Manchukuo 55273 226164594 2008-07-17T03:01:59Z 122.133.127.183 →introduction {{Infobox Former Country |native_name = 滿洲國 <br> <small>''Mǎnzhōuguó / Manshū-koku''</small> <br> State of Manchuria <small>(1932-1934)</small> <br> 大滿洲帝國 <br> <small>''Dà Mǎnzhōu Dìguó / Dai Manshū Teikoku''</small> |conventional_long_name = Great Empire of Manchuria <small>(1934-1945)</small> |common_name = Manchukuo |continent = Asia |region = Manchuria |country = Manchuria |era = World War II |status = [[Puppet state]] of [[Empire of Japan|Japan]] |empire = [[Empire of Japan|Japan]] | |year_start = 1932 |year_end = 1945 |date_start = |date_end = |event_start = |event_end= |event1 = |date_event1 = |event2 = |date_event2 = |p1 = Republic of China |flag_p1 = Flag of the Republic of China.svg |s1 = Republic of China |flag_s1 = Flag of the Republic of China.svg |image_flag = Flag of Manchukuo.svg |image_coat = Manchukuo Coat Of Arms.svg |symbol_type = |symbol_type_article = |image_map = Manchuria.jpg |image_map_caption = Map of Manchukuo |national_anthem = [[National Anthem of Manchukuo]] |capital = [[Changchun|Hsinking]] |official language = [[Standard Mandarin]] |government_type = Constitutional monarchy |title_leader = [[Chief Executive of Manchukuo|Chief Executive]] |leader1 = Datong (Chief Executive) (Aisingioro [[Puyi]]) |year_leader1 = 1932 - 1934 |title_leader = [[Emperor of Manchukuo|Emperor]] |leader2 = Kangde-Emperor (Aisingioro [[Puyi]]) |year_leader2 = 1934 - 1945 |title_deputy = [[Prime Minister of Manchukuo|Prime Minister]] |deputy1 = [[Zheng Xiaoxu]] |year_deputy1 = 1932 - 1935 |deputy2 = [[Zhang Jinghui]] |year_deputy2 = 1935 - 1945 |stat_area1 = |stat_pop1= |stat_year1= |currency = |footnotes= }} '''Manchukuo''' ({{lang|ja|[[wikt:満州国|満州国]]}}, ''lit.'' "State of [[Manchuria]]") was a [[puppet state]] in [[Manchuria]] and eastern [[Inner Mongolia]], the place was [[Qing Dynasty]]'s historical homeland, created by former Qing Dynasty officials with help from [[Imperial Japan]] in 1932. The state was founded and administered by Imperial Japan, with [[Puyi]], the last Qing emperor, as the nominal regent and emperor.<ref>[http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9371137/Manchukuo Encyclopædia Britannica article on Manchukuo]</ref> Manchukuo's government was abolished in 1945 after the defeat of Imperial Japan at the end of [[World War II]]. Despite the name, [[Manchu]]s formed a minority in Manchukuo, whose largest ethnic group were [[Han Chinese]]. There were also [[Koreans]], [[Japanese people|Japanese]], [[Mongols]] and smaller minorities. The Mongol regions of western Manchukuo were ruled under a slightly different system in acknowledgement of the Mongolian traditions there. ==History== After Manchu tribes conquered China they replaced the [[Ming Dynasty]] with the [[Qing Dynasty|Qing]]. However, the Manchu emperors did not fully integrate their homeland into China. This legal, and to a degree ethnic, division persisted until the Qing dynasty began to fall apart in the [[1800s]]. As the power of the court in [[Beijing]] weakened, many outlying areas either broke free (like [[Kashgar]]) or fell under the control of Imperialist powers. In the 1800s, [[Imperial Russia]] was most interested in the northern lands of the Qing Empire. In 1858, Russia gained nominal control over a huge tract of land called [[Outer Manchuria]] thanks to the [[Convention of Peking|Supplementary Treaty of Beijing]] that ended the [[Second Opium War]]. But Russia was not satisfied, and as the Qing Dynasty continued to weaken, they made further efforts to take control over the rest of Manchuria. Inner Manchuria came under strong [[Russia]]n influence in the 1890s with the building of the [[Chinese Eastern Railway]] through [[Harbin, China|Harbin]] to [[Vladivostok]]. However, as a direct result of the [[Russo-Japanese War]] (1904–5) [[Japan]]ese influence replaced Russia's in Inner Manchuria. In 1906, [[Japan]] laid the [[South Manchurian Railway]] to [[Dalian|Port Arthur]] (Japanese: Ryojun). Between [[World War I]] and [[World War II]] Manchuria became a political and military battleground between Russia, Japan, and China. [[Japan]] moved into [[Outer Manchuria]] as a result of the chaos following the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]]. A combination of Soviet military successes and [[United States|American]] economic pressure forced the Japanese to withdraw from the area, however, and Outer Manchuria returned to [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] control by 1925. During the [[warlord]] period in China, the warlord [[Zhang Zuolin]] established himself in [[Inner Manchuria]] with Japanese backing. Later the Japanese [[Kantogun]] found him too independent and assassinated him in 1928. After the Japanese [[invasion of Manchuria]] in 1931, the former Emperor of China, [[Pu-Yi]], was invited to come with his followers and act as the head of state for Manchuria; he accepted this request. On [[February 18]], [[1932]] the "State of Manchuria" (Manchukuo, [[Pinyin]]: ''Mǎnzhōuguó'')<ref>[http://www.grolier.com/wwii/wwii_2.html ''Between World Wars'']</ref> was declared to exist and recognized by Japan. The city of [[Changchun]], renamed Hsinking (Xinjing, 新京), literally means the "New Capital", became the [[capital]] of the new entity. Chinese in Manchuria organized [[Anti-Japanese Volunteer Armies|volunteer armies]] to oppose the Japanese and the new state required a [[Pacification of Manchukuo|war]] lasting several years to pacify the country. {{Chinese |t=滿洲國 |s=满洲国 |p=Mǎnzhōuguó |w=Man-chou-kuo |j=mun<sup>5</sup> zau<sup>1</sup> gwok³ |l=State of [[Manchuria]] |kanji=滿州國 or 滿洲國 |hiragana=まんしゅうこく |revhep=Manshū-koku |kunrei=Mansyû-koku}} The Japanese initially installed Puyi as Head of State in 1932, and two years later he was declared Emperor of Manchukuo with the [[Era|era name]] of Kangde or "Tranquility and Virtue". Manchukuo thus became the Great Manchurian Empire, sometimes termed '''Manchutikuo''' (Pinyin: ''Mǎnzhōu Dìguó''). [[Zheng Xiaoxu]] served as Manchukuo's first prime minister until 1935, when [[Zhang Jinghui]] succeeded him. Puyi was nothing more than a figurehead and real authority rested in the hands of the Japanese military officials. An [[Wei Huang Gong|imperial palace]] was specially built for the emperor. All of the Manchu ministers served as front-men for their Japanese vice-ministers, who made all decisions. {{Chinese |title=Empire of Manchuria |t=大滿洲帝國 |s=大满洲帝国 |p=Dà Mǎnzhōu Dìguó |w=Ta Man-chou Ti-kuo |j= |kanji=大滿州帝國 or 大滿洲帝國 |hiragana=だいまんしゅうていこく |revhep=Dai Manshū Teikoku |kunrei=}} In this manner Japan formally detached Manchukuo from China in the course of the [[1930s]]. With Japanese investment and rich natural resources, the area became an industrial powerhouse. [[Image:Puyi-Manchukuo.jpg|thumb|250px|left|[[Puyi]] as the Kangde Emperor of Manchukuo]] Only 23 out of 80 then-existing nations recognised the new state. The [[League of Nations]] (via the [[Lytton Report]]) declared that [[Manchuria]] remained rightfully part of [[China]], leading Japan to resign its membership in 1934. The Manchukuo case prompted the United States to articulate the so-called [[Stimson Doctrine]], under which international recognition was withheld from changes in the international system created by force of arms. Of the major powers [[Imperial Japan]], the [[Soviet Union]], [[Vichy France]], [[Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)|Fascist Italy]], [[Francoist Spain]] and [[Nazi Germany]] recognised Manchukuo diplomatically. In addition Manchukuo gained recognition from the Japanese collaborationist government of China under [[Wang Jingwei]], as well as [[El Salvador]] and the [[Dominican Republic]]. Although the Chinese government did not recognise Manchukuo, the two countries established official ties for trade, communications and transportation. Dates of recognition of Manchukuo were as follows: [[Empire of Japan]], 16 Sept 1932; [[El Salvador]], 3 Mar 1934; [[Holy See]], 18 Apr 1934 (''de facto''); ([[Fascist]]) [[Italy]], 29 Nov. 1937; (Nationalist) [[Spain]], 2 Dec 1937; ([[Nazi]]) [[Germany]], 12 May 1938; (German occupied) [[Poland]], 19 Oct 1939 (''de facto''); [[Hungary]], 9 Jan 1939; [[Slovak Republic (1939-1945)|Slovakia]], 1 June 1940 (puppet state of [[Nazi Germany]] which was recognized by Manchukuo on this date); 'New’ China ([[Wang Jingwei Government]]), 30 Nov. 1940 (date of pact); ([[Iron Guard]] dominated) [[Romania]], 1 Dec 1940; [[Bulgaria]], 10 May 1941; [[Finland]], 18 July 1941; [[Independent State of Croatia|Croatia]], 2 Aug 1941 (puppet state of Nazi Germany which was recognized by Manchukuo on this date); and [[Thailand]], 5 Aug 1941. Prior to [[World War II]], the Japanese colonized Manchukuo and used it as a base from which to invade China. In the summer of 1939 a border dispute between Manchukuo and the [[Mongolian People's Republic]] resulted in the [[Battle of Khalkhin Gol]]. During this battle, a combined [[Soviet Army|Soviet]]-Mongolian force defeated the Japanese [[Kwantung Army]] (''[[Kantogun]]'') supported by limited Manchukuoan forces. On [[August 8]], [[1945]], the [[Soviet Union]] declared war on Japan in accordance with the agreement at the [[Yalta Conference]], and invaded Manchukuo from outer Manchuria. This was called [[Operation August Storm]]. During the Soviet offensive the Army of Manchukuo, theoretically a two hundred-thousand-man force, well armed and trained along Japanese lines, performed poorly and whole units surrendered to the Soviets without firing a single shot; there were even cases of armed riots and mutinies against the Japanese forces. Emperor Kang De had hoped to escape to Japan to surrender to the Americans, but the Soviets captured him and eventually extradited him to the communist government in China, where the authorities had him imprisoned as a [[war criminal]] along with all other captured Manchukuo officials. From 1945 to 1948, Manchuria (Inner Manchuria) served as a base area for the [[People's Liberation Army]] in the [[Chinese Civil War]] against the [[Kuomintang]] (KMT). With Soviet encouragement, the [[Communist Party of China|Chinese Communists]] used Manchuria as a staging ground until the end of the [[Chinese Civil War]] in 1949. Many Manchukuo army and Japanese Kantogun personnel served with the communist troops during the Chinese Civil War against the Nationalist forces. == Politics == [[Image:Manchukuo011.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Propaganda]] poster promoting harmony between [[Japanese people|Japanese]], [[Han Chinese|Chinese]], and [[Manchu]]. The caption says: "With the cooperation of Japan, China, and Manchukuo, the world can be in peace."]] {{main|Politics of Manchukuo}} [[Historian]]s generally consider Manchukuo a [[puppet state]] or [[colony]] of [[Imperial Japan]]<ref>[http://www.bartelby.net/65/ma/Manchuku.html Columbia Encyclopedia article on Manchukuo]</ref> because of the Japanese military's strong presence and strict control of the government administration, Chinese historians generally refer to the state as 'Wei Manzhouguo' ('false Manchukuo') to emphasize its alleged lack of legitimacy. Some historians see Manchukuo as an effort at building an ideal [[Japan]]ese state in Asia that failed due to the pressures of war.<ref>[http://muse.jhu.edu/cgi-bin/access.cgi?uri=/journals/journal_of_japanese_studies/v030/30.2doak.html The Journal of Japanese Studies]</ref> Manchukuo was proclaimed a [[monarchy]] on [[1 March]] [[1934]], with Puyi assuming the throne under the reign name of Emperor Kang-de. Puyi was assisted in his executive duties by a [[Privy Council]], and a [[Council of State|State Council]]. The '''State Council''' was the center of political power, and consisted of eight cabinet ministers, each assisted by a Japanese vice-minister. The [[commanding officer]] of the [[Kwantung Army]] in Manchukuo was simultaneously Japanese ambassador to Manchukuo. He functioned in a manner similar to that of a British [[Resident (title)|resident officer]] in British overseas [[protectorates]], with the power to veto decisions by the emperor. The [[Legislative Council]] was largely a ceremonial body, existing to rubber-stamp decisions issued by the State Council. The only authorized [[political party]] was the government-sponsored [[Concordia Association]], although various émigré groups were permitted their own political associations. == Administrative division of Manchukuo == :''See [[List of administrative divisions of Manchukuo]] for a complete list of [[Prefecture (China)|prefecture-level]] divisions.'' During its short-lived existence, Manchukuo was divided into between five (in 1932) and 19 (in 1941) [[Province (China)|provinces]], one special ward of Peiman ([[Japanese language|Japanese]]:北満特別区) and two [[Special cities]] which were [[Hsinking]] ([[Japanese language|Japanese]] : 新京特別市) and [[Harbin]] ([[Japanese language|Japanese]] : 哈爾浜特別市). Each province was divided into between four (Hsingan-tung) and 24 (Fengtien) [[Prefecture (China)|prefectures]]. Peiman lasted less than 3 years (July 1 1933 - January 1 1936) and Harbin was later incorporated into [[Binkiang]] province. Lungkiang also existed as a province in the 1932 before being divided into [[Heiho]], [[Lungkiang]] and [[Sankiang]] in 1934. Antung and Chinchow provinces separated themselves from Fengtien while Binkiang and Chientao from Kirin separated themselves in the same year. ==Demographics== In 1908, the number of residents was 15,834,000, which rose to 30,000,000 in 1931 and 43,000,000 for the Manchukuo state. The population balance remained 123 men to 100 women and the total number in 1941 was 50,000,000. In early 1934, the total population of Manchukuo was estimated as 30,880,000, with 6.1 persons the average family, and 122 men for each 100 women. These numbers included 29,510,000 Chinese, 590,760 Japanese, 680,000 Koreans, and 98,431 other nationalities (Russians, Mongols, etc). Around 80% of the population was rural. Other statistics indicate that in Manchukuo the population rose by 18,000,000. From Japanese sources come these numbers: in 1940 the total population in Manchukuo of [[Lungkiang]], [[Jehol]], [[Kirin]], [[Liaoning]] (Fengtien) and [[Hsingan]] provinces at 43,233,954; or an Interior Ministry figure of 31,008,600. Another figure of the period evaluated the total population as 36,933,000 residents. Around the same time the Soviet Union was promoting the Siberian [[Jewish Autonomous Oblast]] across the Manchukuo-Soviet border, some Japanese officials promoted the [[Fugu Plan]] to attract Jewish refugees to Manchukuo as part of their colonisation efforts. The Japanese wanted to exploit the Jews' innate capability to generate wealth, or so they believed from naïve readings of [[Antisemitism|anti-Semitic propaganda]].{{Fact|date=February 2008}} Financing of the settlement was expected to come from rich Jews, but the German government preferred the [[Final Solution]]. In any case, Germany's [[Operation Barbarossa|invasion of the Soviet Union]] made such population transfer impossible, since the Axis powers did not control the necessary sea lanes. ===Population of main cities=== * [[Yingkou|Yingkow or Yingkou or Newchwang]] (119,000 or 180,871 in 1940) * [[Shenyang|Mukden or Shenyang]] (339,000 or 1,135,801 in 1940) * [[Changchun|Hsinking or Changchun]] (126,000 or 544,202 in 1940) * [[Harbin]] (405,000 or 661,948 in 1940) * [[Dalian|Dairen or Dalian]] (400,000 or 555,562 in 1939) * [[Dandong|Antung or Dandong]] (92,000 or 315,242 in 1940) * [[Jilin|Kirin or Jilin]] (119,000 or 173,624 in 1940) * [[Qiqihar|Tsitsihar or Qiqihar]] (75,000 in 1940) ===Japanese population=== In 1931–2, there were 100,000 [[Japanese people|Japanese]] farmers; other sources mention 590,760 inhabitants of Japanese nationality. Other figures for Manchukuo speak of a Japanese population 240,000 strong, later growing to 837,000. In Hsinking, they made up 25% of the population. The Japanese government had official plans projecting the emigration of 5 million Japanese to Manchukuo between 1936 and 1956. Between 1938 and 1942 a contingent of young farmers of 200,000 arrived in Manchukuo; joining this group after 1936 were 20,000 complete families. When Japan lost sea and air control of the Yellow Sea, this migration stopped. When the [[Red Army]] invaded Manchukuo, they captured 850,000 Japanese settlers. With the exception of some civil servants and soldiers, these were repatriated to Japan in 1946–7. Many [[Japanese orphans in China]] were left behind in the confusion by then Japanese government and were adopted by Chinese families. Some of them were stigmatized as Japanese during the Cultural Revolution, and in the 1980s Japan began to organise a repatriation programme for them. ==Economy== {{main|Economy of Manchukuo}} Manchukuo experienced rapid economic growth and progress in its social systems. Its industrial system was among the most advanced making it one of the industrial powerhouses in the region. Manchukuo's steel production surpassed Japan's in the late 1930s. Many Manchurian cities were modernised during Manchukuo era. See also: * [[Central Bank of Manchou]] * [[Manchukuo yuan]] * [[Manshukoku Hikoki Seizo KK]] * [[Manshukoku Koku KK]] * [[Showa Steel Works]] * [[Manchurian Industrial Development Company]] * [[Manchukuo Film Association]] == Transport == {{main|South Manchurian Railway Company}} Manchukuo built an efficient and massive railway system that still functions well today. == Military == * [[Manchukuo Imperial Army]] * [[Manchukuo Imperial Guards]] * [[Manchukuo Imperial Navy]] * [[Manchukuo Imperial Air Force]] * [[Manchukuo Police Service]] * [[Manchukuo Intelligence Agency]] == War Crimes in Manchukuo== {{main|War Crimes in Manchukuo}} According to a joint study of historians Zhifen Ju, Mitsuyochi Himeta, Toru Kubo and Mark Peattie, more than 10 million Chinese civilians were mobilized by the [[Showa period]] army for slave work in Manchukuo under the supervision of the [[East Asia Development Board|Kōa-in]]).<ref>Zhifen Ju, ''Japan's atrocities of conscripting and abusing north China draftees after the outbreak of the Pacific war'', 2002.</ref> The Chinese slave laborers often suffered illness due to high-intensity toil works. Some badly ill workers were directly pushed into [[Mass grave]]s in order to avoid the medical expenditure<ref>http://books.google.com/books?id=yEA5EJyy4CYC&pg=PT25&ots=wnzSo8hEse&dq=%22mass+grave%22+Liaoning&sig=POFcnbEp_C6Ydn-SiEbXHb4YCP4</ref> and the world's most serious [[mine disaster]] [[Benxihu Colliery]] happened in Manchukuo. [[Biological warfare|Bacteriological weapons]] were experimented on humans by the infamous [[unit 731]] located near Harbin in Beinyinhe from 1932 to 1936 and to Pingfan until 1945. Victims, mostly Chinese, Russians and Koreans, were subjected to [[vivisection]], sometimes without anesthesia. In 2007, an article by Reiji Yoshida in the [[Japan Times]] argued that the Japanese investments were partly financed by [[Drug trafficking|selling drugs]]. According to the article, a document found by Yoshida shows that the [[East Asia Development Board|Kōa-in]] was directly implicated in providing funds to drug dealers in China for the benefit of the puppet governments of Manchukuo, Nanjing and Mongolia.<ref> ''Japan profited as opium dealer wartime China'', http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20070830f1.html</ref> This document corroborates evidence analyzed earlier by the [[Tokyo tribunal]] which stated that {{cquote|Japan's real purpose in engaging drug traffic was far more sinister than even the debauchery of Chinese people. Japan, having signed and ratified the opium conventions, was bound not to engage in drug traffic, but she found in the alleged but false independence of Manchukuo a convenient opportunity to carry on a worldwide drug traffic and cast the guilt upon that puppet state (...) In 1937, it was pointed out in the League of Nations that 90% of all illicit white drugs in the world were of Japanese origin...}} <ref>[http://www.ibiblio.net/hyperwar/PTO/IMTFE/IMTFE-5.html HyperWar: International Military Tribunal for the Far East [Chapter 5&#93;<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>. == Education == Manchukuo developed an efficient public [[education]] system. The government established many schools and technical colleges, 12,000 primary schools in Manchukuo, 200 middle schools, 140 normal schools (for preparing teachers), and 50 technical and professional schools. In total the system had 600,000 children and young pupils and 25,000 teachers. There were 1,600 private schools (with Japanese permits), 150 missionary schools and in Harbin 25 Russian schools.{{Fact|date=February 2008}} Local Chinese children and Japanese children usually attended different schools, and the ones who did attend the same school were segregated racially, with the Japanese students assigned to better-equipped classes.{{Fact|date=March 2008}} Confucius's teachings also played an important role in Manchukuo's public school education. In rural areas, student were trained to practice modern agricultural techniques to improve production. Education focused on practical work training for boys and domestic work for girls, all based on adherence to the "Kingly Way" and stressing loyalty to the Emperor. The regime used numerous festivals, sport events, and ceremonies to foster loyalty of citizens.<ref name="Japan Focus">[http://japanfocus.org/article.asp?id=330 Japan Focus].</ref> Eventually, [[Japanese language|Japanese]] became the official language in addition to the Chinese language taught in Manchukuo schools. == Stamps and postal history == [[Image:Stamp Manchukuo 1935 15f.jpg|thumb|150px|1935 Manchukuo postage stamp with image of [[Puyi]], Emperor of Manchukuo]] Manchukuo issued its first [[postage stamp]]s on [[July 28]], [[1932]]. A number of denominations existed, with two designs: the pagoda at [[Liaoyang]] and a portrait of Puyi. Originally the inscription read (in Chinese) "Manchu State Postal Administration"; in 1934, a new issue read "Manchu Empire Postal Administration". An [[orchid crest]] design appeared in 1935, and a design featuring the [[Sacred White Mountains]] in 1936. 1936 also saw a new regular series featuring various scenes and surmounted by the orchid crest. Between 1937 and 1945, the government issued a variety of commemoratives: for anniversaries of its own existence, to note the passing of new laws, and to honor Japan in various ways, for instance, on the 2600th anniversary of the Japanese Empire in 1940. The last issue of Manchukuo came on [[May 2]], [[1945]], commemorating the 10th anniversary of an edict. After the dissolution of the government, successor postal authorities locally handstamped many of the remaining stamp stocks with "Republic of China" in Chinese and so forth. In addition, the [[Lüshunkou|Port Arthur]] and [[Dairen]] Postal Administration [[overprint]]ed many Manchukuo stamps between 1946 and 1949. {{seealso|List of birds on stamps of Manchukuo}} {| class="wikitable" |+ '''Manchukuo''' 1932–1945 |- ! Personal Names ! Period of Reigns ! [[Chinese era name|era names]] (年號) and their corresponding range of years |- | colspan="5" align="center" |''All given names in '''bold'''.'' |- | [[Aixinjuelo Puyi|Aixinjuelo '''Puyi''']] 愛新覺羅溥儀 ai4 xin1 jue2 luo2 pu3 yi2 | March 1932–August&nbsp;1945 | Datong (大同 da4 tong2) 1932<br/>Kangde (康德 kang1 de2) 1934 |} ==In popular culture== The [[1987]] film of [[Bernardo Bertolucci]], ''[[The Last Emperor]]'', made a controversial portrait of Manchukuo through the memories of Emperor [[Puyi]], during his days as political prisoner in [[Communist China]]. ==See also== *[[Battle of Khalkhin Gol]] *[[Battle of Lake Khasan]] *[[Collaborationist Chinese Army]] *[[Evacuation of Manchukuo]] *[[Japanese strategic planning for mainland Asia (1905-1940)]] *[[Unit 731]] *[[List of East Asian leaders in the Japanese sphere of influence (1931-1945)]] *[[List of Japanese supporters of the WWII period]] *[[Marco Polo Bridge Incident]] *[[Mengkukuo]] *[[Mukden Incident]] *[[Nomonhan]] *[[Operation August Storm]] *[[Projected White Russian state in Outer Manchuria]] *[[Manchukou Temporary Government]] ==References== <references/> ==External links== {{commons|Manchukuo}} *[http://www.manchukuo.org/index28.htm The Official Website of Manchukou Temporary Government(Official website of the manchukuo independence movement)] *[http://orbat.com/site/history/historical/japan/manchukuo.html^ Manchukuo Imperial Army] *[http://naguraka.fc2web.com/museum/japan/manshu/ Manchu Money Museum] *[http://aped.snu.ac.kr/icer/data/fullpaper/Full%20Paper/panel4.htm Education in Mongolia and Manchukuo] *[http://flagspot.net/flags/cn_j_mk.html Manchukuo Flags] *[http://members.at.infoseek.co.jp/ijan/index.htm Museum of Manchukuo] *[http://www.manchukuo.org/index13.htm Ministry of Financial Affairs] *[http://www.ier.hit-u.ac.jp/COE/Japanese/Newsletter/No.5.english/yamamoto5e.html "On Macro-economic Statistics for Manchukuo" by Yuzo Yamamoto] *[http://www.e.okayama-u.ac.jp/~matsu/index-en.html "Toshiro Matsumoto s research over Manchukuo"] *[http://www.manchukuo.org/0f_12_s.jpg Map of Manchukuo] *[http://www.30giorni.it/sp/articolo.asp?id=9621 "Vaticano-Manchukuo no sirve de mea culpa" by Gianni Valente;(related article over Vatican-Manchu WWII foreing relations,in Spanish)] *[http://www.nationalanthems.info/mch.htm "Manchukuo National Anthem"] *[http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/policy/pre-war/320915a.html JAPAN-MANCHOUKUO PROTOCOL] *[http://history.sandiego.edu/GEN/WW2tIMELINE/Prelude02.html "References over Manchukuo"] *[http://www.marxists.de/middleast/brenner/ch19.htm Zionism and the Japanese East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere] *[http://www.n-eigashinsha.jp/shop2/mantetsu1-3.html#?“S%20‘æ‚QŠª Japanese references to Mantetsu Railway Company] [[Category:Manchukuo|*]] [[Category:Military history of China during World War II]] [[Category:Japanese puppet states]] [[Category:Short-lived states of World War II]] [[Category:Second Sino-Japanese War]] [[Category:Short-lived states|Manchukuo]] [[bg:Манджоу-Го]] [[ca:Manxukuo]] [[cs:Mandžukuo]] [[de:Mandschukuo]] [[et:Mandžukuo]] [[es:Manchukuo]] [[eo:Manĉukuo]] [[fr:Mandchoukouo]] [[ko:만주국]] [[hr:Mandžukuo]] [[id:Manchukuo]] [[it:Manchukuo]] [[he:מנצ'וקוו]] [[ms:Manchukuo]] [[nl:Mantsjoekwo]] [[ja:満州国]] [[no:Mandsjukuo]] [[oc:Manchukuo]] [[pl:Mandżukuo]] [[pt:Manchukuo]] [[ru:Маньчжоу-го]] [[simple:Manchukuo]] [[sl:Mandžukuo]] [[fi:Mantšukuo]] [[sv:Manchukuo]] [[th:ประเทศแมนจูกัว]] [[vi:Mãn Châu quốc]] [[tr:Mançukuo]] [[zh:满洲国]]