Lobster 46310 225854422 2008-07-15T18:35:13Z SpongeSebastian 1568441 /* Lobsters in culture */ {{otheruses}} {{Taxobox | name = Lobster | image = Lobster NSRW.jpg | image_width = 250px | image_caption = [[American lobster]], ''Homarus americanus'' | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Arthropod]]a | subphylum = [[Crustacean|Crustacea]] | classis = [[Malacostraca]] | ordo = [[Decapoda]] | infraordo = [[Astacidea]] | familia = '''Nephropidae''' | familia_authority = [[James Dwight Dana|Dana]], 1852 | subdivision_ranks = [[Family (biology)|Subfamilies]] and [[Genus|Genera]] | subdivision = *[[Neophoberinae]] **''[[Acanthacaris]]'' *[[Thymopinae]] **''[[Nephropsis]]'' **''[[Nephropides]]'' **''[[Thymops]]'' **''[[Thymopsis]]'' *[[Nephropinae]] **''[[Homarus]]'' **''[[Norway lobster|Nephrops]]'' **''[[Cape lobster|Homarinus]]'' **''[[Metanephrops]]'' **''[[Eunephrops]]'' **''[[Thymopides]]'' }} Clawed '''lobsters''' compose a family ('''Nephropidae''', sometimes also '''Homaridae''') of large marine [[crustacean]]s. Lobsters are economically important as [[seafood]], forming the basis of a global industry that nets [[United States dollar|US$]]1.8 billion in trade annually{{Fact|date=April 2008}}. Though several different groups of crustaceans are known as "lobsters," the clawed lobsters are most often associated with the name. Clawed lobsters are not closely related with [[spiny lobster]]s or [[slipper lobster]]s, which have no claws (''[[Claw#Arthropods|chelae]]''), or [[squat lobster]]s. The closest relatives of clawed lobsters are the [[reef lobster]] ''Enoplometopus'' and the three families of freshwater [[crayfish]]. ==Biology== Lobsters are [[invertebrate]]s and are usually big and have claws. They are found all over the world. They have a hard protective [[exoskeleton]]. Like most [[arthropod]]s, lobsters must [[ecdysis|molt]] in order to grow, leaving them vulnerable during this time. During the molting process, several species may experience a change in color. Lobsters live on rocky, sandy, or muddy bottoms from the shoreline to beyond the edge of the [[continental shelf]]. They generally live singly in crevices or in burrows under rocks. Lobsters typically eat live food, consisting of fish, mollusks, other crustaceans, worms, and some plant life. Occasionally, they will scavenge if necessary, and may resort to [[cannibalism]] in captivity; however, this has not been observed in the wild. Lobster skin in the stomachs of lobsters has been found before, although this is because lobsters will eat their shed skin after [[ecdysis|molting]].<ref name="marinebio">{{cite web |url=http://marinebio.org/species.asp?id=533 |title=''Homarus americanus'', Atlantic lobster |accessdate=2006-12-27 |publisher=MarineBio.org}}</ref> Lobsters grow throughout their lives and it is not unusual for a lobster to live for more than 100 years.<ref>{{cite book|title=[[Consider the Lobster|Consider the Lobster and Other Essays]] |author=[[David Foster Wallace]] |publisher=[[Little, Brown & Company]] |year=2005 |id=ISBN 0-31-615611-6}}</ref> In fact, lobsters may exhibit [[Senescence#Theories of aging|"negligible senescence"]], in that they can effectively live indefinitely, barring injury, disease, capture, etc. <ref>''Emerging Area of Aging Research: Long-Lived Animals with "Negligible Senescence"'', John C. Guerin. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1019 (1) , 518–520. ([http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1196/annals.1297.096 abstract])</ref> They can thus reach impressive sizes. According to the [[Guinness World Records]], the largest lobster was caught in [[Nova Scotia]], [[Canada]], and weighed 20.14&nbsp;kg (44.4&nbsp;lb). Being arthropods, lobsters are largely bilaterally symmetrical; clawed lobsters often possess unequal, specialized claws, like the [[king crab]]. A freshly caught lobster will have a claw that is full and fleshy, not atrophied. The anatomy of the lobster includes the [[cephalothorax]] which is the head fused with the [[thorax]], both of which are covered by the [[carapace]], of [[chitin]]ous composition, and the abdomen. The lobster's head consists of [[Antenna (biology)|antennae]], antennules, [[Mandible (arthropod)|mandibles]], the first and second [[Maxilla (arthropod)|maxillae]], and the first, second, and third [[Decapod anatomy#Thorax / Pereon|maxillipeds]]. Because a lobster lives in a murky environment at the bottom of the ocean, its vision is poor and it mostly uses its antennae as sensors. Studies have shown that the lobster eye is formed with a reflective structure atop a convex retina. In contrast, most complex eyes use refractive ray concentrators (lenses) and a concave retina.<ref>{{cite journal | quotes=no |last= Land |first=M. F. |title=Superposition images are formed by reflection in the eyes of some oceanic decapod Crustacea |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |date=1976 |volume=263 |pages=764–765 |doi=10.1038/263764a0 }}</ref> The abdomen of the lobster includes [[decapod anatomy|swimmerets]] and its tail is composed of [[Decapod anatomy#Abdomen / Pleon|uropods]] and the [[telson]]. In general, lobsters move slowly by walking on the bottom of the sea floor. However, when they are in danger and need to flee, they swim backwards quickly by curling and uncurling their [[abdomen]]. A speed of 5 [[metre per second|meters per second]] has been recorded.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.osl.gc.ca/homard/en/faq.html |title=The American lobster — frequently asked questions |publisher=[[St. Lawrence Observatory]], [[Fisheries and Oceans Canada]] |date=[[2005-10-19]]}}</ref> Lobsters come in a variety of colors including, but not limited to, red, blue, green, purple, yellow, and magenta. ===''Symbion''=== The genus ''[[Symbion]]'', the only member of the animal phylum Cycliophora, has only been found on the [[gill]]s and mouthparts of lobsters.<ref>{{cite journal |quotes=no |author=M. Obst, P. Funch & G. Giribet |year=2005 |title= Hidden diversity and host specificity in cycliophorans: a phylogeographic analysis along my ta tas the North Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea |journal=[[Molecular Ecology]] |volume=14 |pages=4427–4440 |url=http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-294X.2005.02752.x |doi=10.1111/j.1365-294X.2005.02752.x}}</ref> ==List of clawed lobster species== This list contains all known species in the family Nephropidae:<ref>{{cite journal | quotes=no |author=Tshudy, D |year=2003 |title=Clawed lobster (Nephropidae) diversity through time |journal=[[Journal of Crustacean Biology]] |volume=23 |pages=178–186 |url=http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?request=get-abstract&issn=0278-0372&volume=023&issue=01&page=0178 |doi=10.1651/0278-0372(2003)023[0178:CLNDTT]2.0.CO;2}}</ref> {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} *''[[Acanthacaris|Acanthacaris caeca]]'' *''[[Acanthacaris|Acanthacaris tenuimana]]'' *''[[Eunephrops bairdii]]'' *''[[Eunephrops cadenasi]]'' *''[[Eunephrops luckhursti]]'' *''[[Eunephrops manningi]]'' *''[[Cape lobster|Homarinus capensis]]'' — Cape lobster *''[[American lobster|Homarus americanus]]'' — American lobster *''[[European lobster|Homarus gammarus]]'' — European lobster *''[[Metanephrops andamanicus]]'' — Andaman lobster *''[[Metanephrops arafurensis]]'' *''[[Metanephrops|Metanephrops armatus]]'' *''[[Australian scampi|Metanephrops australiensis]]'' — Australian scampi *''[[Metanephrops binghami]]'' — Caribbean lobster *''[[Bight lobster|Metanephrops boschmai]]'' — bight lobster *''[[Metanephrops challengeri]]'' — New Zealand scampi *''[[Metanephrops formosanus]]'' *''[[Metanephrops japonicus]]'' — Japanese lobster *''[[Metanephrops mozambicus]]'' *''[[Metanephrops neptunus]]'' *''[[Metanephrops rubellus]]'' *''[[Metanephrops sagamiensis]]'' *''[[Metanephrops sibogae]]'' *''[[Metanephrops sinensis]]'' {{col-break}} *''[[Metanephrops thomsoni]]'' *''[[Metanephrops velutinus]]'' *''[[Nephropides caribaeus]]'' *''[[Norway lobster|Nephrops norvegicus]]'' — Norway lobster *''[[Nephropsis acanthura]]'' *''[[Nephropsis aculeata]]'' — Florida lobsterette *''[[Nephropsis agassizii]]'' *''[[Nephropsis atlantica]]'' *''[[Nephropsis carpenteri]]'' *''[[Nephropsis ensirostris]]'' *''[[Nephropsis hamadai]]'' *''[[Nephropsis holthuisii]]'' *''[[Nephrops macphersoni]]'' *''[[Nephropsis malhaensis]]'' *''[[Nephropsis neglecta]]'' *''[[Nephropsis occidentalis]]'' *''[[Nephropsis rosea]]'' *''[[Nephropsis serrata]]'' *''[[Nephropsis stewarti]]'' *''[[Nephropsis suhmi]]'' *''[[Nephropsis sulcata]]'' *''[[Thymopides grobovi]]'' *''[[Thymops birsteini]]'' *''[[Thymopsis nilenta]]'' {{col-end}} ==Gastronomy== [[Image:Homar1.jpg|thumb|240px|left|A 3 kg [[European lobster]]]] Lobster is a valued foodstuff; well-known recipes include [[Lobster Newberg]] and [[Lobster Thermidor]]. Lobster is best eaten fresh, and they are normally purchased live. Lobsters are usually shipped and sold with their claws banded to prevent them from injuring each other or the purchaser. Lobsters cannot open and close the claws when they are banded, which causes the claws to begin to [[atrophy]] inside the shell. Recently banded lobsters will not show this, and the claws will be full. Many restaurants that serve lobster keep a tank of the live creatures, often allowing patrons to pick their own. Lobsters are generally prepared and cooked while they are still alive, even though both claws may have been removed. Most cooks place the live lobster into a pot of boiling water or steam which kills it. Lobsters are also served fried, grilled, or baked. [[Freezing]] the lobster may toughen the meat. When boiling, the lobster is simmerred for 7 minutes for the first pound and 3 minutes for each additional pound.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.atwoodlobster.com/site/cookinglobster.asp |title=Cooking lobsters |publisher=Atwood Lobster Company |accessdate=2007-06-30}}</ref> [[Image:Homar3 (js0.jpg|thumb|240px|right|A dish including a [[European lobster]], Dubrovnik]] The shell of the lobster makes eating them a slow process for the unskilled or timid, who may require a number of implements including [[nutcracker]]s, a small fork, and a plastic [[Bib (garment)|bib]]. It is possible to shell a lobster by hand if one is careful to avoid the sharp points. The majority of the meat is in the tail and the two front claws, but smaller quantities can be found in the [[leg]]s and [[torso]]. Lobster can be boiled or steamed, or used in a wide array of dishes and salads. It can be served as soup or [[bisque (food)|bisque]] or mixed with [[mayonnaise]] or salad dressing for lobster rolls. Lobster meat is often dipped in melted butter, resulting in a sweetened flavor. ===History=== {{commercial crustacean topics}} The European wild lobster, including the royal blue lobster of [[Audresselles]], is more expensive and rare than the American lobster. It was consumed chiefly by the royal and aristocratic families of [[France]] and the [[Netherlands]]. Such scenes were depicted in Dutch paintings of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In North America prior to the 20th century, local lobster was not a popular food. In the [[Maritimes]], eating lobster was considered a mark of poverty or as a food for slaves or lower members of society. Lobsters were also used as a fertilizer for farms. Outside of the rural outports lobster was sold canned. The market for lobster changed with the development of the modern transportation industry that allowed live lobsters to be shipped from the [[port]]s to large urban centres. Fresh lobster quickly became a luxury food and a tourist attraction for the Maritime provinces and [[Maine]] and an export to Europe and [[Japan]] where it is especially expensive. The high price of lobster has led to the marketing of "faux lobster" which is clearly labeled as such. It is often made from [[pollock]] or other [[whitefish (fisheries term)|whitefish]] that has been altered to look and taste similar to lobster. A few restaurants sell "[[langostino]] lobster". Langostino translates into [[prawn]], however the actual animal is probably a [[crab]]. [[Maine]] fishermen are upset that restaurants are passing off the fake as lobster. The spiny lobster is also called [[Spiny lobster|langouste]]. [[Rubio's Fresh Mexican Grill]] sold a "Lobster Burrito" which was made from [[squat lobster]], another crustacean which is very similar to the crab.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20050701/news_1b1rubios.html |title=The lobster in Rubio's burrito may be in hot water |publisher=[[The San Diego Union-Tribune]] |date=[[2005-07-01]] |author=Sarah Skidmore}}</ref> ===Catching=== The usual method of catching lobsters has been to use baited, one-way traps located deep underwater with a coded marker buoy at the surface so that fishermen can find their cages. Around the year 2000, due to overfishing and demand overwhelming supply, many countries began to try [[lobster farming]], which is similar to [[fish farming]]. ==Capacity for pain== :''See also: [[Angling#Capacity for pain]]'' The question of whether or not lobsters can experience pain is unresolved. Because of the ambiguous nature of suffering, most people who contend that lobsters do have this capacity approach the issue using 'argument by analogy' — that is, they hold that certain similarities between lobsters' and humans' biology or behavior warrant an assumption that lobsters can feel pain.<ref name="afa">{{cite book|title=Cephalopods and decapod crustaceans: their capacity to experience pain and suffering |publisher=Advocates for Animals |year=2005 |url=http://www.advocatesforanimals.org.uk/pdf/crustreport.pdf}}</ref> In February 2005, a review of the literature by the Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food Safety tentatively concluded that "it is unlikely that [lobsters] can feel pain," though they note that "there is apparently a paucity of exact knowledge on sentience in crustaceans, and more research is needed." This conclusion is based on the lobster's simple nervous system. The report assumes that the violent reaction of lobsters to boiling water is a reflex to noxious stimuli.<ref name="somme">{{cite journal | quotes=no |author=L. Sømme |year=2005 |title=Sentience and pain in invertebrates: Report to Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food Safety |journal=[[Norwegian University of Life Sciences]], [[Oslo]]}}</ref> However, a Scottish review released in the same year reported that "scientific evidence ... strongly suggests that there is a potential for [lobsters] to experience pain and suffering," primarily because lobsters (and other decapod crustaceans) "have opioid receptors and respond to opioids (analgesics such as morphine) in a similar way to vertebrates,"; translated, this indicates that lobsters' reaction to injury changes when painkillers are applied. The similarities in lobsters' and vertebrates' stress systems and behavioral responses to noxious stimuli were given as additional evidence for their capacity for pain.<ref name="afa" /> A 2007 study at Queen's University, Belfast, suggested that crustaceans do feel pain. Acetic acid was placed on the antennae of 144 prawns; the animals responded by rubbing the affected areas. Professor Robert Elwood, who headed the study, argues that sensing pain is crucial to the survival of all animals, because it encourages them to avoid damaging behaviors. Some scientists responded, saying the rubbing may reflect an attempt to clean the affected area.<ref>Sample, Ian. [http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2007/nov/08/animalrights.sciencenews "Blow for fans of boiled lobster: crustaceans feel pain, study says"], ''The Guardian'', Nov 8, 2007.</ref> ===Opioids=== In vertebrates, endogenous [[opioid]]s are neurochemicals that moderate pain by interacting with opiate receptors. Opioid peptides and opiate receptors occur naturally in crustaceans, and although “at present no certain conclusion can be drawn,”<ref name="somme" /> some have interpreted their presence as an indication that lobsters may be able to experience pain<ref name="somme" /><ref name="afa" />. The aforementioned Scottish paper holds that lobsters' opioids may "mediate pain in the same way" as in vertebrates<ref name="afa" />. [[Morphine]], an analgesic, and [[naloxone]], an opioid receptor antagonist, may affect a related species of crustacean (''[[Chasmagnathus granulatus]]'') in much the same way they affect vertebrates: injections of morphine into crabs produced a dose-dependent reduction of their defensive response to an electric shock.<ref>{{cite journal |quotes=no |author=M. Lozada, A. Romano & H. Maldonado |year=1988 |title=Effect of morphine and naloxone on a defensive response of the crab ''Chasmagnathus granulatus'' |journal=[[Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior]] |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=635–640 |doi=10.1016/0091-3057(88)90076-7}}</ref> (However, the attenuated defensive response could originate from either the analgesic or sedative properties of morphine, or both<ref name="dyak">{{cite journal |quotes=no |author=V. E. Dyakonova |year=2001 |title=Role of opioid peptides in behavior of invertebrates |journal=[[Journal of Evolutionary Biochemistry and Physiology]] |volume=37 |pages=335–347 |url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/maik/joey/2001/00000037/00000004/00366536 |doi=10.1023/A:1012910525424}}</ref>) These findings have been replicated for other invertebrate species,<ref name="dyak" /> but similar data is not yet available for lobsters. ===Animal rights issues=== The most common way of killing a lobster is by placing it, live, in boiling water, or by splitting: severing the body in half, lengthwise. The boiling method (also used to kill crayfish and shrimp) is controversial because some believe that the lobster suffers. The practice is illegal in some places, such as in [[Reggio Emilia]], Italy, where offenders face fines of up to [[Euro|€]]495.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2004/03/07/wlob07.xml&sSheet=/news/2004/03/07/ixworld.html |title=Italian animal rights law puts lobster off the menu |author=Bruce Johnston |date=[[2004-03-06]] |publisher=[[The Daily Telegraph|Daily Telegraph]]}}</ref> The Norwegian study states that the lobster may be de-sensitized by placing it in a salt solution 15 minutes before killing it. The quickest way to kill a lobster may be to insert a knife into its head and cleave the head in two, thereby destroying two of the most important nerve clusters of the lobster. Some feel that this is more humane than placing the live lobster into boiling water, although it is common for the lobster to twitch for some time even when severed symmetrically in half. Some stores will kill a lobster upon purchase by microwaving it. Whether or not death occurs more quickly than when the lobster is dropped in boiling water is not clear. There are, however, locations where the sale of a dead lobster to be eaten is illegal, including [[Massachusetts]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mass.gov/legis/laws/mgl/94-77g.htm |title=Chapter 94: Section 77G. Use of dead lobsters for food purposes; rapid freezing of live lobsters |publisher=[[Massachusetts General Court]]}}</ref> In 2006, British inventor Simon Buckhaven invented the ''[[Crustastun|CrustaStun]]'', which electrocutes lobsters with a 110&nbsp;[[volt|V]] [[electric shock]], killing them in about five seconds. This ensures a quicker death for the lobster. Seafood wholesalers in Britain already use a commercial version. A home version measuring about 46&nbsp;cm width and depth came into the retail market in late 2006 for about [[Pound sterling|£]]2000.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4097798.stm |title=Lawyer invents lobster stun-gun |publisher=[[BBC News]] |date=[[2006-06-18]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=How a Lobster Leaves the Building |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/25/business/yourmoney/25goods.html?ex=1308888000&en=657a93f0ef9ce8f8&ei=5090&partner=rssuserland&emc=rss |author=Brendan I. Koerner |publisher=[[New York Times]] |date=[[2006-06-25]]}}</ref> ==Lobsters in culture== [[Image:Mochelobster.jpg|thumb|Moche lobster, 200 A.D., [[Larco Museum|Larco Museum Collection]] Lima, Peru]] [[Image:Shediac Lobster.jpg|thumb|left|World's largest lobster sculpture in [[Shediac, New Brunswick]].]] The [[Moche]] people of ancient [[Peru]] worshipped the sea and its animals. Lobsters were often depicted in their art.<ref>Berrin, Katherine & Larco Museum. ''The Spirit of Ancient Peru:Treasures from the [[Larco Museum|Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera]].'' New York: [[Thames and Hudson]], 1997</ref> In the Japanese 1966 film ''[[Godzilla vs. the Sea Monster]]'' and the 1970 film ''[[Space Amoeba]]'', the Toho monsters [[Ebirah]] and [[Ganime]], respectively, are both giant mutant lobsters. A recurring character on the television show "[[SpongeBob SquarePants]]" is a [[bodybuilding]] lobster named Larry. A lobster is also the main character in Edward Harriman's children's book ''Leroy the Lobster and Crabby Crab'' ==References== {{reflist}} == External links == {{commons|Homarus}} * {{Cite book |year=1991 |url=http://nlbif.eti.uva.nl/bis/lobsters.php?menuentry=inleiding |title=Marine Lobsters of the World |author=[[Lipke Holthuis]] |publisher = [[Food and Agriculture Organization]]}} * [http://www.lobster-tail-recipes.com/ Lobster Recipes] * [http://www.lobsterscience.ca/ Atlantic Veterinary College Lobster Science Centre] [[Category:True lobsters]] [[Category:Edible crustaceans]] [[Category:Seafood]] [[Category:Commercial crustaceans]] [[Category:Animal welfare]] [[ang:Loppestre]] [[ar:جراد البحر]] [[ca:Nefròpid]] [[de:Hummerartige]] [[el:Αστακός (μαλακόστρακο)]] [[eo:Omaro]] [[fr:Nephropidae]] [[id:Lobster]] [[is:Humrar]] [[it:Nephropidae]] [[he:לובסטר]] [[la:Locusta marina]] [[lt:Omaras]] [[ml:കൊഞ്ച്]] [[nl:Zeekreeften]] [[no:Hummere]] [[nn:Hummarfamilien]] [[pl:Homary]] [[pt:Lavagante]] [[ru:Омары]] [[simple:Lobster]] [[fi:Hummerit]] [[sv:Hummer]] [[tl:Ulang]] [[ur:کَر کند]] [[zh:海螯蝦]]