Malta Convoys
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[[Image:WWII-Mediterranean-v1.PNG|300px|right|The Mediterranean Theatre]]
The '''Malta Convoys''' were a series of Allied supply [[convoy]]s to sustain the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] island of [[Malta]] during [[World War II]]. The convoys were strongly opposed by Italian and German sea and air forces.
There were 35 major supply operations to Malta from 1940 through 1942. Axis forces frustrated or damaged eight of these: Operations ''White'', ''Halberd'', ''MF5'', ''MG1'', ''Harpoon'', ''Vigorous'', and ''Pedestal''. There were long periods when no convoy runs were even attempted, and only a trickle of supplies reached Malta by submarine, or by a fast warship running the gauntlet.
The worst period for Malta was from December 1941 to October 1942, when Axis forces had the upper hand, achieving complete air and naval supremacy in the central Mediterranean (called the [[Italian Mare Nostrum]] by [[Benito Mussolini]]).
At the end of 1942, the relative success of [[Operation Pedestal]], and [[Operation Torch|Allied landing operations in North Africa]] changed the balance decisively in favour of the Allies.
==Background==
Malta's geographical position, halfway between the strategic British bases at [[Gibraltar]] and [[Alexandria]], close to the [[Strait of Sicily|Sicilian Channel]] between [[Sicily]] and [[Tunis]] and on the sea route between Italy and its possessions in [[Libya]], made it a vital base for control of the Mediterranean sea routes. For Britain this was the short route, via the [[Suez Canal]], to its colonies in India, East Africa and the Far East and also to the major oil producers, [[Iraq]] and [[Iran]].
During the first year of the war, however, this region was a military backwater. Much of the coast was under Allied control - either French or British: the rest was neutral. Moreover, the British and French fleets dominated; the only other effective regional naval power was Italy, but at this time she was neutral. As a result, British defences on Malta were neglected.
==Italy declares war==
[[Italy]] at first held back from supporting [[Germany]]; the outcome in northern Europe was uncertain and no decision was required. When the German [[blitzkrieg]] had crushed the French army and Britain had been weakened and isolated, Italy took its opportunity and declared war on the allies on [[10 June]] [[1940]], expecting an easy and quick victory. [[Mussolini]] made the mistake to believe that Great Britain would accept peace agreements with the [[Axis powers of World War II|Axis]], after France's surrender, and did not anticipate a long lasting war. Consequently, Italy entered the war inadequately prepared.
The opportunity was missed by the Italians to occupy poorly defended Malta in June 1940: Admiral [[Carlo Bergamini]] later claimed that he had proposed to send the "Taranto Naval Squadron" to occupy the island, but had been told to postpone the attack <ref>Di Cirella, Arturo. ''Per l'onore dei Savoia. 1943-1944: da un superstite della corazzata Roma''. Mursia Editore. Milano, 2003</ref>. He later regretted (in 1943) the lost opportunity to control the central Mediterranean and thus reduce the heavy losses suffered when supplying Italian forces in Libya.
Italy's entry into the war, and the defeat of France, radically altered the balance of power in the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. Britain controlled only Gibraltar in the west; Malta at the centre; and [[Cyprus]], [[Egypt]], and [[British Mandate of Palestine|Palestine]] in the east. [[Vichy France]] was susceptible to [[Axis powers of World War II|Axis]] pressure. So the coast of North Africa from [[Morocco]] to [[Tunisia]], the island of [[Corsica]], the coast of [[Syria]] and [[Lebanon]], and the Mediterranean coast of France itself were closed to the British and possibly hostile. The French fleet itself also became a potential threat and had to be neutralised leading to [[Destruction of the French Fleet at Mers-el-Kebir|Operation ''Catapult'']]. The destruction of the French fleet further hardened French antipathy towards Britain.
Spain was also a potential Axis partner. The [[Fascist]] and [[Nazi]] governments in Italy and Germany had enthusiastically supported [[Francisco Franco|General Franco]] in the [[Spanish Civil War]] and might expect support in return (see [[Spain in World War II]]).
Italy and its possessions dominated the central Mediterranean and Mussolini wanted some victories in [[North Africa]] against the British forces in Egypt. There was also the potential of linking with Italian possessions in [[East Africa]]: [[Abyssinia]], [[Italian Somaliland|Somaliland]], and [[Eritrea]]. But this did not occur. The Italian army in North Africa was poorly equipped and poorly commanded. In summer 1940, the Italians invaded Egypt but did not advance far beyond the border and, during [[Operation Compass|Operation ''Compass'']]* in December 1940, they were routed.
Control of the sea routes remained vital. British naval and air forces based on Malta threatened and destroyed supplies for Italy's African army. Malta acted as a forward defence for the [[Suez Canal]]. The Italians still thought the Italian Royal Air Force (''[[Regia Aeronautica]]'') and the Italian Royal Navy (''[[Regia Marina]]'') would quickly isolate the island and neutralise it.
Malta's supply line was crucial. Malta needed reinforcements. The garrison had to be sustained; and the air and naval forces needed fuel. The civilian population also had to be provided for. Everything had to come by sea, exposed to air and naval attack for long stretches. The Italians attempted to starve Malta and destroy its defences.
They failed. During 1940, without air cover from French territories, several supply convoys arrived safely at Malta, and other convoys passed directly between Gibraltar and [[Alexandria]]. The attacks the Italian Navy attempted were repulsed without serious loss. Even worse for the Italians, [[Fleet Air Arm]] aircraft sank three Italian battleships in the harbour at [[Battle of Taranto|Taranto]], negating one of the Italians' advantages.
==German involvement==
In January 1941, responding to the Italian lack of success on land and at sea, the Germans sent help. The ''[[Afrika Korps]]'' was formed and sent to [[Libya]] in [[Operation Sonnenblume|Operation ''Sonnenblume'']] ("Operation Sunflower"), and X Fliegerkorps of the ''[[Luftwaffe]]'' was moved to [[Sicily]] ("Operation Mediterranean", [[Operation Mittelmeer|Operation ''Mittelmeer'']]) to protect the [[Axis powers of World War II|Axis]] shipping lanes and to defeat the British forces in Malta.
German involvement was not only more vigorous than the Italian, but because of the occupation of [[Greece]] and [[Crete]], it had a greater reach into the eastern Mediterranean. <!-- not "longer"; the Italians in the Dodecanese were further east--> British forces came under increased threat. The pressure built and, in early 1942, Malta ceased to be an effective anti-convoy base. Several warships were sunk in harbour and others were withdrawn. Supplies dwindled with the loss of convoys <ref>[http://www.killifish.f9.co.uk/Malta%20WWII/Operations.htm Operations<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>.
In August 1942, when Malta was near capitulation, the Italians and Germans planned the invasion of Malta (''Operazione C3'' and [[Operation Herkules]]). But it was not made because [[Rommel]] (after the conquest of [[Tobruk]]) preferred to attack [[Alexandria]] in Egypt.
==1940==
===July 1940===
The inconclusive [[Battle of Calabria]] took place between the Royal Navy (the battleships [[HMS Warspite (1913)|''Warspite'']], [[HMS Malaya (1915)|''Malaya'']] and [[HMS Royal Sovereign (05)|''Royal Sovereign'']], the aircraft carrier [[HMS Eagle (1918)|''Eagle'']] with cruisers and destroyers) covering convoys from Malta to Alexandria and the ''Regia Marina'' escorts (two battleships, 14 cruisers and 32 destroyers) of an Italian convoy.
===August 1940 - Operation ''Hurry''===
Twelve ''[[Hawker Hurricane|Hurricane]]'' fighter aircraft were flown off [[HMS Argus (I49)|''Argus'']] to reinforce Malta.
===September 1940 - Operation ''Hats''===
The Mediterranean Fleet escorted a fast convoy of three transports from Alexandria and collected another convoy from Gibraltar. En route, Italian airbases were raided. The Regia Marina had superior forces at sea, but avoided the opportunity to exploit their advantage.
===October 1940===
A heavily escorted convoy from Alexandria (MB6) reached Malta safely. The escort included four battleships and two aircraft carriers. An Italian attempt against the returning escort employing destroyers and torpedo boats ended in the [[Battle of Cape Passero (1940)|Battle of Cape Passero]].
===November 1940 - Operations ''Judgement'', ''White'' and ''Collar''===
A supply convoy from Alexandria arrived safely, coinciding with a troop convoy from Gibraltar and the air attack on the Italian battlefleet at Taranto ([[Operation Judgement|Operation ''Judgement'']]).
Twelve [[Hawker Hurricane|Hurricanes]] were flown off ''Argus'' to reinforce Malta ([[Operation White|Operation ''White'']]). But the threat of the Italian fleet prompted a premature fly-off from ''Argus'' and its return to Gibraltar. Eight of the planes ran out of fuel and ditched at sea. Seven airmen were lost.
A fast convoy sailed from Gibraltar to Malta and Alexandria ([[Operation Collar|Operation ''Collar'']]). It was attacked by the Italian fleet at [[Battle of Cape Spartivento|Cape Spartivento]]. All transports arrived safely.
==1941==
===January===
[[Operation Excess|Operation ''Excess'']] took place - a sequence of simultaneous supply convoys from Gibraltar and Alexandria. The transports arrived safely but the Royal Navy lost two cruisers and a destroyer. This was the first action to involve the [[Luftwaffe]].
===March===
A small convoy arrived at Malta from Alexandria.
===April===
In two separate operations, the British reinforced Malta's air defences. Twenty-four Hurricanes were flown off ''[[HMS Ark Royal (91)|Ark Royal]]'', sailing from Gibraltar ([[Operation Dunlop|Operation ''Dunlop'']]). [[Bristol Blenheim|Blenheim]] bombers and [[Bristol Beaufighter|Beaufighter]]s were also flown in. Three battleships and an aircraft carrier covered the fast transport [[HMS Breconshire|HMS ''Breconshire'']] from Alexandria to Malta.<ref>[http://www.red-duster.co.uk/GLEN10.htm red-duster.co.uk Homepage for the red duster merchant navy maritime information archive<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
Malta's importance as a base was emphasised by the complete destruction of an ''Afrika Korps'' convoy and its Italian escort.
===May - Operation ''Tiger''===
An urgent supply convoy from Gibraltar to Alexandria coincided with reinforcements for the Mediterranean Fleet, two small convoys from Egypt to Malta, and 48 more ''Hurricanes'' flown off ''Ark Royal'' and [[HMS Furious (47)|''Furious'']].
The Luftwaffe transferred much of its strength from Sicily to prepare for the [[Operation Barbarossa|invasion of the USSR]], relieving some of the pressure on Malta.
The Malta-based submarine [[HMS Upholder (P37)|''Upholder'']] attacked and sank the large Italian troop transport ''[[SS Conte Rosso]]''.
===June - Operation ''Tracer''===
Supply convoys became very difficult, with Luftwaffe and Regia Aeronautica bases in Crete and Libya attacking convoys from Alexandria, while convoys from Gibraltar were attacked from [[Sardinia]] and Sicily.
Submarines brought in urgent supplies. ''Ark Royal'', ''Furious'' and [[HMS Illustrious (R87)|''Illustrious'']] flew off 48 aircraft to Malta (Operation [[Operation Tracer|''Tracer'']]).
=== July - Operation ''Substance''===
Six transports ran from Gibraltar to Malta, escorted by six destroyers and covered by ''Ark Royal'', [[HMS Renown (1916)|''Renown'']], [[HMS Nelson (28)|''Nelson'']], cruisers, and destroyers ([[Operation Substance|Operation ''Substance'']]). On 23 July, south of Sardinia, there were sustained Italian air attacks. One cruiser was hit and a destroyer sunk. The transports reached Malta safely and an Italian raid to sink the transports in [[Grand Harbour]] failed.
===August - Operation ''Style''===
A naval convoy from Gibraltar successfully carried in reinforcements and supplies, sinking an Italian submarine en route.
===September ===
''Ark Royal'' and ''Furious'' flew off over 50 ''Hurricanes'' to Malta in two separate operations.
Two large Axis transports were sunk by the submarine ''Upholder''.
===September 1941 - Operation ''Halberd''===
Nine transports ran from Gibraltar to Malta, escorted by ''Nelson'', ''Rodney'', ''Prince of Wales'' and ''Ark Royal'' ([[Operation Halberd|Operation ''Halberd'']]). The Italians sailed to intercept but aborted and returned home. The British capital ships returned to Gibraltar, with ''Nelson'' damaged by a torpedo. One transport was sunk, but the rest reached Malta.
===October ===
Force K was formed at Malta to strike at Axis shipping. It consisted of two cruisers (''[[HMS Aurora|Aurora]]'' and ''[[HMS Penelope (97)|Penelope]]'') and two destroyers (''Lance'' and ''Lively'').
===November ===
Force K intercepted an Italian convoy off Cape Spartivento and sank all seven transports. Two Italian destroyers were also sunk.
More ''Hurricanes'' were flown off from ''Ark Royal'' and ''Argus'', sailing from Gibraltar (Operation ''Perpetual'', 10-12 November 1941). On the return leg, ''Ark Royal'' was torpedoed by [[Unterseeboot 81 (1941)|''U-81'']] and sank next day.
===December - First Battle of Sirte===
{{main|First Battle of Sirte}}
Force K sank an Italian destroyer. An Italian battlefleet covered a convoy bound for [[Benghazi]] . A flotilla from Alexandria planned to link with Force K from Malta, but the submarine [[HMS Urge (N17)|''Urge'']] torpedoed and damaged the Italian battleship ''[[Italian battleship Vittorio Veneto|Vittorio Veneto]]'' and the Italians retired.
The ''Breconshire'' was escorted from Malta by Force B to rendezvous with Force K near the [[Gulf of Sidra|Gulf of Sirte]]. Soon after, the British came across Italian battleships escorting a convoy to [[Tripoli]]. The ensuing engagement, from which the Italians withdrew, was the [[First Battle of Sirte]].
After seeing ''Breconshire'' safely into Malta, Force K sailed again to search for the Tripoli convoy. While off Tripoli, they ran into a minefield. ''[[HMS Neptune (20)|Neptune]]'' and ''[[HMS Kandahar (F28)|Kandahar]]'' were sunk, and ''Aurora'' and ''Penelope'' were damaged.
==1942==
===January 1942===
Three small convoys arrived at Malta from Alexandria. One escorting destroyer, ''[[HMS Gurkha (G63)|Gurkha]]'' was torpedoed and sunk.
Two large Italian convoys got through to North Africa to resupply the ''Afrika Korps''
===February 1942===
During the continuing heavy German air raids, ''[[HMS Maori (F24)|Maori]]'' was sunk in Malta's Grand Harbour.
Three transports from Alexandria (Operation [[Operation MF5|''MF5'']]) failed to reach Malta. ''Clan Chattan'' was sunk by Axis aircraft, [[SS Clan Campbell|''Clan Campbell'']] was bombed and forced to seek shelter in Tobruk, and ''Rowallan Castle'' was disabled. ''Rowallan Castle'' was scuttled after the escort was warned that the Italian battleship [[Italian battleship Caio Duilio|''Caio Duilio'']] had sailed from Taranto to intercept the convoy.
=== March 1942 - Operation ''Spotter''===
''[[HMS Eagle (1918)|Eagle]]'' and ''[[HMS Argus (I49)|Argus]]'' successfully flew off the first [[Supermarine Spitfire|Spitfire]] reinforcements for Malta. An earlier attempt had been abandoned due to technical problems.
===March 1942 - Operation ''MG1'' and the Second Battle of Sirte===
[[Image:MW10_in_Gulf_of_Sirte.JPG|thumb|right|Convoy under attack]]
Four fast transports sailed from Alexandria, escorted by cruisers [[HMS Cleopatra (33)| ''Cleopatra'']], [[HMS Dido (37)|''Dido'']], [[HMS Euryalus (42)|''Euryalus'']], and [[HMS Carlisle (D67)|''Carlisle'']], and destroyers. Other destroyers sailed from Tobruk, sweeping for submarines before joining the convoy; one was sunk. In all, there were 16 destroyers.
The convoy was intercepted and effectively scattered by the Italian fleet, despite a spirited and successful defense against the battleship ''Littorio''. Two transports reached Malta, but all four were sunk at sea or before unloading had been completed by German aircraft. See [[Second Battle of Sirte]] for details.
===April 1942 - Operation ''Calendar''===
The island had ceased to be an effective offensive base, and Axis convoys were mostly untroubled. Several submarines and destroyers were bombed and sunk in harbour, and naval units were ordered to leave for Gibraltar or Alexandria. Not all arrived safely.
Fifty Spitfires were flown off to Malta from the US carrier [[USS Wasp (CV-7)|''Wasp'']] ([[Operation Calendar|Operation ''Calendar'']]), escorted by battlecruiser [[HMS Renown (1916)|''Renown'']], cruisers [[HMS Cairo (D87)|''Cairo'']] and [[HMS Charybdis|''Charybdis'']], and six British and US destroyers. Most of these aircraft were destroyed on the ground by bombing.
=== May 1942 - Operations ''Bowery'' and ''LB''===
The submarine [[HMS Olympus|''Olympus'']] struck a mine and sank while leaving Malta.
64 more Spitfires were flown off to Malta from USS ''Wasp'' and HMS ''Eagle'' ([[Operation Bowery|Operation ''Bowery'']]). A second batch of 16 were flown in from ''Eagle'' ([[Operation LB|Operation ''LB'']]).
=== June 1942 - Operations ''Harpoon'' and ''Vigorous''===
{{main|Operation Harpoon|Operation Vigorous}}
The arrival of more Spitfires from ''Eagle'' and the transfer of German aircraft to the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Russian Front]] eased the pressure on Malta, but supplies were needed.
Two convoys sailed simultaneously: one of 11 transports from [[Haifa]] and [[Port Said]] ('[[Operation Vigorous|Operation ''Vigorous'']]), and one of six transports from Gibraltar ([[Operation Harpoon (1942)|Operation ''Harpoon'']] <ref>[http://geocities.com/mike_buhagiar/convoy/convoy.html Operation Harpoon - June 1942<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>). Both had strong naval escorts. Strong Axis naval and air forces attacked both convoys. Two of ''Harpoon's'' transports reached Malta for the loss of four transports and two destroyers (''[[HMS Bedouin (F67)|Bedouin]]'' and ''[[ORP Kujawiak|Kujawiak]]'').
''Vigorous'' was heavily attacked by aircraft, torpedo boats and submarines over four days, threatened by a strong Italian battlefleet, and eventually returned to Alexandria. No transports reached Malta, and a cruiser (''[[HMS Hermione (74)|Hermione]]''), three destroyers (''[[HMS Hasty (H24)|Hasty]]'', ''[[HMS Airedale|Airedale]]'' and ''[[HMAS Nestor|Nestor]]''), and two transports were sunk. The Italian battleship ''[[Italian battleship Littorio|Littorio]]'' and cruiser ''[[Trento class cruiser#Trento|Trento]]'' were damaged by air attacks, and ''Trento'' was later sunk by submarine [[HMS Umbra (P35)|HMS ''Umbra'']].
===July 1942===
More ''Spitfires'' were flown off to Malta from ''Eagle''.
===August 1942 - Operation ''Pedestal''===
{{main|Operation Pedestal}}
The supply situation had become critical, particularly aviation fuel. The largest convoy to date was assembled at Gibraltar ([[Operation Pedestal|Operation ''Pedestal'']]). It consisted of 14 transports, including the large oil tanker [[SS Ohio|''Ohio'']]. These were protected by powerful escort and covering forces: 44 warships, including three aircraft carriers (''Eagle'', ''Indomitable'', and ''Victorious'') and two battleships (''Nelson'' and ''Rodney''). A diversionary operation was staged from Alexandria.
The convoy was attacked fiercely. Three transports reached Malta on [[13 August]] and another on 14 August. ''Ohio'' arrived on 15 August, heavily damaged by air attacks, and under tow by destroyers ''[[HMS Penn (G77)|Penn]]'' and ''[[HMS Ledbury (L90)|Ledbury]]''. The rest were sunk. ''Ohio'' later broke in two in Valetta Harbour, but not before much of her cargo had been unloaded. An aircraft carrier (''Eagle''), two cruisers (''[[HMS Cairo (D87)|Cairo]]'' and ''[[HMS Manchester (C15)|Manchester]]'') and a destroyer (''[[HMS Foresight (H68)|Foresight]]'') were sunk, and there was serious damage to other warships. The Italian losses were two submarines and damage to two cruisers.
This convoy, especially the arrival of the ''Ohio'', was seen as Divine intervention by the people of Malta. The 15th of August is celebrated as the feast of [[Assumption of Mary|St. Mary's Assumption]] and many Maltese attributed the entrance of the ''Ohio'' into Grand Harbor as answer to their many prayers. It had been agreed by military commanders at the time that if supplies became any lower, they would surrender the islands.
The supplies eased the situation, but did not solve it, and more were brought in by submarines. More Spitfires were flown off from ''Furious''.
===September 1942===
The submarine [[HMS Talisman (N78)|''Talisman'']] was lost on a supply run from Gibraltar.
===October 1942===
''Furious'' flew off more Spitfires for Malta. Essential supplies were still needed. Deliveries were made by submarines or fast [[Abdiel class minelayer]]s.
The [[Second Battle of El Alamein]] began, and the Malta-based air and sea forces significantly reduced critical supplies reaching Axis forces in North Africa.
===November 1942 - Operation ''Stoneage''===
Minelayers ''[[HMS Welshman|Welshman]]'' and ''[[HMS Manxman (M70)|Manxman]]'' made successful supply runs. Later that month, a convoy of four transports escorted by three cruisers and ten destroyers reached Malta from Alexandria ([[Operation Stoneage|Operation ''Stoneage'']]). The cruiser ''[[HMS Arethusa (26)|Arethusa]]'' was seriously damaged and returned to Alexandria. This successful operation is seen as the "Relief of Malta".
===December 1942 - Operation ''Portcullis''===
Four transports arrived from [[Port Said]], without loss.
==Aftermath==
There were 35 major supply operations to Malta from 1940 through 1942. Axis forces frustrated or inflicted damage on eight of these: Operations ''White'', ''Halberd'', ''MF5'', ''MG1'', ''Harpoon'', ''Vigorous'', and ''Pedestal''. There were long periods when no convoy runs were even attempted, and only a trickle of supplies reached Malta by submarine, or by a fast warship running the gauntlet.
The worst period for Malta was from December 1941 to October 1942, when Axis forces had the upper hand, achieving complete air and naval supremacy in the central Mediterranean (called the [[Italian Mare Nostrum]] by [[Benito Mussolini]]).
At the end of 1942, the relative success of Operation ''Pedestal'', and Allied land operations in North Africa changed the balance decisively in favour of the Allies.
Axis forces in North Africa were being squeezed between [[British Eighth Army]], advancing from Egypt, and the Anglo-American First Army advancing from Algeria. Convoys henceforth had protection from North Africa airstrips. Malta regained its role as a forward offensive base. Axis convoys were attacked day after day. The later invasions of Sicily and Italy were supported from Malta.
==Notes and references==
{{reflist}}
==External links==
* [http://www.naval-history.net/WW2CampaignsItaly.htm Mediterranean naval campaign]
* [http://geocities.com/mike_buhagiar/convoy/convoy.html Operation ''Harpoon'']
* [http://members.fortunecity.com/rwbrown1942/Busterssite/id18.html Photos of Operation ''Pedestal'']
[[Category:Battle of the Mediterranean|Malta Convoys]]
[[Category:Naval battles and operations of World War II (European theatre)|Malta Convoys]]