Mallard
230456
223738921
2008-07-05T15:16:02Z
Gwernol
266416
Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/75.34.4.219|75.34.4.219]] ([[User talk:75.34.4.219|talk]]) to last version by DaughterofSun
{{otheruses}}
{{Taxobox
| name = Mallard
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| image = Anas platyrhynchos LC0017.jpg
| image_caption = Male (top) and female (bottom)
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordata]]
| classis = [[Aves]]
| ordo = [[Anseriformes]]
| familia = [[Anatidae]]
| subfamilia = [[Anatinae]]
| genus = ''[[Anas]]''
| species = '''''A. platyrhynchos'''''
| binomial = ''Anas platyrhynchos''
| binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758
| subdivision_ranks = [[Subspecies]]
| subdivision =
See [[Mexican Duck]], ''[[Anas]]'' and [[#Hybridization and systematics|below]]
| synonyms =
''Anas boschas''
}}
The '''Mallard''' (''Anas platyrhynchos''<ref>[[Etymology]]: [[Ancient Greek]] for "flat-billed duck" [http://web.archive.org/web/20050214114256/http://home.sou.edu/~rible/wildlife/mallard.htm]</ref>), probably the best-known and most recognizable of all ducks, is a [[dabbling duck]] which breeds throughout the [[temperate]] and [[sub-tropical]] areas of [[North America]], [[Europe]], [[Asia]], [[New Zealand]] (where it is currently the most common duck species), and [[Australia]]. It is strongly [[bird migration|migratory]] in the northern parts of its breeding range, and winters farther south. For example, in North America it winters south to Mexico, but also regularly strays into [[Central America]] and the [[Caribbean]] between September and May.<ref>Herrera ''et al.'' (2006)</ref>
The Mallard and the [[Muscovy Duck]]<ref>[http://digimorph.org/specimens/anas_platyrhynchos/skull/ Anas platyrhynchos, Domestic Duck; DigiMorph Staff - The University of Texas at Austin]</ref><ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-360302/mallard Mallard; Encyclopædia Britannica]</ref> are believed be the ancestors of all [[domestic duck]]s.
The ''Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds'' ([[AEWA]]) applies to the mallard.
==Description==
{| align="left"
|-
| [[Image:Male Mallard Headshot.jpg|thumb|Close up photo showing the brilliant green colours of the male Mallard.]]
|-
| [[Image:Male mallard flight - natures pics.jpg|thumb|Mallard drake in midflight]]
|-
| [[Image:Flying mallard duck - female.jpg|thumb|Female Mallard landing]]
|-
| [[Image:Mallard speculum.jpg|thumb|Iridescent blue-black-white [[speculum feathers]] of male Mallard]]
|}
The mallard is 56–65 cm long, has a wingspan of 81–98 cm, and weighs 2-2 1/2 pounds. The breeding male is unmistakable, with a green head, black rear end and a yellow bill tipped with black (as opposed to the dark brown bill in females). The female Mallard is light brown, like most female dabbling ducks. However, both the female and male Mallards have distinct purple [[speculum feathers|speculum]] edged with white, prominent in flight or at rest (though temporarily shedded during the annual summer molt). In non-breeding ([[wikt:eclipse|eclipse]]) plumage the drake becomes drab, looking more like the female, but still distinguishable by its yellow bill and reddish breast.
The Mallard is a rare example of both [[Allen's Rule]] and [[Bergmann's Rule]] in birds. Bergmann's Rule, which states that polar forms tend to be larger than related ones from warmer climates, has numerous examples in birds. Allen's Rule says that appendages like ears tend to be smaller in polar forms to minimize heat loss, and larger in tropical and desert equivalents to facilitate heat diffusion, and that the polar taxa are stockier overall. Examples of this rule in birds are rare, as they lack external ears. However, the bill of ducks is very well supplied with blood vessels and is vulnerable to cold.
The size of the Mallard varies clinally, and birds from [[Greenland]], although larger than birds further south, have smaller bills and are stockier. It is sometimes separated as [[subspecies]] '''Greenland Mallard''' (''A. p. conboschas'').
In captivity, [[domestic duck]]s come in wild-type plumages, white, and other colours. Most of these colour variants are also known in domestic mallards not bred as [[livestock]], but kept as pets, [[aviary]] birds, etc., where they are rare but increasing in availability.
A noisy species, the male has a nasal call, the female the "[[Onomatopoeia|quack]]" always associated with ducks.<ref>Rogers (2001)</ref>
==Ecology==
The Mallard inhabits most [[wetland]]s, including [[park]]s, small [[pond]]s and rivers, and usually feeds by dabbling for plant food or grazing; there are reports of it eating [[frog]]s.[http://www.uwgb.edu/birds/wso/hmhotline98.htm] It usually nests on a river bank, but not always near water. It is highly gregarious outside of the breeding season and will form large [[Flock (birds)|flock]]s, which are known as a sord.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://baltimorebirdclub.org/gnlist.html | title=Baltimore Bird Club. Group Name for Birds: A Partial List | accessdate=2007-06-03}}</ref>
==Breeding behavior==
Mallards form pairs only until the female lays eggs, at which time she is left by the male. The clutch is 8–13 eggs, which are incubated for 27–28 days to hatching with 50–60 days to fledging. The ducklings are [[precocial]], and can swim and feed themselves on insects as soon as they hatch, although they stay near the female for protection. Young ducklings are not naturally waterproof and rely on the mother to provide waterproofing.{{clarifyme}} Mallards also have rates of male-male sexual activity that are unusually high for birds. In some cases, as many as 19% of pairs in a Mallard population are male-male homosexual<ref>Bagemihl (1999)</ref><!-- this ref only applies to the last 2 sentences. Please do not put behind punctuation; rest of paragraph is unreferences. -->.
When they pair off with mating partners, often one or several drakes will end up "left out". This group will sometimes target an isolated female duck — chasing, pestering and pecking at her until she weakens (a phenomenon referred to by researchers as ''rape flight''), at which point each male will take turns copulating with the female. Male Mallards will also occasionally chase other males in the same way. (In one documented case, a male Mallard copulated with another male he was chasing after it had been killed when it flew into a glass window.)<ref>Moeliker (2001). This paper was awarded with an [[Ig Nobel Prize]] in 2003 (MacLeod 2005).</ref>
===Ancestor of almost all Domestic Ducks===
Mallard (''Anas platyrhynchos'') is the ancestor of almost all of the varieties of [[domestic duck]]s. Domestic ducks belong to the subfamily Anatinae of the waterfowl family Anatidae. The wild mallard and [[Muscovy duck]] (''Cairina moschata'') are believed to be the ancestors of all domestic ducks.<ref>[http://digimorph.org/specimens/anas_platyrhynchos/skull/ Anas platyrhynchos, Domestic Duck; DigiMorph Staff - The University of Texas at Austin]</ref><ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-360302/mallard Mallard; Encyclopædia Britannica]</ref>
===Genetic pollution, hybridization and systematics===
[[Image:Anas platyrhynchos oustaleti last male.jpg|thumb|right|The last male [[Mariana Mallard]]. This [[extinct]] population probably [[evolve]]d in part from mallards.]]
Release of [[feral]] Mallard Ducks worldwide is creating havoc on indigenous [[waterfowl]], these don't [[Bird migration|migrate]] and stay back in the local [[breeding season]] and interbreed with indigenous rare wild ducks devastating local populations of closely related species through [[genetic pollution]] by producing fertile offspring. Complete [[hybridization]] of various species of rare wild duck gene pools could result in the extinction of many indigenous waterfowl. Wild Mallard itself is the ancestor of most [[domestic duck]]s and their naturally evolved wild gene pool gets genetically polluted in turn by the [[domesticated]] and feral populations.<ref>[http://myfwc.com/duck/mottled/theproblem.htm Mottled Ducks : The Problem – Hybridization; Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, MyFWC.com]</ref><ref>[http://www.fws.gov/southeast/news/2002/mallards/ ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT FOR CONTROL OF FREE-RANGING RESIDENT MALLARDS IN FLORIDA, MAY 2002, Contact: Frank Bowers, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service]</ref><ref>[http://www.krugerpark.co.za/krugerpark-times-3-6-bird-threat-22588.html Invasive Alien Bird Species Pose A Threat, Kruger National Park, Siyabona Africa Travel (Pty) Ltd - South Africa Safari Travel Specialist]</ref><ref>[http://digimorph.org/specimens/anas_platyrhynchos/skull/ Anas platyrhynchos, Domestic Duck; DigiMorph Staff - The University of Texas at Austin]</ref><ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-360302/mallard Mallard; Encyclopædia Britannica]</ref>
Mallards frequently interbreed with their closest relatives in the [[genus]] ''[[Anas]]'', such as the [[American Black Duck]], and also with species more distantly related, for example the [[Northern Pintail]], leading to various [[Hybrid (biology)|hybrids]] that may be fully fertile. This is quite unusual among different species, and apparently has its reasons in the fact that the Mallard [[evolution|evolved]] very rapidly and not too long ago, during the [[Late Pleistocene]] only. The distinct lineages of this radiation are usually kept separate due to non-overlapping ranges and [[behavior]]al cues, but are still not fully genetically incompatible. Mallards and their domesticated [[conspecific]]s are, of course, also fully interfertile.
The Mallard is considered an [[invasive species]] in [[New Zealand]]. There, and elsewhere, Mallards are spreading with increasing [[urbanization]] and hybridizing with local relatives.<ref>Rhymer & Simberloff (1996)</ref> Over time, a continuum of hybrids ranging between almost typical examples of either species will develop; the [[speciation]] process beginning to reverse itself.<ref name = rhymer2006>Rhymer (2006)</ref> This has created [[Conservation biology|conservation]] concerns for relatives of the Mallard, such as the [[Hawaiian Duck]],<ref>Griffin ''et al.'' (1989), Rhymer & Simberloff (1996)</ref> the ''A. s. superciliosa'' subspecies of the [[Pacific Black Duck]],<ref>Gillespie (1985), Rhymer ''et al.'' (1994), Rhymer & Simberloff (1996), Williams & Basse (2006).</ref> the [[American Black Duck]],<ref>Johnsgard (1967), Avise ''et al.'' (1990), Rhymer & Simberloff (1996), Mank ''et al.'' (2004).</ref> the [[Florida Duck]],<ref>Mazourek & Gray (1994), Rhymer & Simberloff (1996), McCracken ''et al.'' (2001).</ref> [[Meller's Duck]],<ref>Young & Rhymer (1998)</ref> the [[Yellow-billed Duck]],<ref name = rhymer2006 /> and the [[Mexican Duck]],<ref>Rhymer & Simberloff (1996), McCracken ''et al.'' (2001)</ref> in the latter case even leading to a dispute whether these birds should be considered a species<ref>See AOU (1983)</ref> (and thus entitled to more conservation research and funding) or included in the mallard.
Like elsewhere worldwide the invasive alien mallard ducks are also causing severe “genetic pollution” of [[South Africa]]’s [[biodiversity]] by breeding with endemic ducks. The hybrids of mallard ducks and the [[Yellow-billed Duck]] are fertile and can produce more hybrid offspring. If this continues, only hybrids will occur and in the long term this will result in the extinction of various indigenous waterfowl worldwide like the yellow billed duck of South Africa. The mallard duck can cross breed with 45 other species and is posing a severe threat to the genetic integrity of indigenous waterfowls. Mallard ducks and their hybrids compete with indigenous birds for resources such as food, nest sites and roosting sites. The drakes (males) also kill the offspring of other waterfowl species by attacking and drowning them.<ref>[http://www.krugerpark.co.za/krugerpark-times-3-6-bird-threat-22588.html Invasive Alien Bird Species Pose A Threat, Kruger National Park, Siyabona Africa Travel (Pty) Ltd - South Africa Safari Travel Specialist]</ref>
On the other hand, the [[Chinese Spotbill]] is currently introgressing into the mallard populations of the [[Primorsky Krai]], possibly due to [[Habitat (ecology)|habitat]] changes from [[global warming]].<ref>Kulikova ''et al.'' (2004)</ref> The [[Mariana Mallard]] was a resident [[allopatric]] population - in most respects a good species - apparently initially derived from Mallard × [[Pacific Black Duck]] hybrids;<ref>Yamashina (1948)</ref> unfortunately, it became [[extinct]] in the 1980s. In addition, feral domestic ducks interbreeding with Mallards have led to a size increase - especially in drakes - in most Mallards in urban areas. Rape flights between normal-sized females and such stronger males are liable to end with the female being drowned by the males' combined weight.
It was generally assumed that as the spectacular nuptial plumage of Mallard drakes is obviously the result of [[sexual selection]] - most species in the mallard group being [[sexual dimorphism|sexually monomorphic]] -, hybrid matings would preferentially take place between females of monomorphic relatives and Mallard drakes instead of the other way around. But this generalization was found to be incorrect.<ref>Rhymer ''et al.'' (1994), Kulikova ''et al.'' (2004)</ref>
Note that it is not the hybridization itself that causes most conservation concerns. The [[Laysan Duck]] is an insular relative of the mallard with a very small and fluctuating population. Mallards sometimes arrive on its island home during migration, and can be expected to occasionally have remained and hybridized with Laysan Ducks as long as these species exist. But these hybrids are less well adapted to the peculiar ecological conditions of [[Laysan Island]] than the local ducks, and thus have lower [[fitness (biology)|fitness]], and furthermore, there were - apart from a brief time in the early 20th century when the Laysan Duck was almost extinct - always much more Laysan Ducks than stray Mallards. Thus, in this case, the hybrid lineages would rapidly fail.
In the cases mentioned above, however, ecological changes and hunting have led to a decline of local species; for example, the New Zealand Gray Duck's population declined drastically due to overhunting in the mid-20th century (Williams & Basse 2006). In the Hawaiian Duck, it seems that hybrid offspring are less well-adapted to native habitat and that utilizing them in reintroduction projects makes these less than successful.<ref>Rhymer & Simberloff (1996), see also Kirby ''et al.'' (2004)</ref> In conclusion, the crucial point underlying the problems of Mallards "hybridizing away" relatives is far less a consequence of Mallards spreading, but of local ducks declining; [[allopatric speciation]] and isolating behavior have produced today's diversity of Mallard-like ducks despite the fact that in most if not all of these populations, hybridization must ''always'' have occurred to some extent. Given time and a population of sufficient size exists, [[natural selection]] ought to suppress harmful [[allele]] combinations to a negligible level.
The aforementioned confounds analysis of the evolution considerably. Analyses of good samples of [[mtDNA]] [[DNA sequence|sequence]]s give the confusing picture<ref>See for example Johnson & Sorenson (1999) for a phylogeny suggesting Mallard [[paraphyly]], almost certainly because one of the mere 2 Mallards successfully sampled had an American Black Duck maternal ancestor. Contrary to Avise ''et al.'' (1990), the question whether the American haplotypes are an original Mallard lineage is far from resolved{{Verify source|date=September 2007}}<!-- possibly a 2007 paper resolves this -->.</ref> one expects from a wide-ranging species that has evolved probably not much earlier than the [[Pliocene|Plio-]]/[[Pleistocene]] boundary, around 2 [[mya (unit)|mya]]. Mallards appear to be closer to their [[Indo-Pacific]] relatives than to their American ones judging from [[biogeography]]. Considering [[mtDNA]] [[D-loop replication|D-loop]] [[DNA sequence|sequence]] data,<ref>Kulikova ''et al.'' (2005)</ref> they may have evolved more probably than not in the general area of [[Siberia]]; mallard bones rather abruptly appear in food remains of ancient humans and other deposits of [[fossil]] bones in [[Europe]], without a good candidate for a local predecessor species. The large [[ice age]] [[paleosubspecies]] which made up at least the European and W Asian populations during the [[Pleistocene]] has been named ''Anas platyrhynchos palaeoboschas''.
As expected, [[haplotypes]] typical of American mallard relatives and Spotbills can be found in Mallards around the [[Bering Sea]].<ref>Kulikova ''et al.'' (2004, 2005)</ref> Interestingly, the [[Aleutian Islands]] turned out to hold a population of Mallards that appear to be evolving towards a good subspecies as [[gene flow]] with other populations is very limited.<ref>Kulikova ''et al.'' (2005)</ref> This unexpected result suggests that reevaluation of the Greenland, [[Iceland]], and NE [[Canada]] populations according to molecular and morphological characters is warranted.
==Gallery==
<gallery>
Image:Mallard Anas platyrhynchos Full Body 2000px.jpg|Mallard drake standing
Image:Female mallard nest - natures pics edit2.jpg|An adult female with a brood of ducklings
Image:Mallard ducklings.jpg|A trio of ducklings.
Image:Baby under mom.jpg|The new hatched ducklings are hiding under their mother.
Image:Female Mallard with 12 ducklings (Grand Canal, Dublin).jpg|Urbanized female mallard with brood of 12 ducklings
Image:Turtle ducklings.jpg|A [[turtle]] and a brood of ducklings sharing [[microhabitat]]
Image:Male mallard3.jpg|A Mallard [[drake]] swimming.
Image:Mallard is flapping his wings.jpg|Wing-Flapping
Image:Snow crystallization in Akureyri 2005-02-26 15-57-55.jpeg|Drake, domestic duck × mallard, [[Akureyri]] ([[Iceland]]); note stocky body shape.
Image:Mallard flying.jpg| A male mallard flying.
Image:Males Anas platyrhynchos 2 .jpg|Two males
Image:Mallard-snow-kingston-ontario-march-2008.JPG| Mallards in the snow. [[Kingston, Ontario|Kingston]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]]. 10 March 2008.
Image:Female Mallard Duck Rest 3.jpg|Female mallard duck resting.
</gallery>
<br style="clear:both;"/>
== References ==<!-- AmMusNovit301:1 -->
* [[American Ornithologists' Union]] (AOU) (1983): ''Check-list of North American Birds'' (6th edition). American Ornithologists' Union, Washington, DC.
* Avise, John C.; Ankney, C. Davison & Nelson, William S. (1990): Mitochondrial Gene Trees and the Evolutionary Relationship of Mallard and Black Ducks. ''[[Evolution (journal)|Evolution]]'' '''44'''(4): 1109-1119. <small>{{DOI|10.2307/2409570}}</small> (HTML abstract and first page image)
* Bagemihl, Bruce (1999): ''Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity'': 479-481. St. Martin's Press. <small>ISBN 0312192398</small>
* {{IUCN2006|assessors=BirdLife International|year=2004|id=47188|title=Anas platyrhynchos|downloaded=11 May 2006}} Database entry includes justification for why this species is of least concern
* Gillespie, Grant D. (1985): Hybridization, introgression, and morphometric differentiation between Mallard (''Anas platyrhynchos'') and Grey Duck (''Anas superciliosa'') in Otago, New Zealand. ''[[Auk (journal)|Auk]]'' 102 (3): 459-469. [http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/Auk/v102n03/p0459-p0469.pdf PDF fulltext]
* Griffin, C.R.; Shallenberger, F.J. & Fefer, S.I. (1989): Hawaii's endangered waterbirds: a resource management challenge. ''In:'' Sharitz, R.R. & Gibbons, I.W. (eds.): ''Proceedings of Freshwater Wetlands and Wildlife Symposium'': 155-169. Savannah River Ecology Lab, Aiken, South Carolina.
* Herrera, Néstor; Rivera, Roberto; Ibarra Portillo, Ricardo & Rodríguez, Wilfredo (2006): Nuevos registros para la avifauna de El Salvador. ["New records for the avifauna of El Salvador"]. ''Boletín de la Sociedad Antioqueña de Ornitología'' '''16'''(2): 1-19. [Spanish with English abstract] [http://www.sao.org.co/publicaciones/boletinsao/01-Herrera.etal.RecordsSalvador.pdf PDF fulltext]
* Johnsgard, Paul A. (1967): Sympatry Changes and Hybridization Incidence in Mallards and Black Ducks. ''American Midland Naturalist'' '''77'''(1): 51-63. <small>{{DOI|10.2307/2423425}}</small> (HTML abstract and first page image)
* Johnson, Kevin P. & Sorenson, Michael D. (1999): Phylogeny and biogeography of dabbling ducks (genus Anas): a comparison of molecular and morphological evidence. ''[[Auk (journal)|Auk]]'' 116 (3): 792–805. [http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/Auk/v116n03/p0792-p0805.pdf PDF fulltext]
* Kirby, Ronald E.; Sargeant, Glen A. & Shutler, Dave (2004): Haldane's rule and American black duck × mallard hybridization. ''Canadian Journal of Zoology'' '''82'''(11): 1827–1831. <small>{{DOI|10.1139/z04-169}}</small> (HTML abstract)
* Kulikova, Irina V.; Zhuravlev, Yury N. & McCracken, Kevin G. (2004): Asymmetric hybridization and sex-biased gene flow between Eastern Spot-billed Ducks (''Anas zonorhyncha'') and Mallards (''A. platyrhynchos'') in the Russian Far East. ''[[Auk (journal)|Auk]]'' 121 (3): 930-949. [English with Russian abstract] <small>[[Digital Object Identifier|DOI]]: 10.1642/0004-8038(2004)121[0930:AHASGF]2.0.CO;2</small> [http://mercury.bio.uaf.edu/~kevin_mccracken/reprints/auk-121-930.pdf PDF fulltext]
* Kulikova, Irina V.; Drovetski, S.V.; Gibson, D.D.; Harrigan, R.J.; Rohwer, S.; Sorenson, Michael D.; Winker, K.; Zhuravlev, Yury N. & McCracken, Kevin G. (2005): Phylogeography of the Mallard (''Anas platyrhynchos''): Hybridization, dispersal, and lineage sorting contribute to complex geographic structure. ''[[Auk (journal)|Auk]]'' 122 (3): 949-965. [English with Russian abstract] <small>[[Digital Object Identifier|DOI]]: 10.1642/0004-8038(2005)122[0949:POTMAP]2.0.CO;2</small> [http://mercury.bio.uaf.edu/~kevin_mccracken/reprints/auk-122-949.pdf PDF fulltext]. Erratum: ''Auk'' 122 (4): 1309. <small>[[Digital Object Identifier|DOI]]: 10.1642/0004-8038(2005)122[0949:POTMAP]2.0.CO;2</small>
* MacLeod, Donald (2005): [http://education.guardian.co.uk/higher/research/story/0,9865,1432991,00.html Necrophilia among ducks ruffles research feathers]. ''Education Guardian'' (March 8). Retrieved 2006-DEC-09.
* Mank, Judith E.; Carlson, John E. & Brittingham, Margaret C. (2004): A century of hybridization: Decreasing genetic distance between American black ducks and mallards. ''Conservation Genetics'' '''5'''(3): 395–403. <small>{{DOI|10.1023/B:COGE.0000031139.55389.b1}}</small> (HTML abstract)
* Mazourek, J.C. & Gray, P.N. (1994): The Florida duck or the mallard? ''Florida Wildlife'' 48 (3): 29-31. [http://www.floridaconservation.org/duck/mottled/documents/WeCantHaveBothArtcle.doc DOC fulltext]
* McCracken, Kevin G.; Johnson, William P. & Sheldon, Frederick H. (2001): Molecular population genetics, phylogeography, and conservation biology of the mottled duck (''Anas fulvigula''). ''Conservation Genetics'' 2 (2): 87–102. <small>{{DOI|10.1023/A:1011858312115}}</small> [http://mercury.bio.uaf.edu/~kevin_mccracken/reprints/cons-gen-2-87.pdf PDF fulltext]
* Moeliker, C. W. "Kees" (2001): The first case of homosexual necrophilia in the Mallard ''Anas platyrhynchos'' (Aves: Anatidae). ''Deinsea'' 8: 243-247. [http://www.nmr.nl/nmr/binary/retrieveFile?instanceid=16&itemid=2574&style=home PDF fulltext]
* Rhymer, Judith M. (2006): Extinction by hybridization and introgression in anatine ducks. ''Acta Zoologica Sinica'' '''52'''(Supplement): 583–585. [http://www.actazool.org/downloadpdf.asp?id=5145 PDF fulltext]
* Rhymer, Judith M. & Simberloff, Daniel (1996): Extinction by hybridization and introgression. ''[[Annual Reviews|Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst.]]'' '''27''': 83-109. <small>{{DOI|10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.27.1.83}}</small> (HTML abstract)
* Rhymer, Judith M.; Williams, Murray J. & Braun, Michael J (1994). Mitochondrial analysis of gene flow between New Zealand Mallards (''Anas platyrhynchos'') and Grey Ducks (''A. superciliosa''). ''[[Auk (journal)|Auk]]'' 111 (4): 970–978. [http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/Auk/v111n04/p0970-p0978.pdf PDF fulltext]
* Rogers, D. (2001): Animal Diversity Web: ''[http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Anas_platyrhynchos.html Anas platyrhynchos]''. Retrieved 2006-DEC-08.
* Williams, Murray & Basse, Britta (2006): Indigenous gray ducks, ''Anas superciliosa'', and introduced mallards, ''A. platyrhynchos'', in New Zealand: processes and outcome of a deliberate encounter. ''Acta Zoologica Sinica'' '''52'''(Supplement): 579–582. [http://www.actazool.org/downloadpdf.asp?id=5144 PDF fulltext]
* Yamashina, Y. (1948): Notes on the Marianas mallard. ''Pacific Science'' 2: 121-124.
* Young, H. Glyn & Rhymer, Judith M. (1998): Meller's duck: A threatened species receives recognition at last. ''Biodiversity and Conservation'' 7: 1313-1323. <small>{{DOI|10.1023/A:1008843815676}}</small>
==External links==
{{Commons|Anas platyrhynchos}}
*[http://depts.washington.edu/natmap/facts/mallard_712.html Mallard Facts and Photos - NatureMapping Program]
*[http://www.rspb.org.uk/birds/guide/m/mallard/index.asp RSPB A to Z of UK Birds]
*[http://birdsinbackyards.net/finder/display.cfm?id=184 Birds in Backyards]
*[http://www.birdguides.com/html/vidlib/species/Anas_platyrhynchos.htm Birdguides Mallard Page]
*[http://ibc.hbw.com/ibc/phtml/especie.phtml?idEspecie=490 Mallard videos] on the Internet Bird Collection
*[http://www.sdakotabirds.com/species/mallard_info.htm Mallard Information and Photos - South Dakota Birds and Birding]
*[http://www.birds.cornell.edu/AllAboutBirds/BirdGuide/Mallard.html Mallard Information - Cornell Lab of Ornithology]
*[http://www.massaudubon.org/birdatlas/index.php?search=yes&id=48 Massachusetts Breeding Bird Atlas]
* [http://www.ibercajalav.net/img/78_MallardAplatyrhynchos.pdf Ageing and sexing (PDF) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta]
{{English Game}}
{{North American Game}}
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[[vi:Vịt cổ xanh]]
[[tl:Papaw]]
[[tr:Yeşilbaş]]
[[uk:Крижень]]
[[bat-smg:Dėdliuojė pīlė]]
[[zh:绿头鸭]]