perspectives through a democratic process. Patricia Pitcher (1994) has challenged the bifurcation into leaders and managers. She used a factor analysis (in marketing)factor analysis technique on data collected over 8 years, and concluded that three types of leaders exist, each with very different psychological profiles:'Artists' imaginative, inspiring, visionary, entrepreneurial, intuitive, daring, and emotional Craftsmen: well-balanced, steady, reasonable, sensible, predictable, and trustworthy Technocrats: cerebral, detail-oriented, fastidious, uncompromising, and hard-headed She speculates that no one profile offers a preferred leadership style. She claims that if we want to build, we should find an "artist leader" if we want to solidify our position, we should find a "craftsman leader" and if we have an ugly job that needs to get done like downsizing.we should find a "technocratic leader".Pitcher also observed that a balanced leader exhibiting all three sets of traits occurs extremely rarely: she found none in her study. Bruce Lynn postulates a differentiation between 'Leadership' and ‘Management’ based on perspectives to risk. Specifically,"A Leader optimises upside opportunity; a Manager minimises downside risk." He argues that successful executives need to apply both disciplines in a balance appropriate to the enterprise and its context. Leadership without Management yields steps forward, but as many if not more steps backwards. Management without Leadership avoids any step backwards, but doesn’t move forward. == Leadership by a group == In contrast to individual leadership, some organizations have adopted group leadership. In this situation, more than one person provides direction to the group as a whole. Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing creativity, reducing costs, or downsizing. Others may see the traditional leadership of a [[boss]] as costing too much in team performance. In some situations, the maintenance of the boss becomes too expensive - either by draining the resources of the group as a whole, or by impeding the creativity within the [[team]], even unintentionally. A common example of group leadership involves [[cross-functional team]]s. A team of people with diverse skills and from all parts of an organization assembles to lead a project. A team structure can involve sharing power equally on all issues, but more commonly uses ''rotating leadership''. The team member(s) best able to handle any given phase of the project become(s) the temporary leader(s). According to Ogbonnia (2007), "effective leadership is the ability to successfully integrate and maximize available resources within the internal and external environment for the attainment of organizational or societal goals". Ogbonnia defines an effective leader "as an individual with the capacity to consistently succeed in a given condition and be recognized as meeting the expectations of an organization or society." ===Orpheus orchestra=== For example, the [[Orpheus Chamber Orchestra|Orpheus orchestra]] has performed for over thirty years without a [[conducting|conductor]] -- that is, without a sole leader. As a team of over 25 members, it has drawn discriminating audiences, and has produced over 60 recordings for Deutsche Grammophon in successful competition with other world-class orchestras.<sup>[http://www.orpheusnyc.com]</sup> Rather than an [[autocratic]] or [[charisma]]tic conductor deciding the overall conception of a work and then dictating how each individual is to perform the individual tasks, the Orpheus [[team]] generally selects a different "core group" for each piece of music. The core group provides leadership in working out the details of the piece, and presents their ideas to the whole team. Members of the whole team then participate in refining the final conception, rehearsal, and product, including checking from various places in the auditorium how the [[acoustics|sound]] balances and verifying the quality of the final [[recording studio|recording]]. At times the entire Orpheus [[team]] may follow a single leader, but whom the team follows rotates from task to task, depending on the capabilities of its members. The orchestra has developed seminars and training sessions for adapting the Orpheus Process to [[business]].<sup>[http://www.orpheusnyc.com/about/process.htm]</sup> == Historical views on leadership == [[Sanskrit]] literature identifies ten types of leaders. Defining characteristics of the ten types of leaders are explained with examples from history and mythology.<ref name="tentypes">{{cite book |author=KSEEB|title=Sanskrit Text Book -9th Grade |publisher=Governament of Karnataka, India}}</ref> [[Aristocracy|Aristocratic]] thinkers have postulated that leadership depends on one's blue blood or [[gene]]s: [[monarchy]] takes an extreme view of the same idea, and may prop up its assertions against the claims of mere aristocrats by invoking divine sanction: see the [[Divine Right of Kings|divine right of kings]]. Contrariwise, more democratically-inclined theorists have pointed to examples of [[meritocracy|meritocratic]] leaders, such as the [[Napoleon Bonaparte|Napoleonic]] marshals profiting from [[career]]s open to [[talent]]. In the [[autocracy|autocratic]]/[[paternalism|paternalistic]] strain of thought, traditionalists recall the role of leadership of the Roman ''[[pater familias]]''. [[Feminism|Feminist]] thinking, on the other hand, may damn such models as [[patriarchy|patriarchal]] and posit against them emotionally-attuned, responsive, and consensual [[empathy|empathetic]] guidance and [[matriarchy|matriarchies]]. Comparable to the Roman tradition, the views of [[Confucianism]] on "right living" relate very much to the ideal of the (male) scholar-leader and his benevolent rule, buttressed by a tradition of filial piety. In ''On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and the Heroic in History'', [[Thomas Carlyle]] demonstrated the concept of leadership associated with a position of [[authority]]. In praising [[Oliver Cromwell|Oliver Cromwell's]] use of [[power (sociology)|power]] to bring King [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] to trial and eventual [[English Civil War|beheading]], he wrote the following: "Let us remark, meanwhile, how indispensable everywhere a King is, in all movements of men. It is strikingly shown, in this very War, what becomes of men when they cannot find a Chief Man, and their enemies can." <ref name=heros/> Within the context of [[Islam]], views on the nature, scope and inheritance of leadership have played a major role in shaping sects and their history. See [[caliphate]]. In the 19th century, the elaboration of [[anarchism|anarchist]] thought called the whole concept of leadership into question. (Note that the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' traces the word "leadership" in English only as far back as the 19th century.) One response to this denial of [[élitism]] came with [[Leninism]], which demanded an élite group of disciplined [[professional revolutionaries|cadre]]s to act as the [[vanguard party|vanguard]] of a socialist revolution, bringing into existence the [[dictatorship of the proletariat]]. Other historical views of leadership have addressed the seeming contrasts between secular and religious leadership. The doctrines of [[Caesaro-papism]] have recurred and had their detractors over several centuries. Christian thinking on leadership has often emphasized [[stewardship]] of divinely-provided resources - human and material - and their deployment in accordance with a Divine plan. Compare [[servant leadership]]. For a more general take on leadership in [[politics]], compare the concept of the [[statesman]]. The great traits that a leader must have, have been debated over time, and most people agree that these are the five key traits. You must have a vision. We've all heard the saying "You must stand for something, or you'll fall for everything." But what does that really mean? Standing firm when it comes to your company's policies and procedures is all well and good, but it doesn't speak to having a vision. As a leader, you have to learn to communicate your vision or the vision of your company to the people you want to follow you. You must have passion, you have to show your team that you want to accomplish the goal as badly as they do, your passion will drive them. You must learn to be a great decision maker. Sometimes, leaders must face times of pressure where they are forced to make quick decisions, a great leader must have this skill. You must be a team builder. To become a great leader, you must first make your team great, you must have the power to give your team responsibilities, and trust them too, you must slowly make them greater and greater. You must have character. Without character, all the other "keys" are for naught. That's because your innate character strengths and limitations play a critical role in your leadership style. The real question is, are you aware of just what role they play? All great leaders have taken steps to learn about their individual personality and what part it plays in their leadership style. ==Criticism of the concept of leadership== Noam Chomsky has criticized the concept of leadership as involving people subordinating their needs to that of someone else. While the conventional view of leadership is rather satisfying to people who "want to be told what to do", one should question why they are being subjected to acts that may or may not be rational or even desirable. Rationality is the key element missing when "leaders" say "believe me" and "have faith". It is fairly easy to have people simplistically follow you as their "leader", if no attention is paid to rationality. Moving to the public domain-presidents, senators, people in congress- such positions are dubbed as leaders. In this domain, representatives ARE desirable NOT "leaders". The representative simply take the view of the group being represented and help to move forward with these objectives. If they don't follow what the representatives have asked, they should easily be removed and replaced. Ask yourself when the last time such a system of representation existed! When "leaders" in the form of politicians come to town there is a parade of celebration and cheering without any room for such rationality but plenty of room for empty rhetoric and in some cases a rock star status. It should be noted that people need to ask themselves why they would want leaders, given the brutal history of such unaccountable people, and not representatives. == Alternatives to leadership == Within groups, alternatives to leadership include using decision-making structures such as [[co-operative]] ventures, [[collegiality]], [[consensus]], [[anarchism]] and applied [[democracy]]. One can downplay the ubiquitous idea of leadership by using structures such as information [[clearing house]]s or stressing functions such as administration. Note the different implications and connotations of the two phrases "[[coalition of the willing]]" and "[[US-led coalition]]". The [[Orpheus Chamber Orchestra]], which practices a form of distributed leadership, provides a textbook example of alternative leadership. ==See also == {{col-begin}} {{col-5}} * [[John Adair (Leadership Guru)]] * [[Max Weber]]'s [[Charismatic authority]] * [[tribal chief|Chieftain]] * [[Coaching]] * [[Crowd psychology]] * [[Antonio Gramsci]]'s theory of [[Cultural hegemony]] * [[Dale Carnegie]] * [[Dependability]] * Determination * [[Discipline]] * [[Excellence]] * [[Fairness]] * [[Attention|Focus]] {{col-5}} * [[Foresight]] * [[Forgiveness]] * [[Fortitude]] * [[Fiedler contingency model]] * [[Followership]] * [[Functional leadership model]] * [[Hero]] * [[Islamic leadership]] * [[Ideal leadership]] Model * [[Justice]] * [[Lance Secretan]] * [[Leader (Scouting)]] * [[Leader-Member Exchange Theory (LMX)]] * [[Leadership Character Model]] * [[Leadership development]] {{col-5}} * [[Managerial grid model]] * [[Minister (Christianity)|Minister]] * [[Morality]] * [[Nicomachean Ethics]] * [[Parent]] * [[Perseverance]] * [[Potential]] * [[Purpose]]fulness * [[Priest]] * [[Professional development]] * [[Path-goal model]] * [[Respect]]fulness * [[Social responsibility|Responsibility]] * [[Restraint]] {{col-5}} * [[Self-awareness]] * [[Self-discipline]] * [[Self-reliance]] * [[Sensitivity (human)|sensitivity]] * [[Servant leadership]] * [[Situational leadership theory]] * [[Social skills]] * [[Three theological virtues]] * [[Trait theory]] * [[Transformational leadership]] * [[Trustworthiness]] * [[Honesty|Truthfulness]] * [[Toxic leader|Toxic Leadership]] * [[Youth leadership]] {{col-end}} ==References== </div> {{reflist}} ===General references=== * Argyris, C. (1976) ''Increasing Leadership Effectiveness'', Wiley, New York, 1976 (even though published in 1976, this still remains a "standard" reference text) * Bass, B.M. & Avolio, B.J. (1995). ''MLQ Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire for Research: Permission Set''. Redwood City, CA: Mindgarden. * Bennis, W. (1989) ''On Becoming a Leader'', Addison Wesley, New York, 1989 * Crawford, C. J. (2005). Corporate rise the X principles of extreme personal leadership. Santa Clara, CA: XCEO. ISBN 0-976-90190-0 9780976901907 * Greiner, K. (2002). ''The inaugural speech.'' ERIC Accession Number ED468083 <sup>[http://www.eric.ed.gov/]</sup>. * Heifetz, R. (1994). ''Leadership without easy answers.'' Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-51858-6 * House, R. J. (2004) ''Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: The GLOBE Study of 62 Societies'', SAGE Publications, Thousand Oaks, 2004 <sup>[http://www.sagepub.com/booksProdDesc.nav?prodId=Book226013]</sup>. * Kouzes, J. M. and Posner, B. Z. (2002). ''The leadership challenge.'' San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. * Laubach, R. (2005) ''Leadership is Influence'' * Machiavelli, Niccolo (1530) ''The Prince'' * Maxwell, J. C. & Dornan, J. (2003) ''Becoming a Person of Influence'' *McGovern, George S., Donald C. Simmons, Jr. and Daniel Gaken (2008)'' Leadership and Service: An Introduction'', Kendall/Hunt Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7575-5109-3. * Nanus, Burt (1995) ''The visionary leadership'' * Ogbonnia, SKC. (2007). Political Parties and Effective Leadership: A contingency Approach * Pitcher, P. (1994 French) ''Artists, Craftsmen, and Technocrats: The dreams realities and illusions of leadership'', Stoddart Publishing, Toronto, 2nd English edition, 1997. ISBN 0-7737-5854-2 * Renesch, John (1994) ''Leadership in a New Era: Visionary Approaches to the Biggest Crisis of Our Time'', San Francisco, New Leaders Press (paperback 2002, New York, Paraview Publishing * Renesch, John (2001) "Conscious Leadership: Taking Responsibility for Our Better Future," LOHAS Weekly Newsletter, March 1, 2001 [http://lohas.datajoe.com/app/ecom/pub_article_details.php?id=67115] * Roberts, W. (1987) ''Leadership Secrets of Attila the Hun'' * Stacey, R. (1992) ''Managing Chaos'', Kogan-Page, London, 1992 * Stogdill, R.M. (1950) 'Leadership, membership and organization', Psychological Bulletin, 47: 1-14 * Terry, G. (1960) ''The Principles of Management'', Richard Irwin Inc, Homewood Ill, pg 5. * Torbert, W. (2004) ''Action Inquiry: the Secret of Timely and Transforming Leadership'', San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers. * Warneka, P and Warneka, T. (2007). ''The Way of Leading People: Unlocking Your Integral Leadership Skills with the Tao Te Ching''. Asogomi Publications Intl. Cleveland, Ohio. [http://www.wayofleadingpeople.com website] * Warneka, T. (2006). ''Leading People the Black Belt Way: Conquering the Five Core Problems Facing Leaders Today''. Asogomi Publications Intl. Cleveland, Ohio. [http://www.blackbeltconsultants.com website] * Warneka, T. (2008). ''Black Belt Leader, Peaceful Leader: An Introduction to Catholic Servant Leadership''. [http://www.catholicservantleader.com website] * Zaccaro, S. J. (2007). Trait-based perspective. American Psychology , 62 (1), 7-16. * Zaleznik, A. 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