Mahayana 20294 224108188 2008-07-07T10:14:45Z Dakinijones 4943078 typo {|style="float:right" |{{MahayanaBuddhism}} | |}{{Buddhism}} [[Image:Jiuhuashan bodhisattva image.JPG|thumb|upright|right|Relief image of the bodhisattva [[Kuan Yin]] from [[Mt. Jiuhua]] in [[China]]'s [[Anhui]] province. The image's many arms represent the bodhisattva's limitless capacity and commitment to helping other beings.]] '''Mahayana''' ({{lang-sa|''mahāyāna''}}: महायान, "Great Vehicle") is a classification of [[Buddhism]] used in several different senses. # The most common, found in English dictionaries, is as one of two major branches of Buddhism existing today, the other being [[Theravada]] (स्थविरवाद). # However, the normal usage in the Mahayana in sense 1 is to refer to a level of spiritual motivation and practice,<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', Cambridge University Press, 1990, page 94</ref> namely the [[Bodhisattvayana]], the [[Bodhisattva|Bodhisattva's]] vehicle.<ref>''The Mahayana, 'Great Vehicle' or 'Great Carriage' (for carrying all beings to nirvana), is also, and perhaps more correctly and accurately, known as the Bodhisattvayana, the bodhisattva's vehicle.'' Indian Buddhism, [[A. K. Warder]], 3rd edition, 1999, p.338</ref>. # The term Mahayana is also often used in a sense exclusive of the [[Vajrayana]], as one of the three [[yanas]], or practice paths of Buddhism.. The source of the name Mahayana is [[polemic]]al<ref>‘The later school which arrogated to itself the title Mahayana’. Indian Buddhism, AK Warder, 3rd edition 1999, p.4</ref>, having its origin in a debate about what the real teachings of the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]]<ref>''It is certain that the term Mahayana (which means “great or large vehicle”) was in origin a polemical label used by only one side — and perhaps the least significant side — of a protracted, if uneven, Indian debate about what the real teachings of the Buddha are,'' Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004, page 492</ref> are. Although the Mahayana movement claims that it was founded by the Buddha himself, the consensus of historical evidence indicates that it originated in [[South India]] in the first century CE<ref>The Mahayana movement claims to have been founded by the Buddha himself. The consensus of the evidence, however, is that it originated in South India in the 1st century CE’ – Indian Buddhism, AK Warder, 3rd edition, 1999, p. 335.</ref>. It was first propagated into [[China]] by [[Kushan]] Lokaksema (Ch: 支谶, Zhi Chen, full name 支樓迦讖 var. 支婁迦讖 Zhi Loujiachen, active ca. 164-186 C.E.), the first translator of Mahayana [[sutras]] into [[Chinese language|Chinese]]. The earliest mention of "Mahayana" occurs in the [[Lotus Sutra]] between the first century BCE and the first century CE.<ref>Theravada - Mahayana Buddhism Ven. Dr. W. Rahulahttp://www.budsas.org/ebud/ebdha125.htm</ref> The earliest [[Mahayana Sutra|Mahayana scriptures]] probably originated during the first century CE in the [[Indian subcontinent]], and spread to China during the second century CE.<ref>''The most important evidence — in fact the only evidence — for situating the emergence of the Mahayana around the beginning of the common era was not Indian evidence at all, but came from China. Already by the last quarter of the second century C.E. there was a small, seemingly idiosyncratic collection of substantial Mahayana sutras translated into what Erik Zürcher calls “broken Chinese” by an Indoscythian, whose Indian name has been reconstructed as Lokaksema.'', Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004, page 492</ref> Only in the fifth century CE did Mahayana become an influential school in India.<ref>''Certainly, we have for this period an extensive body of inscriptions from virtually all parts of India. ... But nowhere in this extensive body of material is there any reference, prior to the fifth century, to a named Mahayana. There are, on the other hand, scores of references to what used to be called Hinayana groups — the Sarvastivadins, Mahasamghikas, and so on. From this point of view, at least, this was not “the period of the Mahayana,” but “the period of the Hinayana.”'', Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004, page 493</ref> In the course of its history, Mahayana spread throughout [[East Asia]]. The main countries in which it is practiced today are China, [[Japan]], [[Korea]], and [[Vietnam]]. From the point of view of Tantric Buddhism, Mahayana developed the [[esoteric]] [[Vajrayana]] found mainly in [[Tibet]], [[Nepal]], [[Bhutan]], and [[Mongolia]], but also in adjacent areas of China, [[Japan]], [[Buddhism in India|India]], and [[Buddhism in Russia|Russia]]. The Vajrayana school claims to encompass all previous schools. Some of the main Mahayana sutras, codified in Sanskrit, have not survived over time and have been lost.<ref name=EB1>Mahayana (Encyclopedia Britannica 2002)</ref> Versions later translated into [[Tibetan language]] and [[Chinese language]] have survived.<ref name=EB1/> The main schools of Mahayana Buddhism which have a significant following are [[Pure Land]], [[Zen]], [[Nichiren Buddhism]], [[Shingon]], [[Tibetan Buddhism]] and [[Tendai]]. == Doctrine == Few things can be said with certainty about Mahayana Buddhism, especially its early Indian form, other than that the Buddhism practiced in China, Vietnam, Korea, Tibet, and Japan is Mahayana Buddhism.<ref>''There are, it seems, very few things that can be said with certainty about Mahayana Buddhism'', Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004, page 492</ref><ref>''But apart from the fact that it can be said with some certainty that the Buddhism embedded in China, Korea, Tibet, and Japan is Mahayana Buddhism, it is no longer clear what else can be said with certainty about Mahayana Buddhism itself, and especially about its earlier, and presumably formative, period in India.'', Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004, page 492</ref> Mahayana can be described as a loosely bound bundle of many teachings, which was thus able to contain the various contradictions found between those differing teachings of whose elements it is comprised.<ref>''It has become increasingly clear that Mahayana Buddhism was never one thing, but rather, it seems, a loosely bound bundle of many, and — like Walt Whitman — was large and could contain, in both senses of the term, contradictions, or at least antipodal elements.'', Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004, page 492</ref> Mahayana is a vast religious and philosophical structure. It constitutes an inclusive [[faith]] characterized by the adoption of new, [[Mahayana sutra]]s, in addition to the traditional [[Pali canon]] or Agama texts, and a shift in the basic purpose and concepts of Buddhism. Mahayana sees itself as penetrating further and more profoundly into the Buddha's [[Dharma]]. In the [[Mahaparinirvana Sutra]], for instance, the Buddha tells of how his initial teachings on suffering, impermanence and non-Self were given to those who were still like "small children", unable to digest the full "meal" of Truth, whereas when those spiritual students "grow up" and are no longer satisfied by the preliminary ingredients of the Dharmic meal fed to them and require fuller sustenance, they are then ready to assimilate the full and balanced fare of the Mahayana teachings ([[Mahaparinirvana Sutra]]). Mahayana Buddhist schools de-emphasize the ideal, emphasized in [[Theravada]], of the release from individual [[dukkha|Suffering]] ([[Dukkha]]) and attainment of [[nirvana|Cessation]] ([[Nirvana]]). The Lotus Sutra says, successively, that the Buddha's lifetime is extremely long, and that it is infinite. Mahayana authorities differ on which of these statements to take literally. On the whole, Chinese and Japanese prefer the former, Tibetans the latter. In addition, most Mahayana schools believe in a pantheon of quasi-divine [[Bodhisattvas]] (बोधिसत्त्व) that devote themselves to personal excellence, ultimate knowledge, and the salvation of humanity and all other sentient beings (animals, ghosts, demigods, etc.). [[Zen]] Buddhism is a school of Mahayana which often de-emphasizes the pantheon of [[Bodhisattvas]] and instead focuses on the meditative aspects of the religion. In Mahayana, the Buddha is seen as the ultimate, highest being, present in all times, in all beings, and in all places, and the [[Bodhisattvas]] come to represent the universal ideal of altruistic excellence. The fundamental principles of Mahayana doctrine were based around the possibility of universal [[liberation]] from suffering for all beings (hence "great vehicle") and the existence of Buddhas and Bodhisattva embodying transcendent [[Buddha-nature]] (佛性) (the eternal Buddha essence present, but hidden and unrecognised, in all beings). Some Mahayana schools simplify the expression of faith by allowing salvation to be alternatively obtained through the grace of the Buddha [[Amitabha]] (अमिताभ) by having faith and devoting oneself to [[nianfo|chanting to Amitabha]]. This devotional lifestyle of Buddhism is most strongly emphasized by the [[Pure Land]] schools and has greatly contributed to the success of Mahayana in East Asia, where spiritual elements traditionally relied upon chanting of a Buddha's name, of [[mantra]]s or [[dharani]]s; reading of Mahayana sutras and [[mysticism]]. In Chinese Buddhism, most monks, let alone lay people, practise Pure Land, some combining it with Chan (Zen).<ref>Welch, ''Practice of Chinese Buddhism'', Harvard, 1967, page 396</ref> There is a tendency in Mahayana sutras to regard adherence to Mahayana sutras as generating spiritual benefits greater than those which arise from being a follower of the non-Mahayana approaches to Dharma. Thus in the [[Srimala Sutra]] it is asserted by the Buddha that devotion to Mahayana is inherently superior in its virtues to the following of the [[Sravaka]] or [[Pratyekabuddha]] path: " ...just as the magnificence of the finest thorough-bred among cattle outshines the rest of the herd in height and weight and so on, so even to uphold the Saddharma [True Dharma] of the Mahayana, even a little, is greater and vaster than all the wholesome dharmas of the Shravaka and Pratyekabuddha yanas [vehicles]." (''The Shrimaladevi Sutra'', tr. by Dr. Shenpen Hookham, Longchen Foundation, Oxford 1998, p.27). ===Rooted in Early Buddhism=== Many scholars contend that Mahayana scriptures are rooted in the earliest teachings of Buddhism. Sasaki (1999) in a critique of Shimoda (1997) conveys a key premise of Shimoda's work, being: that the origins of the Mahayana and the ''[[Nirvana Sutra]]'' are entwined.<ref>Sasaki, Shizuka (1999). ''Review Article: The Mahaparinirvana Sutra and the Origins of Mahayana Buddhism''. Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 1999 26/1-2. Source: [http://www.nanzan-u.ac.jp/SHUBUNKEN/publications/jjrs/pdf/539.pdf] (accessed: January 29, 2008)</ref> Ven. Dr. W. Rahula contends that upon extensive study of both Mahayana and Theravada scriptures, there is hardly any difference between the two traditions with regard to the most fundamental teachings of Buddhism and that the seeds of many of the Mahayana teachings can be found in the earliest Theravada scriptures. <ref>Theravada - Mahayana Buddhism By Ven. Dr. W. Rahula http://www.buddhistinformation.com/theravada.htm</ref> The two different schools gave different teachings greater emphasis. Although great faith in the Buddha as a "savior" and "Bhagavat"(Lord) and the Bodhisatva ideal were a part of both schools as emphasized in the [[Jataka]], the more supernatural and awe inspiring aspects became emphasized in Mahayana schools and Mahayana Sutras more than in Theravada. The earliest canon contain several faith inspiring stories of Buddha's supernatural birth from Tushita heaven and millions of Gods, dragons and other beings coming to pay homage to Buddha as the most powerful being, different realms and thousandfold universes and Buddha's great powers to appear in these other worlds and teach and deliver salvation without restriction<ref>Teacher of the Devas by Susan Elbaum Jootla http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/jootla/wheel414.html</ref> The '''Maha Samaya Sutta''' (DN 20) is just one example of the early Tipitika canon that resembles in composition the later Mahayana sutras in description of the supernatural assemblies that appear before the Buddha. Many of these early Tipitika sutras lay the groundwork for the later Mahayana Sutras. Mahayana Buddhism can in general be characterized by: *'''Universalism''', in that, in those schools of Mahayana that still have large followings, everyone will become a Buddha (see, for example, the [[Lotus Sutra]]); *'''Bodhicitta''' as the main focus of realization (see, for example, the [[Nirvana Sutra]] and various [[Prajnaparamita Sutra]]s); *'''Compassion''' through the transferral of merit; *'''Transcendental immanence''', in that the immortal Buddha Principle (see, for example, [[Buddha-nature]], [[Mahaparinirvana Sutra]], [[Angulimaliya Sutra]], [[Srimala Sutra]], [[Tathagatagarbha Sutra]]) is present within all beings. “Philosophical” Mahayana tends to focus on the first three characteristics (universalism, enlightened wisdom, compassion) and, in some schools, the [[Buddha-nature]], without showing much interest in supernatural constructions, while “devotional” Mahayana focuses mainly on salvation towards other-worldly realms (see, for example, the [[Sukhavati]] sutras). ===Universalism=== Mahayana traditions generally consider that attainment of the level of an [[arhat]] is not final. This is based on a subtle doctrinal distinction between the Mahayana and the [[early Buddhist schools]] concerning the issues of ''nirvana-with-remainder'' and ''nirvana-without-remainder''. The early schools considered that nirvana-without-remainder always follows nirvana-with-remainder (buddhas first achieve enlightenment and then, at 'death', [[mahaparinirvana]]) and that nirvana-without-remainder is final; whereas the Mahayana traditions consider that nirvana-without-remainder is always followed by nirvana-with-remainder – the state of attainment of the [[Hinayana]] arhat is not final, and is eventually succeeded by the state of [[Samyaksam-Buddha|buddhahood]], or total Awakening. This distinction is most evident regarding doctrinal concerns about the capability of a buddha after [[nirvana]] (which is identified by the early schools as being nirvana-without-remainder). Most importantly, amongst the early schools, a samyaksambuddha is not able to directly point the way to nirvana after death. This is a major distinction between the early schools and some schools of the Mahayana, who conversely state that once a samyaksambuddha arises, he or she continues to directly and actively point the way to nirvana until there are no beings left in [[samsara]] (संसार). Because the views of early schools and Mahayana differ in this respect, this is exactly why some Mahayana schools do not talk about a bodhisattva postponing nirvana, and exactly why the early schools do. However, some Mahayana schools do talk of a bodhisattva deliberately refraining from Buddhahood.<ref>Cook, ''Hua-Yen Buddhism'', Pennsylvania State University Press, 1977</ref> For example, the early schools held that [[Maitreya]] (मैत्रेय) will not attain nirvana while Gautama Buddha's teachings still exist. In contrast, some Mahayana schools hold that Maitreya will be the next buddha manifest in this world and will introduce the [[dharma]] when it no longer exists; he is not postponing his nirvana to do so, and when he dies (or enters mahaparinirvana), he will likewise continue to teach the dharma for all time. Moreover, some Mahayana schools argue that although it is true that for this world-system, Maitreya will be the next buddha to manifest, there are an infinite number of world-systems, many of which have currently active buddhas or buddhas-to-be manifesting. Because the Mahayana traditions assert that eventually everyone will achieve [[Buddhahood|samyaksam (buddhahood)]] or total enlightenment, the Mahayana is labelled universalist, whereas because the Nikaya traditions assert that there are three routes to nirvana, which are distinct, they are considered not to be universalist. ===Bodhisattva=== {{weasel words}} {{POV-section|date=December 2007}} The Mahayana school holds that pursuing only the basic path of [[Hinayana]] Buddhism is too narrow an aspiration, as it lacks the ultimate moral motivation (from the Mahayana perspective) of actively resolving to liberate all other beings from [[samsara]], as well as oneself. Such a "Hinayana" approach to Dharma tends to focus on an ascetic, individual orientation towards the attainment of nirvana (rather than the ulta-altruistic quest of the [[Bodhisattva]]): suppression of desire, removal from the world, solitude. Its followers are referred to as [[sravaka|śrāvakas]] and [[pratyekabuddha]]s in the Mahayana sutras. [[Ananda Coomaraswamy]], the 20th century [[metaphysician]], made the following note on the Mahayanist Bodhisattva ideal: <blockquote> "Mahayanists do not hesitate to describe the Hinayana ideal as selfish... but the Mayananists... do not sufficiently realize that a selfish being could not possibly become an [[arhat|Arahat]], who must be free from even the conception of ego, and still more from every form of ego-assertion. The selfishness of the would-be Arahat is more apparent than real. The ideal of self-culture is not opposed to that of self-sacrifice: in any perfectly harmonious development these seemingly opposite tendencies are reconciled... If the ideal of the Private Buddha seems to be a selfish one, we may reply that the Great Man can render to his fellows no higher service than to realize the highest possible state of his being."<ref>{{cite book |last=Coomaraswamy|first=Ananda |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Buddha and the Gospel of Buddhism |year=1975 |publisher=University Books, Inc. |location=Boston|pages=228-229 |lccn=64056434}}</ref> </blockquote> The primary focus of some Mahayana schools is [[bodhicitta]], the vow to strive for buddhahood or awakened mind both for oneself and for the benefit of all other sentient beings. As Ananda Coomaraswamy notes, "The most essential part of the Mahanyana is its emphasis on the Bodhisattva ideal, which replaces the Arhatta, or ranks before it."<ref>{{cite book |last=Coomaraswamy|first=Ananda |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Buddha and the Gospel of Buddhism |year=1975 |publisher=University Books, Inc. |location=Boston|pages=229 |lccn=64056434}}</ref> Being a high-level bodhisattva involves (according to Mahayana teachings) possessing a mind of great compassion conjoined with insight into reality ([[prajna]]), realizing emptiness ([[shunyata]]), and/or the [[tathagatagarbha]] (buddhic essence of all things). With this mind the practitioner will realize the final goal of full Awakening, or [[Buddhahood]]: an omniscient, blissful mind completely free from suffering and its causes, that is able to work tirelessly for the benefit of all living beings. Six virtues or perfections ([[paramitas]]) are listed for the bodhisattva: [[dana (Buddhism)|generosity]], [[sila|morality]], [[ksanti|patience]], [[virya|energy]], [[dhyana|meditation]], and [[prajna|wisdom]]. Many “philosophical” schools and sutras of Mahayana Buddhism have focused on the nature of enlightenment and nirvana itself, from the [[Madhyamika]] and its rival, [[Yogacara]] , to the [[Tathagatagarbha]] teachings and [[Zen]]. ===Compassion=== Compassion, or [[Karuna]], is the other key concept of Mahayana, and is a necessity to Bodhicitta. Compassion is important in all schools of Buddhism, but is particularly emphasized in Mahayana. It is also linked to the idea that acquired merit can be transmitted to others. The bodhisattvas are the main actors of compassion, [[Avalokitesvara]] (known in East Asia as [[Guan Yin]], 觀音菩薩) being foremost among them. Although having reached enlightenment, bodhisattvas usually make a vow to postpone entering into [[nirvana]] until all other beings have also been saved. They devote themselves to helping others reach enlightenment. The Mahayana idea that liberation is universal (see below) also allows for one to focus less on the release of personal suffering and more on humanity's salvation, and is consequently described to be more universally compassionate and caring for the welfare of others than other traditions of Buddhism.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} A comparison between [[Hinayana]] (the name given by Mahayanists to the earlier Buddhist traditions) and Mahayana made by the 10th century Tibetan author [[Gampopa|Jé Gampopa]] in ''The Jewel Ornament of Liberation'' follows: <blockquote>‘Clinging to the well-being of mere peace' signifies the lower capacity [Hinayana] attitude wherein the longing to transcend suffering is focused on oneself alone. This precludes the cherishing of others and hence there is little development of altruism. [...] When loving kindness and compassion become part of one, there is so much care for other conscious beings that one could not bear to liberate oneself alone. [...] Master Manjushriikiirti has said: ‘A Mahayana follower should not be without loving kindness and compassion for even a single moment', and ‘It is not anger and hatred but loving kindness and compassion that vouchsafe the welfare of others'.</blockquote> ===Skillful Means=== The term '''Skillful Means''' ([[upāya]]) is used in the [[Lotus Sutra]], and is generally accepted in all Mahayana schools of thought. It refers to any effective method which aids the attainment of Awakening. It does not necessarily mean that that particular method is "untrue", but simply refers to any means or stratagem that is conducive to spiritual growth and which leads the various types of beings to Awakening and Nirvana. A skillful means could thus be certain motivational words for a particular listener or even the noble Eightfold Path itself. Basic Buddhism (what Mahayana would term [[sravaka-yana]] or [[pratyekabuddha-yana]]) is an expedient method for getting people started on the noble Buddhic path and allowing them to advance quite far. But the path is not wholly traversed (according to some Mahayana schools) until the practitioner has striven for, and attained, Buddhahood for the liberation from unhappiness of all other sentient beings. In an ultimate sense, all of verbalised Dharma is a "skillful means", since Dharma or Truth cannot really be expressed in words or concepts. Anything that effectively points the way to liberation can be termed a "skillful means" - an effective method for awakening beings from the sleep of spiritual ignorance. Mahayana often adopts a pragmatic notion of truth:<ref>Williams, ''Mahayana Buddhism'', Routledge, 1990, page 2</ref> doctrines are "true" in the sense of being spiritually benficial. Some scholars have stated that the exercise of skill to which it refers, the ability to adapt one's message to the audience, is of enormous importance in the Pali Canon<ref>‘’It is true that the term translated 'skill in means', upaya-kausalya , is post-canonical, but the exercise of skill to which it refers, the ability to adapt one's message to the audience, is of enormous importance in the Pali Canon.’’ How Buddhism Began, Richard F. Gombrich, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1997, p. 17</ref>. In fact the Pali term upāya-kosalla does occur in the Pali Canon, in the Sangiti Sutta of the Digha Nikaya.<ref>''Thus Have I Heard: the Long Discourses of the Buddha'', tr M. Walshe, Wisdom Pubns, 1987, page 486</ref> ===Salvation=== “Devotional” Mahayana developed a rich cosmography, with various supernatural Buddhas and Bodhisattvas residing in paradisiacal realms. The concept of trinity, or [[trikaya]] , supports these constructions, making the Buddha himself into a transcendental god-like figure. Under various conditions, these realms could be attained by devotees after their death so that when reborn they could strive towards buddhahood in the best possible conditions. Depending on the sect, this salvation to “paradise” can be obtained by faith, imaging, or sometimes even by the simple invocation of the Buddha’s name. This approach to salvation is at the origin of the mass appeal of devotional Buddhism, especially represented by the [[Pure Land]] (浄土宗). This rich cosmography also allowed Mahayana to be quite syncretic and accommodating of other faiths or deities. Various origins have been suggested to explain its emergence, such as “popular [[Hindu]] devotional cults (''[[bhakti]]''), and [[Persian culture|Persian]] and [[Greco-Roman]] theologies, which filtered into India from the northwest” (Tom Lowenstein, “The vision of the Buddha”). === Transcendental Immanence === The teaching of a "Buddha Principle" (''Buddha-dhatu'') or "[[Buddha Nature]]" innate to and inseparable from all sentient beings is a doctrine which is indicated by the Buddha in a number of Mahayana sutras to constitute the "absolutely final culmination" of his [[Dharma]] (see [[Nirvana Sutra]]). The essential idea (articulated in the [[Tathagatagarbha]] sutras, but not accepted by all Mahayana) is that no being is without a concealed but indestructible interior link to Awakening ([[bodhi]]), and that this link is an uncreated element [''dhatu''] or principle deep inside each being which constitutes nothing less than the deathless, diamond-like "essence of the Self" (''Nirvana Sutra''). In the [[Mahaparinirvana Sutra]], the Buddha declares: "The essence of the Self (''atman'') is the subtle [[Tathagatagarbha]] ..." "The ''Buddha-dhatu'' [Buddha Principle, "Buddha Nature"] of beings inheres / abides within the five [[skandhas]] [transitory components of the being]." "The ''Buddha-dhatu'' is the True Self and, like a diamond, for example, it cannot be destroyed". The actual "seeing and knowing" of this ''Buddha-dhatu'' (co-terminous with the [[Dharmakaya]] or Self of Buddha) is said to usher in nirvanic Liberation. This ''Buddha-dhatu'' or [[Tathagatagarbha]] is revealed to be both immanent (found in every single person, ghost, god and creature, etc.) and transcendental (it is uncreated, deathless and ultimately beyond rational grasping or conceptualisation). Yet it is this already real and present, hidden internal element of [[bodhi]] (Awakeness) which, according to the Tathagatagarbha sutras, prompts beings to seek after Liberation from worldly suffering and enables them to attain the spotless bliss which lies at the heart of their being. Once the veils of negative thoughts, feelings and unwholesome behaviour (the [[klesha]]s) have been eliminated from the mind and character, the indwelling ''Buddha-dhatu'' (Buddha Principle / "Buddha Nature") is enabled to shine forth unimpededly and to transform the seer of it into a Buddha. Thus the ''Buddha-dhatu'' teaching is both an [[Ontology|ontological]] and a [[Soteriology|soteriological]] doctrine: it reveals the immortal, Buddhic "True Self" (as the Buddha in the ''Mahaparinirvana Sutra'' repeatedly terms it) which is found to lie at the core of each being when all the obscuring, transient elements of the false ego are seen through and transcended, and it further verbalises the liberative and transformative power inherent in the Tathagatagarbha when once that vision of the innermost essence or [[svabhava]] of oneself and all other beings has been secured. This immanentist and essentialist doctrine is by no means universal in Mahayana Buddhism and has long been a subject of vigorous debate. == Mahayana Scriptures == {{main|Mahayana Sutras}} Like [[Theravāda]] Buddhism, Mahāyāna Buddhism takes the basic teachings of the Buddha as recorded in early scriptures as the starting point of its teachings, such as those concerning karma and rebirth, the '''Four Noble Truths''', the '''Middle Way''' and the '''Eightfold Path'''. Whereas these basic teachings are preserved in the [[Pali Canon]], transmitted by the Theravādin tradition, Mahāyāna Buddhists use different recensions of these discourses in compilations known as the [[Agama (text)|Agama]]s, which largely overlap with the ''Pali Canon'' in content. The surviving agamas in Chinese translation belong to at least two schools, while most of the agamas were never translated into Tibetan. In addition to accepting the scriptures of the various [[early Buddhist schools]] as valid, Mahāyāna Buddhism also maintains large additional collections of sutras not found or recognized in Theravāda Buddhism. In Mahayana Buddhism, these [[Mahayana sutras]] have a greater importance than the Agamas. Although these scriptures claim to be the factual words of the Buddha, scholars believe that they were written by monks who felt the need to restate and change the doctrines of [[Early Buddhism]]<ref>‘Sometime after the founding of the Purva Saila school in the 1st century B.C. certain monks felt the need not simply for new interpretations of the original sutras (such as, for example, the new Abhidharma texts of the schools …), but for wholesale restatements of the doctrine. For this purpose they rewrote the sutras, or wrote new sutras.’ AK Warder, Indian Buddhism, 3rd edition, p. 335.</ref>. Scholars also believe much the same about parts of the pali Canon, though disagreeing among themselves on how much and which.{{Fact|date=April 2008}} The first of the Mahayana-specific writings were written probably around the [[1st century BCE]] or [[1st century CE]]. Some of the Mahayana Sutras, such as certain parts of the [[Perfection of Wisdom]] sutras , are presented as actual [[sermon]]s of the Buddha that had been hidden. By some accounts, these sermons were passed on by oral tradition, as with other sutras; other accounts state that they were hidden and then revealed several centuries later by some mythological route. In addition to sutras, some [[Buddhist texts#Mahayana scriptures|Mahayana texts]] are essentially commentaries. Among the earliest major Mahayana scriptures attested to historically are the Perfection of Wisdom (Prajna-Paramita) sutras, the [[Avatamsaka Sutra]], the [[Lotus Sutra]], the [[Vimalakirti Sutra|Vimalakīrti Sutra]], and the [[Nirvana Sutra]]. The Tibetan tradition classifies [[Shakyamuni Buddha]]'s teachings into three categories, based on types of understanding the nature of reality, known as "turnings of the wheel of dharma (truth)": those sutra discourses containing the basic doctrines supposedly aimed at the initial disciples or [[Śrāvakas]], the [[emptiness]] teachings associated with [[Madhyamika]] and the [[Prajna Paramita]] sutras, and the doctrines associated with [[Yogācāra]] which present the most accurate view of reality according to this scheme as originally devised. However, many Tibetan teachers, particularly the Gelugpa school, regard the second turning as the highest teaching. The [[Tathagatagarbha]] teachings are normally included in the third turning of the wheel if the need arises to classify them. The Chinese tradition has a different scheme. The Mahayana canon was further expanded somewhat after Buddhism was transmitted to other countries such as [[China]] and [[Tibet]], where the existing texts were translated. New texts, such as the [[Platform Sutra]] and the [[Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment]] (圓覺經) were explicitly not of Indian origin, but were widely accepted as valid scriptures on their own merits. Other later writings included the [[Linji Lu]] (臨済錄), a commentary by [[Chán]] (禪宗) master [[Linji Yixuan]] (臨済義玄). In the course of the development of [[Korean Buddhism]] and [[Japanese Buddhism]], further important commentaries were composed. These included, for example, in [[Korea]], some of the writings of [[Jinul]], and in [[Japan]], works such as [[Dōgen]]'s [[Shōbōgenzō]]. ==Origins== Mahayana's exact origin is unknown. However, a number of common elements and background are suggested by various scholars and theologians. The earliest origins of Mahayana-like thinking depend on precisely what one means by Mahayana. Some Mahayana scriptures were transmitted from India to China in the [[second century CE]]. Buddhism became increasingly fragmented due to the many splits in the Sangha into the various [[early Buddhist schools]]. This might have led to a widening distance between laity and [[sangha]], who were increasingly preoccupied with theological [[Abhidhamma|Abhidhammic]] speculation. The Mahayana movement, on the other hand, was ecumenical, reflecting a wide range of theology from both the [[Sthaviravada]] and [[Mahasanghika]] sects<ref>Paul Williams, "Mahayana Buddhism", 1989</ref>. Early Mahayana did not have a taboo regarding the composition of new sutras. With the creation of new [[Mahayana Sutra]]s, the Mahayana movement was rejected by the early schools as heretical. Another important element is the lay practice of [[stupa]] devotion, which was actively encouraged by [[Ashoka]]. According to Akira Hirakawa (''A History of Indian Buddhism: From Sakyamuni to Early Mahayana''), stupas — which were initially mere monuments to Gautama Buddha — increasingly became the place of devotion and of spreading Buddhism to the masses, the majority of whom were illiterate [[Hindus]]. On the inside wall of the stupa, pictures were drawn or sculpted depicting the life of Buddha and his previous lives as a bodhisattva. This has given rise to devotion to the transcendent omnipresent and always-present Buddha and the bodhisattvas {{Fact|date=September 2007}}, distinct from the purely monastic sangha (see [[Early Buddhist schools]]). However, this theory has been rejected by a number of scholars.<ref>e.g. Williams, ''Mahayana Buddhism''</ref> ===Epigraphical evidence=== [[Image:BuddhistTriad.JPG|thumb|An early Mahayana Buddhist triad. From left to right, a [[Kushan]] devotee, the [[Bodhisattva]] [[Maitreya]], the Buddha, the Bodhisattva [[Avalokitesvara]], and a Buddhist monk. 2nd-3rd century CE, [[Gandhara]].]] The earliest stone inscription containing a recognizably Mahayana formulation and a mention of the Buddha Amitabha was found in the Indian subcontinent in [[Mathura]], and dated to around 180 CE. Remains of a statue of a Buddha bear the [[Brāhmī script|Brahmi]] inscription: :''"Made in the year 28 of the reign of king [[Huvishka]], ... for the Buddha [[Amitabha]]"'' (Mathura Museum). However, this image was in itself marginal and extremely isolated in the overall context of Buddhism in India at the time, and had no lasting or long-term consequences<ref>''In other words, once nontextual evidence is taken into account the picture changes dramatically. Rather than being datable to the beginning of the common era, this strand of Mahayana Buddhism, at least, appeared to have no visible impact on Indian Buddhist cult practice until the second century, and even then what impact it had was extremely isolated and marginal, and had no lasting or long-term consequences — there were no further references to Amitabha in Indian image inscriptions. Almost exactly the same pattern occurs (concerning Mahayana) on an even broader scale when nontextual evidence is considered.'', Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004, page 493</ref> The epigraphical evidence for Mahayana in the period before the 5th century is very limited in comparison to the multiplicity of Mahayana writings transmitted from [[Central Asia]] to [[China]] at that time<ref>''Certainly, we have for this period an extensive body of inscriptions from virtually all parts of India. ... But nowhere in this extensive body of material is there any reference, prior to the fifth century, to a named Mahayana.'', Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004, page 493</ref> <ref>''What is particularly disconcerting here is the disconnect between expectation and reality: We know from Chinese translations that large numbers of Mahayana sutras were being composed in the period between the beginning of the common era and the fifth century. But outside of texts, at least in India, at exactly the same period, very different — in fact seemingly older — ideas and aspirations appear to be motivating actual behavior, and old and established Hinayana groups appear to be the only ones that are patronized and supported.'', Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004, page 494</ref>. ===Scriptures=== The first known Mahayana texts are translations made into [[Chinese language|Chinese]] by the [[Kushan]] monk [[Lokaksema]] (支娄迦谶) in the Chinese capital of [[Luoyang]], between 178 and 189 CE<ref>''The most important evidence — in fact the only evidence — for situating the emergence of the Mahayana around the beginning of the common era was not Indian evidence at all, but came from China. Already by the last quarter of the second century C.E. there was a small, seemingly idiosyncratic collection of substantial Mahayana sutras translated into what Erik Zürcher calls “broken Chinese” by an Indoscythian, whose Indian name has been reconstructed as Lokaksema.'', Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004, page 492</ref>. But, to equate evidence for the presence of a body of Mahayana scripture with the existence at the time of Mahayana as a religious movement, has been described as being an assumption leading to a serious misstep<ref>''But even apart from the obvious weaknesses inherent in arguments of this kind there is here the tacit equation of a body of literature with a religious movement, an assumption that evidence for the presence of one proves the existence of the other, and this may be a serious misstep.'', Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004, page 493</ref>. Lokaksema's work includes the translation of the [[Pratyutpanna Sutra]], containing the first known mentions of the Buddha [[Amitabha]] and his [[Pure Land]], said to be at the origin of Pure Land practice in [[China]], and the first known translations of the [[Perfection of Wisdom|Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra]], a founding text of Mahayana Buddhism. ===Expansion (5th c.CE&ndash;10th c.CE)=== From the 5th century CE Mahayana was a strong movement in India, possibly owing to support by the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] dynasty. It spread from India to [[South-East Asia]], and towards the north to [[Central Asia]], [[China]], [[Korea]] and [[Japan]]. The influence of Mahayana in China seems to have been reached at an earlier time than in India, where Mahayan remained an obscure group until the 5th century. Buddhism (and Mahayana) disappeared from India during the 11th century, and consequently lost its influence in [[South-East Asia]] where it was replaced by Theravada Buddhism from [[Sri Lanka]]. Mahayana currently has more followers than Theravada, the other remaining Buddhist school, and is thus the most followed of the Buddhist doctrines to this day in Eastern Asia and the world. ==See also== {{Col-begin}} {{Col-1-of-3}} *[[History of Buddhism]] *[[Mahayana sutras]] *[[Silk Road transmission of Buddhism]] *[[Early Buddhist Schools]] *[[Schools of Buddhism]] *[[Rebirth (Buddhist)|Rebirth]] {{Col-2-of-3}} *[[Shunyata]] *[[Buddha nature]] *[[Tathagatagarbha]] *[[Nirvana Sutra]] *[[God in Buddhism]] *[[Faith in Buddhism]] {{Col-3-of-3}} *[[Lotus Sutra]] *[[Pure Land]] *[[Zen]] *[[Dzogchen]] *[[Tendai]] *[[Buddhist Ceremonies]] {{Col-end}} ==Notes== {{reflist}} ==References== * {{cite encyclopedia | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia Britannica | year = 2002 | title = Mahayana | publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica }} ==Further reading== * Paul Williams, ''Mahayana Buddhism'', Routledge, 1989 *Schopen, G. "The inscription on the Kusan image of Amitabha and the character of the early Mahayana in India", ''Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 10'', 1990 *”The Vision of the Buddha”, Tom Lowenstein, ISBN 1-903296-91-9 * Kevin Lynch, ''The Way Of The Tiger: A Buddhist's Guide To Achieving Nirvana'', Yojimbo Temple, 2005 * Beal, ''Catena of Buddhist Scriptures from the Chinese'', (London, 1871) * J. J. M. de Groot, ''Le code de Mahayana en Chine'', (Amsterdam, 1893) * S. Kuroda, ''Outline of Mahayana'', (Tokyo, 1893) * D. T. Suzuki, ''Outline of Mahayana Buddhism'', (London, 1907) * Asvaghosa, ''Sutralamkasa trad. sur la version chinoise par Huber'', (Paris, 1908) * Haas, ''Amida Buddha unsere Zuflucht'', (from the Japanese, Leipzig, 1910) * Murdoch, ''History of Japan'', volume i., (Yokohama, 1910) * Walleser, ''Die mittlere Lehre des Nagarjuna'', (translated from the Tibetan, Heidelberg, 1911; from the Chinese, ib., 1912) * D. T. Suzuki, in ''[[The Monist]]'', volume xxiv, (Chicago, 1914). ''The Monist'' was edited by [[Paul Carus]]. ==External links== * [http://www.buddhism-dict.net/ddb/ Digital Dictionary of Buddhism] * [http://sacredlibrary.googlepages.com/religioustexts.htm Sacred Library] Contains many Mahayana Sutras * [http://www.berzinarchives.com/comparison_buddhist_traditions/index.html Comparison of Buddhist Traditions (Mahayana - Therevada - Tibetan)] *[http://www4.bayarea.net/~mtlee/ Mahayana Buddhist Sutras in English] *[http://www.nirvanasutra.org.uk The Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra: complete text and analysis.] *[http://www.webspawner.com/users/bodhisattva/index.html Major Mahayana Tathagatagarbha sutras in English translation] {{buddhism2}} {{Buddhism topics}} [[Category:Mahayana Buddhism| ]] [[Category:Branches of Buddhism]] [[Category:Buddhist philosophical concepts]] [[Category:Buddhist terms]] [[Category:Sanskrit words and phrases]] [[ar:ماهايانا]] [[bg:Махаяна]] [[ca:Mahayana]] [[cs:Mahájána]] [[da:Mahayana]] [[de:Mahayana]] [[et:Mahajaana]] [[el:Μαχαγιάνα]] [[es:Mahāyāna]] [[eo:Mahajano]] [[fa:مهراه]] [[fr:Bouddhisme mahāyāna]] [[gl:Mahayana]] [[hi:महायान]] [[hr:Mahajana]] [[id:Mahayana]] [[it:Buddhismo Mahayana]] [[he:מהיינה]] [[hu:Mahájána buddhizmus]] [[nl:Mahayana-boeddhisme]] [[ja:大乗仏教]] [[no:Mahayana]] [[pl:Mahajana]] [[pt:Maaiana]] [[ro:Mahayana]] [[ru:Махаяна]] [[sr:Махајана]] [[sk:Mahájána]] [[fi:Mahayana]] [[sv:Mahayana]] [[ta:மகாயான பௌத்தம்]] [[th:มหายาน]] [[vi:Đại thừa]] [[uk:Махаяна]] [[tr:Mahayana]] [[zh:大乘佛教]] Buddhism was founded by Siddhartha Gautama.