Literature
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2008-07-15T16:01:30Z
Bjweeks
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Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Pink!Teen|Pink!Teen]] ([[User talk:Pink!Teen|talk]]) to last version by Esoj Oirgela
{{otheruses4|(usually written) works|the card game|Literature (card game)}}
[[Image:Old book bindings.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Old book bindings at the [[Merton College]] library.]]
'''Literature''' is the [[art]] of written works. Literally translated, the word means "acquaintance with letters" (from [[Latin]] ''littera'' [[Letter (alphabet)|letter]]). In Western culture the most basic written literary types include [[fiction]] and [[non-fiction]].
==Definitions==
{{Literature}}
The word "literature" has different meanings depending on who is using it. It could be applied broadly to mean any symbolic record, encompassing everything from images and [[sculpture]]s to letters. In a more narrow sense the term could mean only text composed of letters, or other examples of symbolic written language ([[Egyptian hieroglyphs]], for example). An even more narrow interpretation is that text have a physical form, such as on paper or some other portable form, to the exclusion of [[inscription]]s or [[digital media]]. The [[Muslim]] scholar and [[philosopher]] [[Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq]] (702-765 AD) defined Literature as follows: "Literature is the garment which one puts on what he says or writes so that it may appear more attractive."<ref name="The Great Muslim Scientist and Philosopher Imam Jafar Ibn Mohammad As-Sadiq(a.s)">The Great Muslim Scientist and Philosopher Imam Jafar Ibn Mohammad As-Sadiq(a.s),Imam Hussain Publication, First Edition, ISBN 964-7371 12-8</ref> [[Panghilito Luigi]] added that literature is a slice of life that has been given direction and meaning, an artistic interpretation of the world according to the percipient's point of views. Frequently, the texts that make up literature crossed over these boundaries. Russian Formalist Roman Jakobson defines literature as "organized violence committed on ordinary speech", highlighting literature's deviation from the day-to-day and conversational structure of words. [[Drawing|Illustrated]] stories, [[hypertext]]s, [[cave painting]]s and inscribed [[monument]]s have all at one time or another pushed the boundaries of "literature."
People may perceive a difference between "literature" and some popular forms of written work. The terms "[[literary fiction]]" and "[[literary merit]]" often serve to distinguish between individual works. For example, almost all literate people perceive the works of [[Charles Dickens]] as "literature," whereas some critics{{Fact|date=February 2007}} look down on the works of [[Jeffrey Archer]] as unworthy of inclusion under the general heading of "[[English literature]]." Critics may exclude works from the classification "literature," for example, on the grounds of a poor standard of [[grammar]] and [[syntax]], of an [[verisimilitude|unbelievable]] or disjointed [[plot (narrative)|story-line]], or of inconsistent or unconvincing [[characterization|characters]]. [[Genre fiction]] (for example: romance, crime, or science fiction) may also become excluded from consideration as "literature."
==History==
One of the earliest known literary works is the [[Sumer]]ian ''[[Epic of Gilgamesh]]'', an epic poem dated around [[3rd millennium BC|2700 B.C.]], which deals with themes of heroism, friendship, loss, and the quest for eternal life. Different historical periods have emphasized various characteristics of literature. Early works often had an overt or covert religious or didactic purpose. Moralizing or prescriptive literature stems from such sources. The exotic nature of [[romance (genre)|romance]] flourished from the [[Middle Ages]] onwards, whereas the [[Age of Reason]] manufactured nationalistic epics and philosophical [[Tract (literature)|tract]]s. [[Romanticism]] emphasized the popular folk literature and emotive involvement, but gave way in the 19th-century West to a phase of [[realism (arts)|realism]] and [[naturalism (literature)|naturalism]], investigations into what is real. The 20th century brought demands for [[symbolism]] or [[psychology|psychological]] insight in the delineation and development of character.
=== Poetry ===
A [[poem]] is defined as a [[composition]] written in [[Meter (poetry)|verse]] (although verse has been equally used for epic and dramatic fiction). Poems rely heavily on [[imagery]], precise word choice, and [[metaphor]]; they may take the form of measures consisting of patterns of stresses ([[meter (poetry)|metric feet]]) or of patterns of different-length syllables (as in classical [[prosody]]); and they may or may not utilize [[rhyme]]. One cannot readily characterize [[poetry]] precisely. Typically though, poetry as a form of literature makes some significant use of the ''formal'' properties of the words it uses — the properties attached to the [[Writing|written]] or [[Speech communication|spoken]] form of the words, rather than to their meaning. Metre depends on [[syllable]]s and on [[rhythm]]s of speech; rhyme and [[alliteration]] depend on words that have similar pronunciation. Some recent poets, such as [[E. E. Cummings]], made extensive use of words' [[Visual perception|visual]] form.
Poetry perhaps pre-dates other forms of literature: early known examples include the [[Sumer]]ian ''[[Epic of Gilgamesh]]'' (dated from around [[3rd millennium BC|2700 B.C.]]), parts of the [[Bible]], the surviving works of [[Homer]] (the ''[[Iliad]]'' and the ''[[Odyssey]]''), and the [[Indian epic poetry|Indian epics]] ''[[Ramayana]]'' and ''[[Mahabharata]]''. In cultures based primarily on oral traditions the formal characteristics of poetry often have a [[mnemonic]] function, and important texts: legal, [[genealogy|genealogical]] or moral, for example, may appear first in verse form.
Some poetry uses specific forms: the [[haiku]], the [[limerick (poetry)|limerick]], or the [[sonnet]], for example. A traditional haiku written in Japanese must have something to do with [[nature]], contain seventeen onji (syllables), distributed over three lines in groups of five, seven, and five, and should also have a kigo, a specific word indicating a season. A limerick has five lines, with a [[rhyme scheme]] of AABBA, and line lengths of 3,3,2,2,3 stressed syllables. It traditionally has a less reverent attitude towards nature. Poetry not adhering to a formal poetic structure is called "[[free verse]]"
Language and tradition dictate some poetic norms: Persian poetry always rhymes, Greek poetry rarely rhymes, Italian or French poetry often does, English and German can go either way (although modern non-rhyming poetry often, perhaps unfairly, has a more "serious" aura). Perhaps the most [[paradigm]]atic style of English poetry, blank verse, as exemplified in works by [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]] and by [[John Milton|Milton]], consists of unrhymed [[iambic pentameter]]s. Some languages prefer longer lines; some shorter ones. Some of these conventions result from the ease of fitting a specific language's vocabulary and grammar into certain structures, rather than into others; for example, some languages contain more rhyming words than others, or typically have longer words. Other structural conventions come about as the result of historical accidents, where many speakers of a language associate good poetry with a verse form preferred by a particular skilled or popular poet.
Works for theatre (see below) traditionally took verse form. This has now become rare outside [[opera]] and [[musical theater|musicals]], although many would argue that the language of drama remains intrinsically poetic.
In recent years, [[digital poetry]] has arisen that takes advantage of the artistic, publishing, and synthetic qualities of digital media.
===Prose===
'''[[Prose]]''' consists of writing that does not adhere to any particular formal structures (other than simple [[grammar]]); "non-poetic" writing, perhaps. The term sometimes appears pejoratively, but prosaic writing simply says something without necessarily trying to say it in a [[beautiful]] way, or using beautiful words. Prose writing can of course take beautiful form; but less by virtue of the formal features of words (rhymes, alliteration, metre) but rather by style, placement, or inclusion of graphics. But one need not mark the distinction precisely, and perhaps cannot do so. One area of overlap is "[[prose poetry]]", which attempts to convey using only prose, the aesthetic richness typical of poetry.
====Essays====
An [[essay]] consists of a discussion of a topic from an author's personal point of view, exemplified by works by [[Francis Bacon (philosopher)|Francis Bacon]] or by [[Charles Lamb]].
'Essay' in English derives from the French 'essai', meaning 'attempt'. Thus one can find open-ended, provocative and/or inconclusive essays. The term "essays" first applied to the self-reflective musings of [[Michel de Montaigne]], and even today he has a reputation as the father of this literary form.
Genres related to the essay may include:
* the [[memoir]], telling the story of an author's life from the author's personal point of view
* the [[epistle]]: usually a formal, didactic, or elegant [[Letter (message)|letter]].
====Fiction====
Narrative [[fiction]] ([http://moodle.ed.uiuc.edu/wiked/index.php/Narrative_prose narrative prose]) generally favours prose for the writing of [[novels]], short stories, graphic novels, and the like. Singular examples of these exist throughout history, but they did not develop into systematic and discrete literary forms until relatively recent centuries. Length often serves to categorize works of prose fiction. Although limits remain somewhat arbitrary, modern [[publishing]] conventions dictate the following:
* A [[Mini Saga]] is a short story of ''exactly'' 50 words
* A [[Flash fiction]] is generally defined as a piece of prose under a thousand words.
* A [[short story]] comprises prose writing of between 1000 and 20,000 words (but typically more than 500 words), which may or may not have a narrative arc.
* A story containing between 20,000 and 50,000 words falls into the [[novella]] category.
* A work of fiction containing more than 50,000 words falls squarely into the realm of the [[novel]].
A [[novel]] consists simply of a long story written in prose, yet the form developed comparatively recently. [[Icelandic literature|Icelandic]] prose [[Norse Saga|sagas]] dating from about the 11th century bridge the gap between traditional national [[Epic poetry|verse epic]]s and the modern [[psychological novel]]. In mainland Europe, the [[Spain|Spaniard]] [[Miguel de Cervantes|Cervantes]] wrote perhaps the first influential novel: ''[[Don Quixote]]'', the first part of which was published in 1605 and the second in 1615. Earlier collections of [[short story|tale]]s, such as [[Giovanni Boccaccio|Boccaccio]]'s ''[[The Decameron|Decameron]]'' and [[Geoffrey Chaucer|Chaucer]]'s ''[[The Canterbury Tales]]'', have comparable forms and would classify as novels if written today. Earlier works written in Asia resemble even more strongly the novel as we now think of it — for example, works such as the [[China|Chinese]] ''[[Romance of the Three Kingdoms]]'' and the [[Japan]]ese ''[[The Tale of Genji|Tale of Genji]]'' by [[Murasaki Shikibu|Lady Murasaki]]. Compare to [[The Book of One Thousand and One Nights]].
Early novels in Europe did not, at the time, count as significant literature, perhaps because "mere" prose writing seemed easy and unimportant. It has become clear, however, that prose writing can provide aesthetic pleasure without adhering to poetic forms. Additionally, the freedom authors gain in not having to concern themselves with verse structure translates often into a more complex [[plot (narrative)|plot]] or into one richer in precise detail than one typically finds even in narrative poetry. This freedom also allows an author to experiment with many different literary and presentation styles — including poetry— in the scope of a single novel.
See [[Ian Watt]]'s ''The Rise of the Novel''. [This definition needs expansion]
====Other prose literature====
[[Philosophy]], [[history]], [[journalism]], and legal and scientific writings traditionally ranked as literature. They offer some of the oldest prose writings in existence; novels and prose stories earned the names "[[fiction]]" to distinguish them from factual writing or [[nonfiction]], which writers historically have crafted in prose.
The "literary" nature of science writing has become less pronounced over the last two centuries, as advances and specialization have made new scientific research inaccessible to most audiences; science now appears mostly in [[scientific journal|journals]]. Scientific works of [[Euclid]], [[Aristotle]], [[Nicolaus Copernicus|Copernicus]], and [[Isaac Newton|Newton]] still possess great value; but since the science in them has largely become outdated, they no longer serve for scientific instruction, yet they remain too technical to sit well in most programmes of literary study. Outside of "[[history of science]]" programmes students rarely read such works. Many books "popularizing" science might still deserve the title "literature"; history will tell.
Philosophy, too, has become an increasingly academic discipline. More of its practitioners lament this situation than occurs with the sciences; nonetheless most new philosophical work appears in [[Academic publishing|academic journals]]. Major philosophers through history—[[Plato]], [[Aristotle]], [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]], [[René Descartes|Descartes]], [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]]—have become as canonical as any writers. Some recent philosophy works are argued to merit the title "literature", such as some of the works by [[Simon Blackburn]]; but much of it does not, and some areas, such as [[logic]], have become extremely technical to a degree similar to that of [[mathematics]].
A great deal of historical writing can still rank as literature, particularly the genre known as [[creative nonfiction]]. So can a great deal of journalism, such as [[literary journalism]]. However these areas have become extremely large, and often have a primarily utilitarian purpose: to record data or convey immediate information. As a result the writing in these fields often lacks a literary quality, although it often and in its better moments has that quality. Major "literary" historians include [[Herodotus]], [[Thucydides]] and [[Procopius]], all of whom count as canonical literary figures.
[[Law]] offers a less clear case. Some writings of [[Plato]] and [[Aristotle]], or even the early parts of the [[Bible]], might count as legal literature. The law tables of [[Hammurabi]] of [[Babylon]] might count. [[Roman law|Roman civil law]] as codified in the [[Corpus Juris Civilis]] during the reign of [[Justinian I]] of the [[Byzantine Empire]] has a reputation as significant literature. The founding documents of many countries, including the [[United States Constitution]], can count as literature; however legal writing now rarely exhibits literary merit.
[[Game Design]] Scripts - In essence never seen by the player of a game and only by the developers and/or publishers, the audience for these pieces is usually very small. Still, many game scripts contain immersive stories and detailed worlds making them hidden literary gems.
Most of these fields, then, through specialization or proliferation, no longer generally constitute "literature" in the sense under discussion. They may sometimes count as "literary literature"; more often they produce what one might call "technical literature" or "professional literature".
===Drama===
A [[Play (theatre)|play]] or [[drama]] offers another classical literary form that has continued to evolve over the years. It generally comprises chiefly [[dialogue]] between [[Fictional character|characters]], and usually aims at dramatic / theatrical [[performance]] (see [[theatre]]) rather than at reading. During the [[18th century|eighteenth]] and [[19th century|nineteenth centuries]], [[opera]] developed as a combination of poetry, drama, and [[music]]. Nearly all drama took verse form until comparatively recently. Shakespeare could be considered drama. [[Romeo and Juliet]], for example, is a classic romantic drama generally accepted as literature.
[[Greek theatre|Greek drama]] exemplifies the earliest form of drama of which we have substantial knowledge. [[Tragedy]], as a dramatic [[genre]], developed as a performance associated with [[religion|religious]] and civic [[festival]]s, typically enacting or developing upon well-known [[history|historical]] or [[mythology|mythological]] themes. Tragedies generally presented very serious [[Theme (literature)|theme]]s. With the advent of newer technologies, scripts written for non-stage media have been added to this form. [[War of the Worlds (radio)]] in 1938 saw the advent of literature written for radio broadcast, and many works of Drama have been adapted for film or television. Conversely, television, film, and radio literature have been adapted to printed or electronic media.
===Oral literature===
The term [[oral literature]] refers not to written, but to oral traditions, which includes different types of [[Epic poetry|epic]], [[poetry]] and [[drama]], [[folktale]]s, [[ballad]]s, [[legends]], [[joke]]s, and other genres of [[folklore]]. It exists in every society, whether literate or not. It is generally studied by [[folklorist]]s, or by scholars committed to [[cultural studies]] and [[ethnopoetics]], including [[linguistics|linguists]], [[anthropology|anthropologists]], and even [[sociology|sociologists]].
===Other narrative forms===
* [[Electronic literature]] is a literary genre consisting of works which originate in digital environments.
* [[Film]]s, videos and broadcast [[soap opera]]s have carved out a niche which often parallels the functionality of prose fiction.
* [[Graphic novel]]s and [[comic book]]s present stories told in a combination of sequential artwork, dialogue and text.
== Genres of literature ==
A literary genre refers to the traditional divisions of literature of various kinds according to a particular criterion of writing. See [[literary genre|the list of literary genres]].
List of literary genres
* Autobiography, Memoir, Spiritual autobiography
* Biography
* Diaries and Journals
* Electronic literature
* Erotic literature
* Fable, Fairy tale, Folklore
* Fiction
o Adventure novel
o Children's literature
o Comic novel
o Crime fiction
+ Detective fiction
o Fantasy (for more details see Fantasy subgenres; fantasy literature)
o Gothic fiction (initially synonymous with horror)
o Historical fiction
o Horror
o Medical novel
o Mystery fiction
o Philosophical novel
o Political fiction
o Romance novel
+ Historical romance
o Saga, Family Saga
o Satire
o Science fiction (for more details see Science fiction genre)
o Slave narrative
o Thriller
+ Conspiracy fiction
+ Legal thriller
+ Psychological thriller
+ Spy fiction/Political thriller
o Tragedy
== Literary techniques ==
{{main|Literary technique}}
A '''literary technique''' or '''literary device''' may be used by works of literature in order to produce a specific effect on the reader. Literary technique is distinguished from [[literary genre]] as [[military tactics]] are from [[military strategy]]. Thus, though ''[[David Copperfield (novel)|David Copperfield]]'' employs satire at certain moments, it belongs to the genre of comic novel, not that of satire. By contrast, ''[[Bleak House]]'' employs satire so consistently as to belong to the genre of satirical novel. In this way, use of a technique can lead to the development of a new genre, as was the case with one of the first modern novels, ''[[Pamela]]'' by [[Samuel Richardson]], which by using the epistolary technique strengthened the tradition of the [[epistolary novel]], a genre which had been practiced for some time already but without the same acclaim.
==Literary criticism==
''Also see:[[Literary criticism]], [[Literary history]], [[Literary theory]]''
Literary criticism implies a critique and evaluation of a piece of literature and in some cases is used to improve a work in progress or classical piece.
There are many types of literary criticism and each can be used to critique a piece in a different way or critique a different aspect of a piece.
==Legal status==
===UK===
Literary works have been protected by copyright law from unauthorised reproduction since at least 1710.<ref>The Statute of Anne 1710 and the Literary Copyright Act 1842 used the term "book". However, since 1911 the statutes have referred to literary works.</ref> Literary works are defined by copyright law to mean ''any work, other than a dramatic or musical work, which is written, spoken or sung, and accordingly includes (a) a table or compilation (other than a database), (b) a computer program, (c) preparatory design material for a computer program, and (d) a database.''
It should be noted that literary works are not limited to works of literature, but include all works expressed in print or writing (other than dramatic or musical works).<ref>''University of London Press v. University Tutorial Press'' [1916]</ref>
==See also==
=== Lists ===
* [[List of basic literature topics]]
* [[List of authors]]
* [[List of books]]
* [[List of literary awards]]
* [[List of literary terms]]
* [[List of prizes, medals, and awards]] for literary prizes.
* [[List of women writers]]
* [[List of writers]]
=== Related topics ===
* [[Asemic|Asemic Writing]]
* [[Children's literature]]
* [[Cultural movement]] for literary movements.
* [[English studies]]
* [[Ergodic literature]]
* [[Hinman Collator]]
* [[History of literature]] (antiquity — 1800)
* [[History of modern literature]] (1800 —)
* [[Literature basic topics]]
* [[Literary criticism]]
* [[Literature cycle]]
* [[Literary magazine]]
* [[Modern Language Association]]
* [[Orature]]
* [[Postcolonial literature]]
* [[Rabbinic literature]]
* [[Scientific literature]]
* [[Vernacular literature]]
* [[World literature]]
==Notes==
{{reflist}}
==External links==
{{external links}}
{{portal}}
{{sisterlinks|Literature}}
*[http://www.writiki.com Writiki.com] - Collaborative literature
*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-55 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] Classicism in Literature
*[http://www.ulib.org/ The Universal Library], by [[Carnegie Mellon University]]
*[http://gutenberg.net Project Gutenberg Online Library]
*[http://www.dailylight.wordpress.com Lectio Divina or Divine Literature] An essentially eclectic excerpts' resource for religious literature.
*[http://www.iguides.org/articles/articles/85/1/The-importance-of-the-history-of-Literature/Page1.html The importance of the history of Literature]
**[http://www.abacci.com/books/default.asp Abacci] - Project Gutenberg texts matched with Amazon reviews
**[http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu The Online Books Page] A search engine for online ebooks.
*[http://www.iblist.com Internet Book List] - Similar to [[Internet Movie Database|IMDb]] but for books.
*[http://www.bopsecrets.org/rexroth/essays/literature.htm The Art of Literature:] Essay from [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] by [[Kenneth Rexroth]].
*[http://www.awardannals.com Most Honored Literature], books sorted by awards.
*[http://www.unizar.es/departamentos/filologia_inglesa/garciala/bibliography.html A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism, and Philology] (José Ángel García Landa, University of Zaragoza, Spain)
**[http://litterature.canalblog.com/ Univers Litteraire]
* [http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/hopkins_guide_to_literary_theory/g-index.html The Johns Hopkins Guide to literary Theory and Criticism]
*[http://www.wsu.edu/~campbelld/amlit/realism.htm American literary realism: definitions, links, bibliographies]
* [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/DicHist/analytic/anaIII.html The history of ideas in literature and the arts in aesthetic theory and literary criticism. In ''The Dictionary of the History of Ideas''.]
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