Magnetar
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2008-06-28T22:09:48Z
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It didn't say which issue of Sci American the story was in so I put in that it was February 2003.
[[Image:Magnetar-3b-450x580.gif|thumb|Artist's conception of a magnetar, with magnetic field lines]]
A '''magnetar''' is a [[neutron star]] with an extremely powerful [[magnetic field]], the decay of which powers the emission of copious amounts of high-energy [[electromagnetic radiation]], particularly [[X-ray]]s and [[gamma-ray]]s.<ref name="Ward">Ward; Brownlee, p.286</ref> The theory regarding these objects was formulated by [[Robert Duncan (physicist)|Robert Duncan]] and [[Christopher Thompson]] in 1992, but the first recorded burst of gamma rays thought to have been from a magnetar was on March 5, 1979.<ref name="journal" /> During the following decade, the magnetar hypothesis has become widely accepted as a likely explanation for [[soft gamma repeater]]s and [[anomalous X-ray pulsar]]s.
==Description==
Little is known about the physical structure of a magnetar, because none are close to Earth.
Magnetars are somewhere around 20 kilometres in diameter. Despite this, they are substantially more massive than our Sun. Magnetars are so compressed that a thimbleful of its material is estimated to weigh over 100 million tons.<ref name="Ward" /> Most magnetars recorded rotate very rapidly, at least several times per second.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.space-art.co.uk/pages-en/stars-I/Magnetar.htm|title= Magnetar (1999)|accessdate=17 December|accessyear=2007}}</ref> The active life of a magnetar is short. Their strong magnetic fields decay after about 10,000 years, after which point activity and strong X-ray emission cease. Given the number of magnetars observable today, one estimate puts the number of "dead" magnetars in the Milky Way at 30 million or more.<ref>
{{cite web | date = March 2003
| url = http://solomon.as.utexas.edu/~duncan/magnetar.html#Epilog
| title = Magnetars, Soft Gamma Repeaters and Very Strong Magnetic Fields
| publisher = Robert C. Duncan, University of Texas at Austin
| accessdate = 2007-05-23 }}
</ref>
Quakes triggered on the surface of the magnetar cause great volatility in the star and the magnetic field which encompasses it, often leading to extremely powerful gamma ray flare emissions which have been recorded on Earth in 1979, 1998 and 2004.<ref name="journal2" />
=== Magnetic field ===
Magnetars are primarily characterized by their extremely powerful magnetic field, which can often reach the order of 10 gigateslas. These magnetic fields are millions of times stronger than any man-made magnet, and quadrillions of times more powerful than the field surrounding Earth.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.skyandtelescope.com/news/3310066.html?page=1&c=y|title="The Brightest Blast"|first=Robert|Last=Naye|accessdate=17 December|accessyear=2007}}</ref> As of today, they are the most magnetic objects ever detected in the universe.<ref name="journal2">Kouveliotou, C.; Duncan, R. C.; Thompson, C. (February 2003). "[http://solomon.as.utexas.edu/~duncan/sciam.pdf Magnetars]". ''[[Scientific American]]''; Page 36. </ref><ref>{{citeweb|url=http://science.nasa.gov/newhome/headlines/ast20may98_1.htm|title="Magnetar" discovery solves 19-year-old mystery|accessdate=17 December|accessyear=2007}}</ref>
A magnetic field of 10 gigateslas is enormous. Earth has a [[geomagnetic]] field of 30-60 microteslas, and a [[neodymium magnet|neodymium based rare earth magnet]] has a field of about 1 tesla, with a magnetic energy density of 4.0 x 10<sup>5</sup> J/m<sup>3</sup>. A 10 gigatesla field, by contrast, has an energy density of 4.0 x 10<sup>25</sup> J/m<sup>3</sup>, with an E/c<sup>2</sup> mass density >10<sup>4</sup> times that of [[lead]]. The magnetic field of a magnetar would be lethal even at a distance of 1000 km, tearing tissues due to the [[diamagnetism]] of water. It has even been said that at a distance halfway to the moon, a magnetar could strip information from a [[credit card]] on Earth.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/watchtheskies/swift_nsu_0205.html|title=Cosmic Explosion Among the Brightest in Recorded History|accessdate=17 December|accessyear=2007}}</ref>
As described in the February 2003 ''[[Scientific American]]'' cover story, remarkable things happen within a magnetic field of magnetar strength:
{{bquote|[[X-ray]] [[photons]] readily
split in two or merge together. The vacuum itself is polarized,
becoming strongly [[birefringent]], like a [[calcite]] crystal. [[Atom]]s are
deformed into long cylinders thinner than the quantum-relativistic
[[wavelength]] of an electron. <ref name="journal" />}}
In a field of about 10<sup>5</sup> teslas [[atomic orbital]]s deform into cigar shapes. At 10<sup>10</sup> teslas, a [[hydrogen atom]] becomes a spindle 200 times narrower than its normal diameter.<ref name="journal">Kouveliotou, C.; Duncan, R. C.; Thompson, C. (February 2003). "[http://solomon.as.utexas.edu/~duncan/sciam.pdf Magnetars]". ''[[Scientific American]]''; Page 35.</ref>
=== Formation ===
[[Image:Magnetar SGR 1900+14.jpg|thumb|right|Magnetar SGR 1900+14 is in the exact center of the image, which shows a surrounding ring of gas seven light-years across in infrared light, as seen by the [[Spitzer Space Telescope]]. The magnetar itself is not visible at this wavelength, but it has been seen in X-ray light.]]
When, in a [[supernova]], a star collapses to a neutron star, its magnetic field increases dramatically in strength (halving a linear dimension increases the magnetic field fourfold). Duncan and Thompson calculated that the magnetic field of a neutron star, normally an already enormous 10<sup>8</sup> [[Tesla (unit)|tesla]]s could, through the [[Electrical generator|dynamo]] mechanism, grow even larger, to more than 10<sup>11</sup> teslas (or 10<sup>15</sup> [[gauss (unit)|gauss]]). The result is a ''magnetar''.<ref>Kouveliotou, p.237</ref>
The supernova might lose 10% of its mass in the explosion. In order for such large stars (10 to 30 solar masses) not to collapse straight into a [[black hole]], they have to shed a larger proportion of their mass— perhaps another 80%.
It is estimated that about 1 in 10 supernova explosions results in a magnetar rather than a more standard neutron star or [[pulsar]].<ref>S. B. Popov, M. E. Prokhorov, ''Progenitors with enhanced rotation and the origin of magnetars''. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 367 (2), 732–736.</ref>
On February 21, 2008 it was announced that NASA and McGill University researchers had discovered a neutron star that temporarily changed from a pulsar to a magnetar. This indicates that magnetars are not merely a rare type of pulsar but may be a (possibly reversible) phase in the lives of at least some pulsars.<ref>[http://www.mcgill.ca/newsroom/news/?ItemID=29230 Jekyll-Hyde neutron star discovered by researchers] McGill</ref>
== History ==
<!-- Section NOT complete -->
=== 1979 discovery ===
On March 5, 1979, a few months after the successful dropping of satellites into the atmosphere of [[Venus]], the two Soviet spacecraft that were then drifting through the solar system, were hit by a blast of gamma ray radiation at approximately 10:51 EST. This contact raised the radiation readings on both the probes from a normal 100 counts per second to over 200,000 counts a second, in only a fraction of a millisecond.<ref name="journal" />
This burst of gamma rays quickly continued to spread. Eleven seconds later, [[Helios 2]], a [[NASA]] probe, which was in orbit around the [[Sun]], was saturated by the blast of radiation. It soon hit Venus, and the [[Pioneer Venus Orbiter]]'s detectors were overcome by the wave. Seconds later, Earth received the wave of radiation, where the powerful output of gamma rays inundated the detectors of three [[U.S. Department of Defense]] [[Vela (satellite)|Vela satellites]], the [[Soviet Prognoz 7 satellite]], and the [[Einstein Observatory]]. Just before the wave exited the solar system, the blast also hit the [[International Sun-Earth Explorer]]. This extremely powerful blast of gamma ray radiation constituted the strongest wave of extra-solar gamma rays ever detected; it was over 100 times more intense than any known previous extra-solar burst.<ref name="journal2" />
==Known magnetars==
[[Image:SGR 1806-20 108530main cloudballPrint.jpg|right|thumb|On 27 December, 2004, a burst of gamma rays arrived in our solar system from [[SGR 1806-20]] (''artist's conception shown''). The burst was so powerful that it had effects on Earth's atmosphere, at a range of over 50,000 [[light years]].]]
As of May 2007, twelve magnetars are known, with three more candidates awaiting confirmation. Examples of known magnetars include:
* [[SGR 1806-20]], located 50,000 light-years from Earth on the far side of our Milky Way galaxy in the constellation of [[Sagittarius (constellation)|Sagittarius]].
* [[SGR 1900+14]], located 20,000 light-years away in the constellation [[Aquila (constellation)|Aquila]]. After a long period of low emissions (significant bursts only in 1979 and 1993) it became active in May-August 1998, and a burst detected on August 27, 1998 was of sufficient power to force [[NEAR]] to shut-down to prevent damage and to saturate instruments on [[BeppoSAX]], [[WIND]] and [[RXTE]]. On May 29, 2008, NASA's Spitzer telescope discovered a ring of matter around this magnetar. It is thought that this ring formed in the 1998 burst. <ref>{{citeweb|url=http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2008/29may_magnetar.htm?list793087|title=Strange Ring Found Around Dead Star|}}</ref>
* 1E 1048.1-5937, located 9,000 light-years away in the constellation [[Carina (constellation)|Carina]]. The original star, from which the magnetar formed, had a mass 30 to 40 times that of the [[Sun]].
A full listing is given in the magnetar catalog.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.physics.mcgill.ca/~pulsar/magnetar/main.html|title=Full listing of magnetars known|accessdate=17 December|accessyear=2007}}</ref>
==See also==
* [[Neutron star]]
* [[Pulsar]]
* [[Black hole]]
* [[Supernova]]
* [[Gamma ray burst]]
* [[Gamma radiation]]
==References==
;Specific
{{reflist}}
;Books and literature
*Peter Douglas Ward, Donald Brownlee ''Rare Earth: Why Complex Life Is Uncommon in the Universe''. Springer, 2000. ISBN 0387987010.
*Chryssa Kouveliotou ''The Neutron Star-Black Hole Connection''. Springer, 2001. ISBN 140200205X.
;General
* {{cite news | title=Origin of magnetars | date=[[2 February]] [[2005]] | publisher=CNN | url=http://www.cnn.com/2005/TECH/space/02/01/universe.magnets/index.html}}
* {{cite news | title=The Brightest Blast | date=[[18 February]] [[2005]] | publisher=Sky and Telescope | url=http://skyandtelescope.com/news/article_1464_1.asp}}
==External links==
*[http://graphics.news.com.au/multimedia/mediaplayer/060823_HugeMagnetar/ Recording] (and animation) of XTE J1810-197.
*[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/02/050201193246.htm Creation of magnetars solved] Formed when the biggest stars explode
*[http://science.msfc.nasa.gov/newhome/headlines/ast20may98_1.htm NASA: "Magnetar" discovery solves 19-year-old mystery] Citat: "...suggested a magnetic field strength of about 800 trillion [g]auss...").
*[http://solomon.as.utexas.edu/~duncan/magnetar.html Robert C. Duncan, University of Texas at Austin: 'Magnetars', Soft Gamma Repeaters & Very Strong Magnetic Fields]
*NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS): [http://adsbit.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?bibcode=1992ApJ...392L...9D Duncan & Thompson, Ap.J. 392, L9) 1992]
*NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS): [http://adsbit.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?bibcode=1982ApJ...260..371K Katz, J. I., Ap.J. 260, 371 (1982)]
*[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?bibcode=1999ApJ...510L.115K&db_key=AST&high=3eb1acc4ea06362 NASA ADS, 1999: Discovery of a Magnetar Associated with the Soft Gamma Repeater SGR 1900+14]
*[http://www.cita.utoronto.ca/~thompson/magnetar.pdf Chryssa Kouveliotou, Robert Duncan, and Christopher Thompson, "Magnetars," Scientific American, Feb. 2003, pp. 34-41] (PDF)
* {{cite journal | url = http://adsbit.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?bibcode=1992ApJ...392L...9D | author = Robert C. Duncan and Christopher Thompson | title = Formation of Very Strongly Magnetized Neutron Stars: Implications for Gamma-Ray Bursts | journal = Astronomical Journal | volume = 392 | issue = 1 | date = [[June 10]], [[1992]] | pages = pp. L9–L13 }}
*[http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/060828_mystery_monday.html Strange Pulsing Star Puzzles Astronomers] - A magnetar found to emit radio waves, contrary to previous theories.
*[http://www.exploration-space.com/04-apr-2007-esa-1.html 04/04/07: X-ray Satellites Catch Magnetar in Gigantic Stellar 'Hiccup']
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[[Category:Star types]]
[[Category:Magnetars|*]]
[[Category:Stellar phenomena]]
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