Malcolm X 20796 edit=autoconfirmed:move=autoconfirmed 225152167 2008-07-12T04:16:34Z Malik Shabazz 3020778 /* Early years */ (a) clarifying which Little is meant, (b) minor copy-editing {{otheruses4|the activist|the biographical movie of the same name|Malcolm X (film)}} {{redirectpeople|Malik Shabazz}} {{Refimprove|date=February 2007}} {{Infobox revolution biography | name = Malcolm X | dateofbirth = {{birth date|1925|5|19|mf=y}} | placeofbirth = [[North Omaha, Nebraska|North Omaha]], [[Nebraska|Neb.]], [[United States|U.S.]] | dateofdeath = {{death date and age|1965|2|21|1925|5|19}} | placeofdeath = [[Washington Heights, Manhattan|Washington Heights]], [[Manhattan]], [[New York|N.Y.]], [[United States|U.S.]] | image = [[Image:Malcolm_X_NYWTS_2a.jpg|220px]] | caption = Malcolm X, March 1964 | alternate name = El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz | movement = [[Black nationalism]] | organizations = [[Nation of Islam]], [[Muslim Mosque, Inc.]], [[Organization of Afro-American Unity]] | monuments = | alma mater = | prizes = | religion = [[Islam]] | influences = [[Elijah Muhammad]], [[Marcus Garvey]] | influenced = <!-- too many to mention, so please don't add your favorites --> | footnotes = }} '''Malcolm X''' (born '''Malcolm Little'''; [[May 19]], [[1925]] &ndash; [[February 21]], [[1965]]), also known as '''[[Hajji|El-Hajj]] [[Malik]] El-[[Shabazz (name)|Shabazz]]''',<ref>This name includes the [[honorific]] [[El-Hajj]], which is given to a Muslim who has completed the [[Hajj]] to [[Mecca]]. {{cite book|title=Islam: A very short introduction|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|author=Malise Ruthven|date=1997|isbn=978-0-19-285389-9|pages=147}}</ref> was an [[United States|American]] [[Islam in the African diaspora|Black Muslim]] minister and a spokesman for the [[Nation of Islam]]. After leaving the Nation of Islam in 1964, he made the pilgrimage, the [[Hajj]], to [[Mecca]] and became a [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] [[Muslim]]. He also founded the [[Muslim Mosque, Inc.]] and the [[Organization of Afro-American Unity]]. Less than a year later, he was [[assassination|assassinated]] in [[Washington Heights, Manhattan|Washington Heights]] on the first day of National Brotherhood Week. Historian [[Robin D.G. Kelley]] wrote, "Malcolm X has been called many things: [[Pan-Africanism|Pan-Africanist]], father of [[Black Power]], [[Religious fanaticism|religious fanatic]], closet [[Black conservatism|conservative]], incipient [[Socialism|socialist]], and a menace to society. The meaning of his public life — his [[Political philosophy|politics]] and [[ideology]] — is contested in part because his entire body of work consists of a few dozen speeches and a [[Ghostwriter#Nonfiction|collaborative]] [[autobiography]] whose veracity is challenged. Malcolm has become a sort of ''[[tabula rasa]]'', or blank slate, on which people of different positions can write their own interpretations of his politics and legacy. [[Chuck D]] of the [[Hip hop music|rap]] group [[Public Enemy (band)|Public Enemy]] and [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] [[Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States|Justice]] [[Clarence Thomas]] can both declare Malcolm X their hero."<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Kelley |first=Robin D.G. |authorlink=Robin D.G. Kelley |editor= |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia Africana|Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience]] |title=Malcolm X |year=1999 |publisher=Basic Civitas Books |location=New York |pages=pp. 1233–1236 }}</ref> ==Early years== [[Image:Malcolm-x.jpg|thumb|right|185px|The young Malcolm X.]] Malcolm Little was born in 1925 in [[Omaha]], [[Nebraska]], to Earl Little and Louise Helen ([[née]] Norton). He lived briefly at [[Malcolm X House Site|3448 Pinkney Street]] in the [[North Omaha, Nebraska|North Omaha]] neighborhood. His father was an outspoken [[Baptist]] [[lay]] speaker and supporter of [[Marcus Garvey]], as well as a member of the [[Universal Negro Improvement Association]].<ref>David Haward Bain, ''The Old Iron Road: An Epic of Rails, Roads, and the Urge to Go West'' (Penguin Books, 2004, ISBN 0-14-303526-6), pp. 65-66.</ref> Three of Earl Little's brothers died violently at the hands of white men, and one of his uncles had been [[Lynching in the United States|lynched]].<ref>''The Autobiography of Malcolm X'', p. 2.</ref> Earl Little had three children (Ella, Mary, and Earl, Jr.) by a previous marriage before he married Malcolm's mother. From his second marriage he had seven children, of whom Malcolm was the fourth. Earl and Louise Little's children's names were, in order, Wilfred (who was born in Pennsylvania); Hilda, Philbert and Malcolm (who were all born in Nebraska); Reginald (who was born in Wisconsin); and Yvonne and Wesley (who were born in Michigan). Louise had her youngest son, Robert Little, several years after her husband's death by an unnamed partner. Louise Little was born in [[Grenada]], and Malcolm said she looked like a white woman. Her English father was a white man of whom Malcolm Little knew nothing except what he described as his mother's shame. Little inherited his light complexion from his mother and grandfather. Initially he felt it was a status symbol to be light-skinned, but later he would say that he “hated every drop of that white rapist's blood that is in me.” As Malcolm Little was the lightest child in the family, he felt that his father favored him; however, he thought his mother treated him harshly for the same reason.<ref>''The Autobiography of Malcolm X'', pp. 2-3.</ref> One of Little's nicknames, "Red," derived from the tinge of his hair. At birth he was described as having, "ash-blonde hair ... tinged with cinnamon", and at four, "reddish-blonde hair". His hair darkened as he aged but he also resembled his paternal grandmother, whose hair "turned reddish in the summer sun".<ref>Bruce Perry, ''Malcolm: The Life of a Man Who Changed Black America'' (Station Hill Press, 1991, ISBN 0-88268-103-6), pp. 2, 4.</ref> In ''[[The Autobiography of Malcolm X]]'', Little said his mother had been threatened by [[Ku Klux Klan]]smen while she was pregnant with him in December 1924. His mother recalled the Klansmen warned the family to leave Omaha, because Earl Little's activities with [[Universal Negro Improvement Association|UNIA]] were "stirring up trouble".<ref name="timeline">[http://www.brothermalcolm.net/mxtimeline.html Chronology of the Life and Activities of Malcolm X], Malcolm X: A Research Site.</ref> The family relocated to [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]], in 1926, and to [[Lansing, Michigan]], shortly after. In 1931, Earl Little was found dead, having been run over by a streetcar in Lansing. Authorities ruled his death a [[suicide]].<ref>[http://www.crimelibrary.com/terrorists_spies/assassins/malcolm_x/index.html Assassination of Malcolm X, Black Muslim], The Crime Library.</ref> Little said that the black community disputed the cause of death. His family had frequently found themselves the target of harassment by the [[Black Legion (political movement)|Black Legion]], a [[white supremacist]] group which his father accused of burning down their home in 1929. Many blacks believed that the Black Legion had killed Earl Little.<ref>[http://www.masnet.org/prof_personality.asp?id=629 Malcolm X 1925-1965], Muslim American Society.</ref> Little doubted that his father could "bash himself in the head, then get down across the streetcar tracks to be run over."<ref name=Auto11>''The Autobiography of Malcolm X'', p. 11.</ref> Though Little's father had two [[life insurance]] policies, his mother received death benefits solely from the smaller policy. Little wrote that the insurance company of the larger policy accepted the police determination of suicide as cause of death and accordingly refused to pay.<ref name=Auto11/> Louise Little had a [[nervous breakdown]] and was declared legally [[Insanity|insane]] in December 1938. The Little siblings were split up and sent to different [[foster home]]s. His mother was formally committed to the state mental hospital at [[Kalamazoo, Michigan]], where she remained until Little and his brothers and sisters secured her release 26 years later. In his ''Autobiography'', written more than 25 years later, Little said that after the death of his father, he lived on Charles Street in downtown [[East Lansing, Michigan|East Lansing]]. The 1930 [[U.S. Census]] showed him living on a different Charles Street, in the low-income Urbandale neighborhood in [[Lansing Charter Township, Michigan|Lansing Township]], between Lansing and East Lansing. Later, when he was in high school, Little lived in [[Mason, Michigan|Mason]], an almost all-white small town 12 miles (19 km) to the south. Little graduated from [[junior high school]] at the top of his class, one of the best students in the school. He dropped out soon after a teacher told him that his aspirations of being a [[lawyer]] were "no realistic goal for a <!-- PLEASE DO NOT CHANGE THIS EXACT QUOTE. THANK YOU --> [[nigger]]".<ref>''The Autobiography of Malcolm X'', p. 36.</ref>. After enduring a series of foster homes, Little was sent to a detention center. Then he moved to [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] to live with his older half-sister, Ella Little Collins. In Boston he held a variety of jobs and intermittently found employment with the [[New Haven Railroad]]. In 1942, at age 17, Little became "involved with Boston's underworld fringe."<ref name="timeline"/> ==Young adult years== Little left Boston to live for a short time in [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]] and [[Inkster, Michigan|Inkster]], [[Michigan]]. He moved to [[New York City]] in 1943. There he worked again briefly for the New Haven Railroad, then worked as a [[shoeshiner]] at a [[Lindy Hop]] [[nightclub]]. In ''The Autobiography of Malcolm X,'' he said that he once shined the shoes of [[Duke Ellington]] and other notable African-American [[musician]]s. After some time in [[Harlem]], he became involved in [[Illegal drug trade|drug dealing]], [[gambling]], [[racketeering]], [[robbery]] and steering prostitutes. During this time, his friends and acquaintances called him "Detroit Red."<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/malcolmx/filmmore/pt.html Transcript], ''Malcolm X: Make It Plain'', [[American Experience]], [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]].</ref> Between 1943 and 1946, when he was arrested and jailed in [[Massachusetts]], Little drifted between Boston and New York City three more times.<ref name="timeline"/> When Little was examined for the [[conscription|draft]], military physicians classified him to be "mentally disqualified for military service." He explained in his autobiography that he put on a display to avoid the draft by telling the examining officer that he could not wait to "kill some [[White Cracker|crackers]]." His approach worked; his classification ensured he would not be drafted.<ref>Ferruccio Gambino, [http://libcom.org/library/transgression-malcom-x The Transgression of a Laborer: Malcom X in the Wilderness of America], ''Radical History'', Winter 1993.</ref> In early 1946, Little returned to Boston. On [[January 12]], he was arrested for burglary trying to steal a stolen watch he had left for repairs at a jewelry shop. Two days later, he was indicted for carrying firearms. On [[January 16]], he was charged with [[Larceny|Grand Larceny]] and [[Breaking and Entering]]. Little was sentenced to eight to ten years in Massachusetts State Prison.<ref name="timeline"/> On [[February 27]], he began serving his sentence at the Massachusetts State Prison in [[Charlestown, Massachusetts|Charlestown]]. While in prison, Little earned the nickname of "[[Satan]]" for his bitter hatred towards the [[Bible]], [[God]] and [[religion]] in general.<ref name="massmoments">[http://www.massmoments.org/moment.cfm?mid=65 Mass Moments: Malcolm X Imprisoned, [[February 27]], [[1946]]].</ref> Malcolm met a self-educated man named Bimbi, who convinced him to educate himself.<ref name = "X-on-X">''The Autobiography of Malcolm X''.</ref>. Little developed a voracious appetite for reading, much of it after the prison lights had been turned off. In 1948, his brother Philbert wrote, telling him about the [[Nation of Islam]]. Little was not interested in joining until his brother Reginald wrote, saying, "Malcolm, don't eat any more pork and don't smoke any more cigarettes. I'll show you how to get out of prison."<ref name = "X-on-X"/> For the remainder of his incarceration, Little maintained regular contact with [[Elijah Muhammad]], leader of the Black Muslims. Little started to gain fame among the prisoners but also remained under the eye of the authorities. He was denied a possible early release after five years. In February 1948, mostly through his sister's efforts, Little was transferred to an experimental prison in [[Norfolk, Massachusetts]], a facility that had a much larger library. He later reflected on his time in prison: "Months passed without my even thinking about being imprisoned. In fact, up to then, I had never been so truly free in my life."<ref name="massmoments"/> On [[August 7]], [[1952]], Little received parole and was released from prison.<ref name="timeline"/> ==Nation of Islam== {{Further|[[Nation of Islam]]}} [[Image:Savioursday041.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Malcolm with Elijah Muhammad at [[Savior's Day]]]] {{Nation of Islam}} In 1952, after his release from prison, Little visited Elijah Muhammad in [[Chicago]]. Then, like many members of the Nation of Islam, he changed his surname to "X". He explained the name by saying, "The 'X' is meant to symbolize the rejection of '[[slave name]]s' and the absence of an inherited [[Africa]]n name to take its place. The 'X' is also the brand that many slaves received on their upper arm." The [[FBI]] opened a file on Malcolm X in March 1953 after hearing that he had described himself as a [[Communist]]. Included in the file were two letters in which Malcolm X used the alias "Malachi Shabazz". In ''[[Message to the Blackman in America]]'', Elijah Muhammad explained that African-Americans were "descendants of the Asian Black Nation and the tribe of Shabazz".<ref>[[Elijah Muhammad]], "Know Thyself", ''[[Message to the Blackman in America]]''.</ref> In May 1953, the FBI concluded that Malcolm X had an "asocial personality with paranoid trends (pre-[[psychotic]] [[paranoid schizophrenia]])", and that he had sought treatment for his disorder. This was supported by a letter intercepted by the FBI, dated [[June 29]], [[1950]]. The letter said, in reference to his [[4-F|4-F classification]] and rejection by the military, "Everyone has always said...Malcolm is crazy, so it isn't hard to convince people that I am."<ref>[[FBI]] report, Malcolm K. Little [sic], [[May 4]], [[1953]], p. 3. [http://foia.fbi.gov/malcolmx/malcolmx1.pdf online], p. 7.</ref> Later that year, Malcolm X left his half-sister Ella in Boston to stay with Elijah Muhammad in Chicago. He soon returned to Boston and became the minister of the Nation of Islam's Temple Number Eleven. In 1954, Malcolm X was selected to lead the Nation of Islam's Temple Number Seven on [[Lenox Avenue (Manhattan)|Lenox Avenue]] in [[Harlem]]. He rapidly expanded its membership. After a local television broadcast in [[New York City]] about the Nation of Islam, Malcolm X became known to a wider audience. Representatives of the print media, radio, and television frequently asked him for comments on issues. He was also sought as a spokesman by reporters from other countries. From his adoption of the Nation of Islam in 1952 until he left the organization in 1964, Malcolm X promoted the Nation's teachings. He referred to whites as "devils" created in a misguided program by a [[Yakub|black scientist]], and predicted the inevitable (and imminent) return of blacks to their natural place at the top of the social order.<ref>Frederick D. Harper, "The Influence of Malcolm X on Black Militancy", ''Journal of Black Studies'', Vol. 1, No. 4. (Jun., 1971), pp. 387-402.</ref> Malcolm X has been widely considered the second most influential leader of the movement after Elijah Muhammad. He opened additional temples, including one in [[Philadelphia]]. He was largely credited with increasing membership in the Nation of Islam from 500 in 1952 to 30,000 in 1963. He inspired the boxer Cassius Clay (later known as [[Muhammad Ali]]) to join the Nation of Islam. Ali later left the Nation of Islam and joined mainstream [[Islam]], as did Malcolm X. ===Marriage and family=== In 1958, Malcolm X married [[Betty Shabazz|Betty X (née Sanders)]] in [[Lansing, Michigan]]. They had six daughters, all of whom used the [[surname]] Shabazz. Their names were Attallah, born in 1958; [[Qubilah Shabazz|Qubilah]], born in 1960; [[Ilyasah Shabazz|Ilyasah]], born in 1962; Gamilah (also spelled Gumilah), born in 1964; and twins, Malaak and Malikah, born after their father's assassination in early 1965. ===Meeting Castro=== In September 1960, as a prominent member of a Harlem-based welcoming committee made up of community leaders, Malcolm X met with [[Fidel Castro]] during Castro's visit to the [[United Nations]] in New York. He also had the opportunity to meet with heads of state from from African countries, who came to New York to address the [[UN General Assembly]]. ==Tensions and departure from the Nation of Islam== In early 1963, Malcolm X started collaborating with [[Alex Haley]] on ''[[The Autobiography of Malcolm X]]''. The book was not finished when he was assassinated in 1965. Haley completed it and published it later that year.<ref>In 1964, Malcolm told Haley, "If I’m alive when this book comes out, it will be a miracle." Alex Haley, Epilogue, ''The Autobiography of Malcolm X'', p. 410.</ref> Writing after his break from the Nation of Islam, Malcolm X said in the ''Autobiography'' that one reason for the separation was growing tension between him and Elijah Muhammad because of his dismay about rumors of Muhammad's extramarital affairs with young secretaries. Such actions were against the teachings of the nation. Although at first Malcolm X ignored the rumors, he spoke with Muhammad's son and the women making the accusations. He came to believe them and stated that Muhammad confirmed the rumors in 1963. Muhammad attempted to justify his actions by precedence by Biblical prophets. Malcolm X criticized the 1963 [[March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom|March on Washington]], which he called "the farce on Washington". He said he didn't know why black people were excited over a demonstration "run by [[White (people)|whites]] in front of a statue of a [[President of the United States|president]] who has been dead for a hundred years and who didn't like us when he was alive." When asked for a comment about the [[John F. Kennedy assassination|assassination of President Kennedy]] in November 1963, Malcolm X said that it was a case of "the chickens coming home to roost." He added that "Chickens coming home to roost never made me sad. It only made me glad." This remark prompted a widespread public outcry. The Nation of Islam publicly censured their former shining star. Although he retained his post and rank as minister, he was prohibited from public speaking for 90 days. [[Image:Malcolmxmartinlutherking.jpg|thumb|right|[[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] and Malcolm X, [[March 26]], [[1964]]]] On [[March 8]], [[1964]], Malcolm X publicly announced his break from the Nation of Islam. He founded the [[Muslim Mosque, Inc.]] four days later. While he stayed close to the teachings of the Nation of Islam, he also began to modify them. He explicitly advocated political and economic [[black nationalism]]. In April, he made a speech titled "[[The Ballot or the Bullet]]". Several orthodox Muslims encouraged Malcolm X to learn about Islam. Soon he converted to orthodox Islam, and decided to make his [[Hajj|pilgrimage to Mecca]]. ==Pilgrimage to Mecca== On [[April 13]], [[1964]], Malcolm X departed [[John F. Kennedy International Airport|JFK Airport]], [[New York]] for [[Cairo]]. It was the second time he had traveled to Africa. On the next leg of his journey, Malcolm left Cairo for [[Jeddah]], [[Saudi Arabia]]. His status as an authentic Muslim was questioned by Saudi authorities because of his inability to speak [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and his United States [[passport]]. Since only confessing Muslims are allowed into [[Mecca]], he was separated and isolated from his group. He spent about 20 hours wearing the ''[[ihram]]'', a traditional two-piece garment comprising two white unhemmed sheets. According to the ''Autobiography'', Malcolm X remembered the book ''The Eternal Message of Muhammad'' by [[Abdul Rahman Hassan Azzam]], which Dr. Mahmoud Yousseff Sharwabi had presented with his visa approval. He called Azzam's son, who arranged for his release. At the younger Azzam's home, he met Azzam Pasha, who gave Malcolm his suite at the Jeddah Palace Hotel. The next morning, Muhammad Faisal, the son of [[Faisal of Saudi Arabia|Prince Faisal]], visited and informed Malcolm X that he was to be a state guest. The deputy chief of protocol accompanied Malcolm X to the Hajj Court, where he was allowed to make his pilgrimage. On [[April 19]], Malcolm X completed the [[Hajj]], making the seven circuits around the [[Kaaba]], drinking from the [[Zamzam Well]] and running between the hills of [[Al-Safa and Al-Marwah|Safah and Marwah]] seven times. According to the ''Autobiography'', this trip allowed him to see Muslims of different [[Race (classification of human beings)|race]]s interacting as equals. He came to believe that Islam could transcend racial problems. ==International travel== ===Africa=== {{Pan-African|left}} Malcolm X visited Africa on three separate occasions, once in 1959 and twice in 1964. During his visits, he met officials, as well as spoke on television and radio in: [[Cairo]], [[Egypt]]; [[Addis Ababa]], [[Ethiopia]]; [[Dar Es Salaam]], [[Tanganyika]] (now [[Tanzania]]); [[Lagos]] and [[Ibadan]], [[Nigeria]]; [[Accra]], [[Winneba]], and [[Legon]], [[Ghana]]; [[Conakry]], [[Guinea]]; [[Algiers]], [[Algeria]]; and [[Casablanca]], [[Morocco]]. Malcolm first went to Africa in summer of 1959. He traveled to [[Egypt]] ([[United Arab Republic]]), [[Sudan]], [[Nigeria]] and [[Ghana]] to arrange a tour for Elijah Muhammad, which occurred in December 1959. The first of Malcolm's two trips to Africa in 1964 lasted from [[April 13]] until [[May 21]]. On [[May 8]], following his speech at Trenchard Hall on the campus of the [[University of Ibadan]] in Nigeria, he attended a reception in the Students' Union Hall held for him by the Muslim Students' Society. During this reception the students bestowed upon him the name "Omowale", meaning "the son returns home" in the [[Yoruba language]]. Malcolm returned to New York from Africa via [[Paris]] on [[May 21]], [[1964]]. On [[July 9]], he again left the U.S. for Africa, spending a total of 18 weeks abroad. On [[July 17]], [[1964]], Malcolm addressed the [[Organization of African Unity]]'s first ordinary assembly of heads of state and governments in Cairo as a representative of the [[Organization of Afro-American Unity|OAAU]]. On [[August 21]], [[1964]], he made a press statement on behalf of the [[Organization of Afro-American Unity|OAAU]] regarding the second African summit conference of the [[OAU]]. In it, he explained how a strong and independent "[[United States of Africa]]" is a victory for the awakening of [[African American]]s. By the time he returned to the United States on [[November 24]], [[1964]], Malcolm had established an international connection between Africans on the continent and those in the [[diaspora]]. Malcolm held to the view that African-Americans were right in defending themselves from aggressors. On [[June 28]], [[1964]], at the founding rally of the OAAU he said, : "''The time for you and me to allow ourselves to be brutalized nonviolently has passed. Be nonviolent only with those who are nonviolent to you. And when you can bring me a nonviolent racist, bring me a nonviolent [[segregation]]ist, then I'll get nonviolent. But don't teach me to be nonviolent until you teach some of those [[white cracker|crackers]] to be nonviolent.''"<ref>Malcolm X, [http://www.panafricanperspective.com/mxoaaufounding.html OAAU Founding Rally].</ref> In an interview with [[Gordon Parks]] in 1965, Malcolm revealed:<br> : "''I realized racism isn't just a black and white problem. It's brought bloodbaths to about every nation on earth at one time or another. Brother, remember the time that white college girl came into the restaurant &mdash; the one who wanted to help the [Black] Muslims and the whites get together &mdash; and I told her there wasn't a ghost of a chance and she went away crying? Well, I've lived to regret that incident. In many parts of the African continent I saw white students helping black people. Something like this kills a lot of argument. I did many things as a [Black] Muslim that I'm sorry for now. I was a [[zombie]] then &mdash; like all [Black] Muslims &mdash; I was hypnotized, pointed in a certain direction and told to march. Well, I guess a man's entitled to make a fool of himself if he's ready to pay the cost. It cost me 12 years. That was a bad scene, brother. The sickness and madness of those days &mdash; I'm glad to be free of them." In 1965, he stated, “My mind is wide open to anybody who will help get the ape off our backs.”<ref>Raymond Rodgers; Jimmie N. Rogers, "The Evolution of the Attitude of Malcolm X toward Whites", ''Phylon'', Vol. 44, No. 2. (2nd Qtr., 1983), pp. 108-115.</ref> ===France and the UK=== In late 1964, Malcolm visited [[France]] together with [[Jamaica]]n officials and spoke in Paris at Salle Pleyel where there were discussions and debates on the subject of the [[Rastafari movement|Rastafarian]] ideas espoused by both the Jamaicans present and Malcolm X at that time. He also visited the UK and participated in a debate at the [[Oxford Union]] on [[December 3]], [[1964]].<ref>[http://www.brothermalcolm.net/2003/mx_oxford/index.html Malcolm X Oxford Debate], Malcolm X: A Research Site.</ref> On [[February 12]], [[1965]], Malcolm visited [[Smethwick]], near [[Birmingham]], which had become a byword for racial division after the [[United Kingdom general election, 1964|1964 general election]] when the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] won the parliamentary seat after rumours that their candidates supporters had used the slogan "If you want a nigger for your neighbour, vote [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]]".<ref>National Extension College, A2 Government & Politics, [http://intranet1.sutcol.ac.uk:888/NEC/MATERIAL/PDFS/GOV_POL/A2GOV_PO/08U4_T4.PDF Topic 4 – Race and ethnicity], p. 4.</ref> ==Death and afterwards== [[Image:Malcomxm1carbine3gr.gif|left|300px|thumb|Malcolm X holding an [[M1 carbine|M1 Carbine]] and peering out of a window in 1964. The photo illustrated his intention to defend himself against the frequent death threats he was receiving.]] ===Assassination=== Tensions increased between Malcolm X and the Nation of Islam. He alleged that orders were given by leaders of the Nation of Islam to "destroy" him. In his autobiography, he stated that as early as 1963, a member of the Seventh Temple confessed to having received orders from the Nation of Islam to kill him. On [[March 20]], [[1964]], [[Life (magazine)|''Life'']] published a photograph of Malcolm X holding an [[M1 carbine|M1 Carbine]] at a window. The photo was taken as representation of his declaration to defend himself from the daily death threats received. Undercover FBI informants warned officials that he had been marked for assassination. In June 1964, the Nation of Islam sued to reclaim Malcolm X's residence in [[Queens]], which they claimed to own. The suit was successful, and Malcolm X was ordered to vacate. On [[February 14]], [[1965]], the night before a scheduled hearing to postpone the eviction date, the house burned to the ground. He and his family survived. No one was charged with any crime. On [[February 21]], [[1965]] in Manhattan's [[Audubon Ballroom]], Malcolm X had just begun to speak when a disturbance broke out in the crowd of 400. A man yelled, "Get your hand outta my pocket! Don't be messin' with my pockets!" As Malcolm X and his bodyguards moved to quiet the disturbance,<ref>In the Epilogue to ''The Autobiography of Malcolm X'', Alex Haley wrote that Malcolm said, "Hold it! Hold it! Don't get excited. Let's cool it brothers." (p. 434.) According to a transcription of a recording of the shooting, Malcolm's only words were, "Hold it!", which he repeated 10 times. (Louis A. DeCaro, Jr., ''On the Side of My People: A Religious Life of Malcolm X'' (New York University Press, 1996, ISBN 0-8147-1864-7), p. 274.)</ref> a man rushed forward and shot Malcolm X in the chest with a [[sawed-off shotgun]]. Two other men charged the stage and fired handguns, hitting him 16 times. Angry onlookers caught and beat the assassins as they attempted to flee the ballroom. Malcolm X was pronounced dead on arrival at New York's [[Columbia Presbyterian Hospital]]. Witnesses named two suspects [[Norman 3X Butler]] and :Thomas 15X Johnson, both members of the Nation of Islam. The city charged three men in the case. [[Talmadge Hayer]], also a Black Muslim, confessed to having fired shots into Malcolm X's body, but he testified that Butler and Johnson were not present and were not involved in the shooting. All three men were convicted. Norman 3X Butler, now known as Muhammad Abdul Aziz, was paroled in 1985. He became the head of the Nation of Islam's Harlem Mosque in New York in 1998. He continues to maintain his innocence.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/71838.stm Malcolm X killer heads mosque], [[BBC News]], [[March 31]], [[1998]].</ref> Thomas 15X Johnson, now known as Khalil Islam, was released from prison in 1987. He, too, maintains his innocence.<ref>[http://nymag.com/news/features/38358/ The Man Who Didn’t Shoot Malcolm X], ''[[New York (magazine)|New York]]'', [[October 1]], [[2007]].</ref> ===Funeral=== At the public viewing in Harlem's Unity Funeral Home from [[February 23]] through [[February 26]], [[1965]], mourners were estimated at between 14,000 and 30,000.<ref>Perry, p. 374. Alex Haley, in his Epilogue to ''The Autobiography of Malcolm X'', says 22,000 (p. 452).</ref> The funeral of Malcolm X was held on [[February 27]], [[1965]], at the Faith Temple Church of God in Christ in Harlem. The Church was filled to capacity with more than 1,700 people. [[Ossie Davis]] delivered a [[eulogy]], describing Malcolm X as "our shining black prince". <blockquote>There are those who will consider it their duty, as friends of the Negro people, to tell us to revile him, to flee, even from the presence of his memory, to save ourselves by writing him out of the history of our turbulent times. Many will ask what Harlem finds to honor in this stormy, controversial and bold young captain — and we will smile. Many will say turn away — away from this man, for he is not a man but a demon, a monster, a subverter and an enemy of the black man — and we will smile. They will say that he is of hate — a fanatic, a racist — who can only bring evil to the cause for which you struggle! And we will answer and say to them: Did you ever talk to Brother Malcolm? Did you ever touch him, or have him smile at you? Did you ever really listen to him? Did he ever do a mean thing? Was he ever himself associated with violence or any public disturbance? For if you did you would know him. And if you knew him you would know why we must honor him.<ref>Ossie Davis, [http://www.cmgworldwide.com/historic/malcolm/about/eulogy.htm Eulogy delivered at the funeral of Malcolm X], Faith Temple Church Of God, [[February 27]], [[1965]].</ref></blockquote> Malcolm X was buried at the [[Ferncliff Cemetery]] in [[Hartsdale, New York]]. At the gravesite after the ceremony, friends took the shovels away from the waiting gravediggers and completed the burial themselves. Later that month, actors [[Ruby Dee]] and [[Sidney Poitier]] became co-chairs of the New York affiliate of the Educational Fund for the Children of Malcolm X Shabazz. ===Response to Malcolm's death=== Dr. [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] sent a telegram to Betty Shabazz, expressing his sadness over "the shocking and tragic assassination of your husband." <blockquote>While we did not always see eye to eye on methods to solve the race problem, I always had a deep affection for Malcolm and felt that he had a great ability to put his finger on the existence and the root of the problem. He was an eloquent spokesman for his point of view and no one can honestly doubt that Malcolm had a great concern for the problems we face as a race.<ref>Martin Luther King, Jr., [http://www.stanford.edu/group/King/publications/papers/unpub/650226-001_To_Betty_Shabazz.htm Telegram to Betty Shabazz], [[February 26]], [[1965]].</ref></blockquote> [[Elijah Muhammad]] told the annual [[Savior's Day]] convention on [[February 26]], "Malcolm X got just what he preached."<ref>Karl Evanzz, ''The Judas Factor: The Plot to Kill Malcolm X'' (Thunder's Mouth Press, 1992, ISBN 1-56025-049-6) p. 301.</ref> The international press, particularly that of Africa, was sympathetic. The ''[[Daily Times of Nigeria]]'' wrote, <blockquote>Like all mortals, Malcolm X was not without his faults ... but that he was a dedicated and consistent disciple of the movement for the emancipation of his brethren no one can doubt. ... Malcolm X has fought and died for what he believed to be right. He will have a place in the palace of martyrs."<ref>Evanzz, p. 305.</ref></blockquote> ''Kwangming'', published in [[Beijing]], stated that "Malcolm was murdered because he fought for freedom and equal rights."<ref>Evanzz, p. 306.</ref> ==Allegations of conspiracy== Within days of the assassination, questions were raised about responsibility. On [[February 23]], [[James L. Farmer, Jr.|James Farmer]], the leader of the [[Congress of Racial Equality]], announced at a news conference that local drug dealers, and not the Black Muslims, were to blame.<ref>Perry, p. 371.</ref> Others blamed the police, the FBI, or the CIA, citing the lack of police protection and the ease with which the assassins had entered the Audubon Ballroom.<ref>Perry, p. 372.</ref> In the 1970s, the public learned about [[COINTELPRO]] and other secret FBI programs to infiltrate and disrupt civil rights organizations during the 1950s and 1960s. John Ali, national secretary of the Nation of Islam, was identified as an FBI agent.<ref name=Lomax198>Louis E. Lomax, ''To Kill a Black Man'', (Holloway House, 1968, ISBN 0-87067-731-4), p. 198.</ref> Malcolm X had confided in a reporter that Ali had exacerbated tensions between him and Elijah Muhammad. He considered Ali his "archenemy" within the Nation of Islam leadership.<ref name=Lomax198/> On [[February 20]], the night before the assassination, Ali met with Hayer, one of the men convicted of killing Malcolm.<ref>Evanzz, p. 294.</ref> No consensus has been reached. ==Popular culture== {{trivia|date=July 2008}} The film ''[[Malcolm X (film)|Malcolm X]]'' was released in 1992, directed by [[Spike Lee]] and based on the autobiography. It starred [[Denzel Washington]], with [[Angela Bassett]] as Betty and [[Al Freeman, Jr.]] as Elijah Muhammad. Both [[Roger Ebert]] and [[Martin Scorsese]] named the film as one of the 10 best of the decade. Other actors to portray Malcolm X include: *[[James Earl Jones]], in the 1977 film, ''[[The Greatest (film)|The Greatest]]'' *[[Dick Anthony Williams]], in the 1978 [[National Broadcasting Company|NBC]] TV miniseries, ''[[King (miniseries)|King]]'' *[[Al Freeman, Jr.]], in the 1979 [[ABC TV]] miniseries, ''[[Roots: The Next Generations]]'' *[[Denzel Washington]], in the 1981 [[Off-Broadway]] play, ''When the Chickens Came Home to Roost'' *[[Dick Anthony Williams]], in the 1989 [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]] ''[[American Playhouse]]'' production of the Jeff Stetson play, ''The Meeting'' *[[Gary Dourdan]], in the 2000 [[ABC TV]] movie, ''King of the World'' *[[Joe Morton]], in the 2000 [[FOX]] TV movie, ''Ali: An American Hero'' *[[Mario Van Peebles]], in the 2001 film, ''[[Ali (film)|Ali]]'' The sixth-season episode of ''[[A Different World (TV series)|A Different World]]'' entitled "Great X-Pectations", featured a public speaking assignment centered around the March 26, 1964 meeting between Martin Luther King, Jr. and Malcolm X. A running theme of the sitcom ''[[Roc (TV series)|Roc]]'' was retired [[Pullman porter]] Andrew Emerson's insistence upon hanging portraits of Malcolm X throughout the house. The band [[Rage Against The Machine]] talks about him in the song "[[Wake Up (Rage Against the Machine song)|Wake Up]]". ==See also== *[[Civil rights movement in Omaha, Nebraska]] *[[Timeline of racial tension in Omaha, Nebraska]] *''[[Malcolm X: Prince of Islam]]'' *''[[Malcolm X: Make It Plain]]'' *''[[Malcolm X: A Life of Reinvention]]'' *''[[The Autobiography of Malcolm X]]'' ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==External links== {{sisterlinks|s=Author:Malcolm X}} *[http://www.politicalassassinations.com The Coalition on Political Assassinations], organizes conferences on Malcolm's assassination. *[http://www.cmgww.com/historic/malcolm/ The Official Web Site of Malcolm X] *[http://www.thesmokinggun.com/malcolmx/malcolmx.html The Smoking Gun: The Malcolm X Files], a collection of primary sources relating to the assassination. *[http://archives.cbc.ca/IDC-1-69-2138-13070-11/on_this_day/life_society/ CBC Television Interview] *[http://www.brothermalcolm.net Full audio of Malcolm X speeches] *[http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/malcolmxballotorbullet.htm Text and Audio of Ballot or Bullet Speech] from AmericanRhetoric.com *[[wikisource:Letter from Malcolm X|Text of a letter written following his Hajj]] is given at [[Wikisource:|Wikisource]]. *[http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/audiofiles.html#malcolm2 Interview with UC Berkeley sociologist Herman Blake, 1963 (video)] *[http://www.finalcall.com/webcast/malcolmx/ Minister Louis Farrakhan on the murder of Malcolm X, Malcolm X College, 1990 (video)] *[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7fHRuiPx03g Farrakhan Admission On Malcolm X] *[http://www.wargs.com/other/x.html Ancestry of Malcolm X] *[http://www.usps.com/images/stamps/99/malcolmx.htm Malcolm X (El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz) United States Postage Stamp] * [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=1134 Malcolm X Gravesite] *[http://www.malcolmxreloaded.podomatic.com Malcolm X Reloaded: Who Really Assassinated Malcolm X] * [http://onebigtorrent.org/details.php?id=1855 Appearance Malcolm X on City Desk (Torrent download)] * [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=938821 Lessons from Malcolm X: Freedom By Any Means Necessary] *[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/mlk/sfeature/sf_video_pop_03_tr_qry.html Transcript of interview with Dr. Kenneth Clark] ===Research sites=== * [http://www.brothermalcolm.net/ Malcolm X : A Research Site] Abdul Alkalimat, ed. Launched May 19, 1999. [[University of Toledo]] and Twenty-first Century Books. * [http://www.malcolm-x.org/ malcolm-x.org]. seeks to present Malcolm X within an Islamic context. Retrieved May 19, 2005. * [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/malcolmx/index.html Malcolm X: Make It Plain]. Documentary * [http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/malcolm-x/index.htm Malcolm X Reference Archive]. Sound files of speeches ''The Ballot or the Bullet'', ''Democrats are Dixiecrats'', et al. [http://www.marxists.org Marxist Internet Archive]. Retrieved May 19, 2005. * [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/ccbh/mxp/index.html Malcolm X Project]. Project of the [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/ccbh/ Center for Contemporary Black History] at [[Columbia University]]. Retrieved May 19, 2005. * [http://foia.fbi.gov/foiaindex/malcolmx.htm Malcolm X's FBI file] * [http://www.colostate.edu/Orgs/MSA/find_more/m_x.html Malcolm X - ''An Islamic Perspective''] * [http://www.koranselskab.dk/profiler/malcolmx.htm Malcolm X : A Profile] by [http://www.koranselskab.dk/ Det Danske Koranselskab] === Articles and reports === * Frazier, Martin. [http://www.pww.org/article/articleview/7111/1/271/ ''Harlem celebrates Malcolm X birthday'']. '''[[People's Weekly World]]'''. May 26, 2005. * [[Democracy Now!]]. [http://www.democracynow.org/article.pl?sid=05/05/19/1330233 ''Malcolm X: Make it Plain'' transcript]. Excerpts of the documentary, "Malcolm X: Make it Plain". Segment available via [http://play.rbn.com/?url=demnow/demnow/demand/2005/may/audio/dn20050519.ra&proto=rtsp&start=21:41 streaming Real Audio], [http://play.rbn.com/?url=demnow/demnow/demand/2005/may/video/dnB20050519a.rm&proto=rtsp&start=21:41 128k streaming Real Video], or via [http://www.archive.org/download/dn2005-0519/dn2005-0519-1_64kb.mp3 MP3 download] from [http://www.archive.org Archive.org]. 37:23 minutes. Hosted by Amy Goodman. Broadcast May 19, 2005. * [[David Mills (writer)|Mills, David]], [http://undercoverblackman.blogspot.com/2007/05/malcolms-widow.html Portion of 1990 article] for ''[[The Washington Post]]'' — Interview of [[Betty Shabazz]] * [[David Mills (writer)|Mills, David]], [http://undercoverblackman.blogspot.com/2007/05/malcolms-disciple.html Portion of 1990 article] for ''[[The Washington Post]]'' — Interview of A. Peter Bailey * [[David Mills (writer)|Mills, David]], [http://undercoverblackman.blogspot.com/2007/05/malcolms-disciple-cont.html Portion of 1990 article] for ''[[The Washington Post]]'' — Interview of A. Peter Bailey * Waldron, Clarence. [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1355/is_26_97/ai_62685474 ''Minister Louis Farrakhan Sets The Record Straight About His Relationship With Malcolm X'']. [http://www.jetmag.com/ME2/Audiences/default.asp '''Jet Magazine''']. Interview, June 5, 2000. Retrieved May 19, 2005. * M, Yahyá. [http://members.aol.com/turkseven/shabazz.html ''The name Shabazz: Where did it come from?'']. Revised from '''Islamic Studies'' vol. 32 no.1, Spring 1993. p. 73-76. Retrieved May 19, 2005. * Garnes, Lamar J., "[http://etd.lib.fsu.edu/theses/available/etd-11142005-173701/ I'm a Hustler" (or Used to Be): Creating Alternative Black Masculinities in Post-Civil Rights Era African American Hustler Narratives]. English, Department of 2005-11-14. ([[thesis]]) == Further reading == ===By Malcolm X=== <div class="references-small"> * ''The Autobiography of Malcolm X''. With the assistance of Alex Haley. New York: Grove Press, 1965. * ''By Any Means Necessary: Speeches, Interviews, and a Letter by Malcolm X''. George Breitman, ed. New York: Pathfinder, 1970. * ''The End of White World Supremacy: Four Speeches by Malcolm X''. Benjamin Karim, ed. New York: Seaver Books, 1971. * ''Malcolm X: February 1965, The Final Speeches''. Steve Clark, ed. New York: Pathfinder, 1992. * ''Malcolm X: The Last Speeches''. Bruce Perry, ed. New York: Pathfinder, 1989. * ''Malcolm X Speaks Out'' (A Callaway BoundSound Book with Compact Disc). Nan Richardson, Catherine Chermayeff, and Antoinette White, eds. Kansas City, MO: Andrews and McMeel, 1992. * ''Malcolm X Speaks: Selected Speeches and Statements''. George Breitman, ed. New York: Merit Publishers, 1965. * ''Notes from the Frontlines: Excerpts from the Great Speeches of Malcolm X'' (Compact Disc). BMG Music, 1992. * ''The Speeches of Malcolm X at Harvard''. Archie Epps, ed. New York: Morrow, 1968. * ''The Wisdom of Malcolm X'' (Compact Discs). Black Label, 1991. </div> ===Articles=== <div class="references-small"> * Parks, Gordon. ''The White Devil's Day is Almost Over''. Life, May 31, 1963. * Speakman, Lynn. ''Who Killed Malcolm X?'' The Valley Advocate, November 26, 1992, pp. 3-6. * Vincent, Theodore. ''The Garveyite Parents of Malcolm X''. The Black Scholar, vol. 20, #2, April, 1989. * Handler ,M.S.''Malcolm X cites role in U.N. Fight''. New York Times, Jan 2, 1965; pg. 6, 1. * Montgomery, Paul L. ''Malcolm X a Harlem Idol on Eve of Murder Trial''. New York Times, Dec 6, 1965; pg. 46, 1 * Bigart, Homer. ''Malcolm X-ism Feared by Rustin''. New York Times, Mar 4, 1965; pg. 15, 1 * Arnold, Martin. ''Harlem is Quiet as Crowds Watch Malcolm X Rites''. New York Times, Feb 28, 1965; pg. 1, 2 * Loomis, James. ''Death of Malcolm X''. New York Times. Feb 27, 1965; pg. 24, 1 * n/a. ''Malcolm X and Muslims''. New York Times, Feb 21, 1965; pg. E10, 1 * n/a. ''Malcolm X''. New York Times, Feb 22, 1965; pg. 20, 1 * n/a. ''Malcolm X Reports He Now Represents Muslim World Unit''. New York Times, Oct 11, 1964; pg. 13, 1 * Lelyveld, Joseph. ''Elijah Muhammad Rallies His Followers in Harlem''. New York Times, Jun 29, 1964; pg. 1, 2 * n/a. ''Malcolm X Woos 2 Rights Leaders''. New York Times, May 19, 1964; pg. 28, 1 * n/a. ''1,000 In Harlem Cheer Malcolm X''. New York Times, Mar 23, 1964; pg. 18, 1 * Handler, M.S. ''Malcolm X Sees Rise in Violence''. New York Times, Mar 13, 1964; pg. 20, 1 * n/a. ''Malcolm X Disputes Nonviolence Policy''. New York Times, Jun 5, 1963; pg. 29, 1 * Apple, R.W. ''Malcolm X Silenced for Remarks On Assassination of Kennedy''. New York Times, Dec 5, 1963; pg. 22, 1 * Ronan, Thomas P. ''Malcolm X Tells Rally In Harlem Kennedy Fails to Help Negroes''. New York Times, Jun 30, 1963; pg. 45, 1 * n/a. ''4 Are Indicted Here in Malcolm X Case''. New York Times, Mar 11, 1965; pg. 66, 1 * Handler, M.S. ''Malcolm X Seeks U.N. Negro Debate''. Special to The New York Times; New York Times, Aug 13, 1964; pg. 22, 1 </div> ===Books=== <div class="references-small"> * Acuna, Rodolfo. ''Occupied America: A History of Chicanos''. New York: Harper & Row, 1981. * Alkalimat, Abdul. ''Malcolm X for Beginners''. New York: Writers and Readers, 1990. * Als, Hilton. "The Women." (a chapter on Malcolm's mother) * Asante, Molefi K. ''Malcolm X as Cultural Hero: and Other Afrocentric Essays''. Trenton, N.J.: Africa World Press, 1993. * Baldwin, James. ''One Day, When I Was Lost: A Scenario Based On Alex Haley's "The Autobiography Of Malcolm X"''. New York: Dell, 1992. * Baldwin, Lewis V., and Amiri YaSin Al-Hadid. ''Between Cross and Crescent: Christian and Muslim Perspectives on Malcolm and Martin''. Gainesville, Fla.: University of Florida Press, 2002. * Breitman, George. ''The Last Year of Malcolm X: The Evolution of a Revolutionary''. New York: Pathfinder, 1967. * Breitman, George, and Herman Porter. ''The Assassination of Malcolm X''. New York: Pathfinder, 1976. * Brisbane, Robert. ''Black Activism''. Valley Forge, Pennsylvania: Judson Press, 1974. * Carew, Jan. ''Ghosts In Our Blood: With Malcolm X in Africa, England, and the Caribbean''. Chicago: Lawrence Hill, 1994. * Carson, Claybourne. ''Malcolm X: The FBI File''. New York: Carroll & Graf, 1991. * Carson, Claybourne, et al. ''The Eyes on the Prize Civil Rights Reader''. New York: Penguin, 1991. * Clarke, John Henrik, ed. ''Malcolm X; the Man and His Times''. New York: Macmillan, 1969. * Cleage, Albert B., and George Breitman. ''Myths About Malcolm X: Two Views''. New York: Merit, 1968. * Collins, Rodney P. ''The Seventh Child''. New York: Dafina; London: Turnaround, 2002. * Cone, James H. ''Martin & Malcolm & America: A Dream or A Nightmare''. Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1991. * Davis, Thulani. ''Malcolm X: The Great Photographs''. New York: Stewart, Tabon and Chang, 1992. * DeCaro, Louis A. '' Malcolm and the Cross: The Nation of Islam, Malcolm X, and Christianity''. New York: New York University, 1998. * DeCaro, Louis A. ''On The Side of My People: A Religious Life of Malcolm X''. New York: New York University, 1996. * Doctor, Bernard Aquina. ''Malcolm X for Beginners''. New York: Writers and Readers, 1992. * Dyson, Michael Eric. ''Making Malcolm: The Myth and Meaning of Malcolm X''. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996. * Essien-Udom, E. U. ''Black Nationalism''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962. * Evanzz, Karl. ''The Judas Factor: The Plot to Kill Malcolm X''. New York: Thunder's Mouth Press, 1992. * Franklin, Robert Michael. ''Liberating Visions: Human Fulfillment And Social Justice In African-American Thought''. Minneapolis, MN : Fortress Press, 1990. * Friedly, Michael. ''The Assassination of Malcolm X''. New York: Carroll & Graf, 1992. * Gallen, David, ed. ''Malcolm A to Z: The Man and His Ideas''. New York: Carroll and Graf, 1992. * Gallen, David, ed. ''Malcolm X: As They Knew Him''. New York: Carroll and Graf, 1992. * Garrow, David. ''Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference''. New York: Vintage, 1988. * Goldman, Peter. ''The Death and Life of Malcolm X''. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1979. * Hampton, Henry, and Steve Fayer. ''Voices of Freedom: Oral Histories from the Civil Rights Movement from the 1950s Through the 1980s''. New York: Bantam, 1990. * Harding, Vincent, Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis. ''We Changed the World: African Americans, 1945-1970''. The Young Oxford History of African Americans, v. 9. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. * Hill, Robert A. ''Marcus Garvey: Life and Lessons''. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1987. * Jamal, Hakim A. ''From The Dead Level: Malcolm X and Me''. New York: Random House, 1972. * Jenkins, Robert L. ''The Malcolm X Encyclopedia''. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2002. * Karim, Benjamin, with Peter Skutches and David Gallen. ''Remembering Malcolm''. New York: Carroll & Graf, 1992. * Kly, Yussuf Naim, ed. ''The Black Book: The True Political Philosophy of Malcolm X (El Hajj Malik El Shabazz)''. Atlanta: Clarity Press, 1986. * Kondo, Baba Zak A. ''Conspiracys: Unravelling the Assassination of Malcolm X''. <!--Yes, it's misspelled, but that's the title of the book--> Washington, D.C.: Nubia Press, 1993. * Leader, Edward Roland. ''Understanding Malcolm X: The Controversial Changes in His Political Philosophy''. New York: Vantage Press, 1993. * Lee, Spike with Ralph Wiley. ''By Any Means Necessary: The Trials and Tribulations of The Making Of Malcolm X''. New York, N.Y.: Hyperion, 1992. * Lincoln, C. Eric. ''The Black Muslims in America''. Boston, Beacon. 1961. * Lomax, Louis. ''To Kill a Black Man''. Los Angeles: Holloway House, 1968. * Lomax, Louis. ''When the Word is Given''. Cleveland: World Publishing, 1963. * Maglangbayan, Shawna. ''Garvey, Lumumba, and Malcolm: National-Separatists''. Chicago, Third World Press 1972. * Marable, Manning. ''On Malcolm X: His Message & Meaning''. Westfield, N.J.: Open Media, 1992. * Martin, Tony. ''Race First''. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood, 1976. * Myers, Walter Dean. ''Malcolm X By Any Means Necessary''. New York: Scholastic, 1993. * Natambu, Kofi. ''The Life and Work of Malcolm X''. Indianapolis: Alpha Books, 2002. * Perry, Bruce. ''Malcolm: The Life of A Man Who Changed Black America''. New York: Station Hill, 1991. * Randall, Dudley and Margaret G. Burroughs, ed. ''For Malcolm; Poems on The Life and The Death of Malcolm X''. Preface and Eulogy By Ossie Davis. Detroit: Broadside Press, 1967. * Rickford, Russell J. ''Betty Shabazz: A Remarkable Story of Survival and Faith Before and After Malcolm X''. Naperville, IL: Sourcebooks, 2003. * Sales, William W. ''From Civil Rights To Black Liberation: Malcolm X And The Organization Of Afro-American Unity''. Boston, MA: South End Press, 1994. * Shabazz, Ilyasah. ''Growing Up X''. New York: One World, 2002. * Strickland, William, et al. ''Malcolm X: Make It Plain''. Penguin Books, 1994. * Terrill, Robert. ''Malcolm X: Inventing Radical Judgment''. Michigan State University Press, 2004. * T'Shaka, Oba. ''The Political Legacy of Malcolm X''. Richmond, Calif.: Pan Afrikan Publications, 1983. * Tuttle, William. ''Race Riot: Chicago, The Red Summer of 1919''. New York: Atheneum, 1970. * Vincent, Theodore. ''Black Power and the Garvey Movement''. San Francisco: Ramparts, 1972. * Wolfenstein, Eugene Victor. ''The Victims of Democracy: Malcolm X and the Black Revolution''. London: Free Association Books, 1989. * Wood, Joe, ed. ''Malcolm X: In Our Own Image''. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992. * Woodward, C. Vann. ''Origins of the New South''. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1967. </div> <!--Navigation boxes--><br/> {{aafooter}} {{Pan-Africanism}} {{Uscrfooter}} {{Persondata |NAME=Malcolm X |ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Little, Malcolm; [[El-Hajj]] [[Malik]] El-[[Shabazz (name)|Shabazz]] |SHORT DESCRIPTION=Nation of Islam leader |DATE OF BIRTH=[[May 19]], [[1925]] |PLACE OF BIRTH=[[North Omaha, Nebraska]], [[United States]] |DATE OF DEATH=[[February 21]], [[1965]] |PLACE OF DEATH=[[New York City]], [[New York]], [[United States]] }} {{lifetime|1925|1965|Malcolm X}} [[Category:Pan-Africanism]] [[Category:American adoptees]] [[Category:Grenadian-Americans]] [[Category:African Americans' rights activists]] [[Category:American religious leaders]] [[Category:Assassinated American people]] [[Category:American autobiographers]] [[Category:Burials at Ferncliff Cemetery and Mausoleum]] [[Category:COINTELPRO targets]] [[Category:Converts to Islam]] [[Category:Deaths by firearm in the United States]] [[Category:Assassinated activists]] [[Category:American Muslims]] [[Category:Nation of Islam]] [[Category:People from Boston, Massachusetts]] [[Category:People from Lansing, Michigan]] [[Category:People from Manhattan]] [[Category:Muslim activists]] [[Category:African American religious leaders]] [[Category:People from North Omaha]] [[Category:Historical figures of Omaha, Nebraska]] [[Category:Malcolm X]] [[Category:Assassinated religious leaders]] {{Link FA|ur}} [[ar:مالكوم إكس]] [[ast:Malcolm X]] [[az:Malkolm X]] [[bn:ম্যালকম এক্স]] [[zh-min-nan:Malcolm X]] [[bs:Malcolm X]] [[br:Malcolm X]] [[ca:Malcolm X]] [[cy:Malcolm X]] [[da:Malcolm X]] [[de:Malcolm X]] [[et:Malcolm X]] [[es:Malcolm X]] [[eo:Malcolm X]] [[eu:Malcolm X]] [[fa:ملکم ایکس]] [[fr:Malcolm X]] [[gl:Malcolm X]] [[ko:맬컴 엑스]] [[hr:Malcolm X]] [[id:Malcolm X]] [[is:Malcolm X]] [[it:Malcolm X]] [[he:מלקולם אקס]] [[ms:Malcolm X]] [[nl:Malcolm X]] [[ja:マルコムX]] [[no:Malcolm X]] [[nn:Malcolm X]] [[pl:Malcolm X]] [[pt:Malcolm X]] [[ru:Малколм Икс]] [[sq:Malcolm X]] [[simple:Malcolm X]] [[sk:Malcolm X]] [[sr:Malkolm Iks]] [[fi:Malcolm X]] [[sv:Malcolm X]] [[ta:மல்கம் எக்ஸ்]] [[vi:Malcolm X]] [[tr:Malcolm X]] [[ur:میلکم ایکس]] [[yo:Malcolm X]] [[zh:麥爾坎X]]