Manzanar 46865 225782197 2008-07-15T11:09:27Z Rjwilmsi 203434 gen fixes + link/fix date fields in cite templates (explanation [[User:Rjwilmsi#My_correction_of_dates_in_templates|here]]) using [[Project:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]] {{featured article}} {{Infobox_nrhp2 | name =Manzanar War Relocation Center | nrhp_type = nhl | nhl = yes | nhs = yes | image = Manzanar Flag.jpg | caption = A hot windstorm brings dust from the surrounding desert [[July 3]], [[1942]] | nearest_city= [[Independence, California]] | lat_degrees = 36 | lat_minutes = 43 | lat_seconds = 42 | lat_direction = N | long_degrees = 118 | long_minutes = 9 | long_seconds = 16 | long_direction = W | locmapin = California | area = {{convert|814|acre|ha}} | built =1942 | architect= | architecture= | added = [[July 30]], [[1976]]<ref name = "NRHP">{{cite web | url = http://home.nps.gov/manz/parkmgmt/statistics.htm | title = Manzanar National Historic Site: Park Statistics (U.S. National Park Service) | publisher = National Park Service | accessdate = 2008-06-02}}</ref> | designated_nhl = [[February 4]], [[1985]]<ref name = "NHLSUM">{{cite web | url = http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId=1602&ResourceType=Site | title = Manzanar War Relocation Center | accessdate = 2008-05-29 | work = National Historic Landmark Summary Listing | publisher = National Park Service}}</ref> | established_nhs = [[March 3]] [[1992]] | designated_other1_name = California Historic Landmark | designated_other1_date = [[1972]]<ref name = "Reflections19">{{cite book | author = Manzanar Committee | title = Reflections: Three Self-Guided Tours Of Manzanar | pages = 19}}</ref> | designated_other1_abbr = CHL | designated_other1_link = List of California Historical Landmarks | designated_other1_number = 850 | designated_other1_color = #ffc94b | designated_other2_name = L.A. Historic-Cultural Monument | designated_other2_date = [[September 15]], [[1976]]<ref name = "LAHCM_list">{{Citation | last = Los Angeles Department of City Planning | date = [[2007-09-07]] | title = Historic - Cultural Monuments (HCM) Listing: City Declared Monuments | place = | publisher = City of Los Angeles | edition = | url =http://www.cityprojectca.org/ourwork/documents/HCMDatabase090707.pdf | accessdate = 2008-05-28 }}</ref> | designated_other2_abbr = LAHCM | designated_other2_color = #ffc94b | designated_other2_number = 160 | visitation_num = 81,344<ref name = "ManzanarVisitation">{{cite web | title = Park Visitation Report: Manzanar | publisher = National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior | url = http://www2.nature.nps.gov/NPstats/select_report.cfm?by=year | date = 2007 | accessdate = 2008-02-27}}</ref><ref name = "ManzanarVisitationMethod">{{cite web | title = Manzanar National Historic Site: Public Use Counting and Reporting Instructions | publisher = National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior | url = http://www.nature.nps.gov/stats/CountingInstructions/MANZCI2000.pdf | format = PDF | date = [[2000-01-01]] | accessdate = 2008-02-27}}</ref> | visitation_year = 2007 | governing_body = [[National Park Service]] | refnum=76000484 }} '''Manzanar''' is most widely known as the site of one of ten camps where over 110,000 [[Japanese American]]s were imprisoned during [[World War II]]. Located at the foot of the [[Sierra Nevada (U.S.)|Sierra Nevada]] in [[California]]'s [[Owens Valley]] between the towns of [[Lone Pine, California|Lone Pine]] to the south and [[Independence, California|Independence]] to the north, it is approximately {{convert|230|mi|km}} northeast of [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]]. Manzanar (which means “apple orchard” in [[Spanish language|Spanish]]) was identified by the [[United States]] [[National Park Service]] as the best-preserved of the former camp sites, and was designated the Manzanar National Historic Site.<ref name = "NPSHistoryCulture">{{cite web | title = Manzanar National Historic Site: History & Culture (U.S. National Park Service) | publisher = National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior | url = http://www.nps.gov/manz/historyculture/index.htm | accessdate = April 12 | accessyear = 2007 }}</ref> Long before the first prisoners arrived in March 1942, Manzanar was home to [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]], who mostly lived in villages near several creeks in the area. Ranchers and miners formally established the town of Manzanar in 1910,<ref name = "Chaffey">{{cite web | title = Manzanar National Historic Site - Orchard Community (U.S. National Park Service) | publisher = National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior | url = http://www.nps.gov/manz/historyculture/orchard-community.htm | accessdate = July 26 | accessyear = 2007 }}</ref> but abandoned the town by 1929 after the [[Los Angeles, California|City of Los Angeles]] purchased the water rights to virtually the entire area.<ref name = "NPSHistoryCulture"/> As different as these groups might seem, they are tied together by the common thread of [[forced relocation]]. Since the last prisoners left in 1945, former prisoners and others have worked to protect Manzanar and to establish it as a [[National Historic Site]] that preserves and interprets the site for current and future generations. The primary focus is the [[Japanese American Internment]] era,<ref name = "GMP13&ndash;16">{{cite book | author = National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior | title = Manzanar National Historic Site: General Management Plan and Environmental Statement | publisher = National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior | pages = 13&ndash;16 | year = August 1996}}</ref> as specified in the legislation that created the Manzanar National Historic Site. The site also interprets the town of Manzanar, the ranch days, the settlement by the Owens Valley [[Paiute]], and the role that water played in shaping the history of the Owens Valley.<ref name = "GMP13&ndash;16"/><ref name = "Legislation">{{cite web | title = THOMAS (Library of Congress) HR 543 | url = http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?c102:7:./temp/~c102Wd4UfB:: | accessdate = September 17 | accessyear = 2007 }}</ref> ==Terminology== {{seealso|Japanese American internment#Terminology_debate}} Since the end of World War II, there has been debate over the terminology used to refer to Manzanar and the other camps in which [[Japanese Americans|Americans of Japanese ancestry]] and their immigrant parents were imprisoned by the [[United States Government]] during the war.<ref name = "ManzanarControversy">{{cite web | title = The Manzanar Controversy | url = http://www.pbs.org/weekendexplorer/california/mammoth/manzanar.htm | publisher = Public Broadcasting System | accessdate = July 18 | accessyear = 2007 }}</ref><ref name = "DanielsTerminology">{{cite journal | last = Daniels | first = Roger | title = Incarceration of the Japanese Americans: A Sixty-Year Perspective | journal = The History Teacher | volume = 35 | issue = 3 | pages = 4&ndash;6 | date = May 2002 | url = http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/ht/35.3/daniels.html| accessdate = 2007-07-18}}</ref><ref name = "Ito-MotherJones">{{cite news | last = Ito | first = Robert | title = Concentration Camp Or Summer Camp? | publisher = Mother Jones | date = [[1998-09-15]] | url = http://www.motherjones.com/news/feature/1998/09/ito.html | accessdate = 2007-07-19}}</ref> Manzanar has been referred to as a "War Relocation Center," "relocation camp," "relocation center," "[[internment camp]]," and "[[concentration camp]]," and the controversy over which term is the most accurate and appropriate continues to the present day.<ref name = "Reflectionsiii&ndash;iv">{{cite book | author = Manzanar Committee | title = Reflections: Three Self-Guided Tours Of Manzanar | publisher = Manzanar Committee | year = 1998 | pages = iii&ndash;iv}}</ref><ref name="CLPEF">{{cite web | title=CLPEF Resolution Regarding Terminology | publisher=Civil Liberties Public Education Fund | url=http://www.momomedia.com/CLPEF/backgrnd.html#Link%20to%20terminology | date=1996 | accessdate=July 20 | accessyear=2007 }}</ref><ref name = "DenshoTerminology">{{cite web | title = Densho: Terminology & Glossary: A Note On Terminology | publisher = Densho | url = http://www.densho.org/default.asp?path=/assets/sharedpages/glossary.asp?section=home | date = 1997 | accessdate = July 15 | accessyear = 2007 }}</ref> In 1998, use of "concentration camp" gained greater credibility prior to the opening of an exhibit about the American camps at [[Ellis Island]]. Initially, the [[American Jewish Committee]] (AJC) and the National Park Service, which manages Ellis Island, objected to the use of the term in the exhibit.<ref name = "NYTimes-Debate">{{cite news | last = Sengupta | first = Somini | title = What Is a Concentration Camp? Ellis Island Exhibit Prompts a Debate | publisher = New York Times | url = http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9507E7DF1430F93BA35750C0A96E958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all | date = [[1998-03-08]] | accessdate = 2007-12-30}}</ref> However, during a subsequent meeting held at the offices of the AJC in [[New York City]], leaders representing Japanese Americans and Jewish Americans reached an understanding about the use of the term.<ref name = "McCarthy-Human Quest">{{cite journal | last = McCarthy | first = Sheryl | title = Suffering Isn't One Group's Exclusive Privilege | journal = HumanQuest | date = July/August 1999 | url = http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3861/is_199907/ai_n8854656 | accessdate = 2007-12-31}}</ref> After the meeting, the [[Japanese American National Museum]] and the AJC issued a joint statement (which was included in the exhibit) that read in part: {{quote|A concentration camp is a place where people are imprisoned not because of any crimes they have committed, but simply because of who they are. Although many groups have been singled out for such persecution throughout history, the term 'concentration camp' was first used at the turn of the century in the [[Spanish-American War|Spanish American]] and [[Boer Wars]]. During World War II, America's concentration camps were clearly distinguishable from Nazi Germany's. Nazi camps were places of torture, barbarous medical experiments and summary executions; some were extermination centers with gas chambers. Six million Jews were slaughtered in the [[Holocaust]]. Many others, including Gypsies, Poles, homosexuals and political dissidents were also victims of the Nazi concentration camps. In recent years, concentration camps have existed in the former [[Soviet Union]], [[Cambodia]] and [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia]]. Despite differences, all had one thing in common: the people in power removed a minority group from the general population and the rest of society let it happen.<ref name = "JANM-AJC">{{cite press release | title = American Jewish Committee, Japanese American National Museum Issue Joint Statement About Ellis Island Exhibit Set To Open April 3 | publisher = Japanese American National Museum and American Jewish Committee | url = http://www.janm.org/press/release/52 | date = [[1998-03-13]] | accessdate = 2007-12-30}}</ref><ref name = "NYTAccord">{{cite news | last = Sengupta | first = Somini | title = Accord On Term "Concentration Camp" | publisher = New York Times | url = http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9401E7DA1230F933A25750C0A96E958260 | date = [[1998-03-10]] | accessdate = 2007-12-31}}</ref>}} The ''[[New York Times]]'' published an unsigned editorial supporting the use of "concentration camp" in the exhibit.<ref name = "NYTOp-Ed">{{cite news | title = Words for Suffering | publisher = New York Times | url = http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F06EEDF1230F933A25750C0A96E958260 | date = [[1998-03-10]] | accessdate = 2007-12-31}}</ref> An article quoted Jonathan Mark, a columnist for ''[[The Jewish Week]]'', who wrote, "Can no one else speak of slavery, gas, trains, camps? It's Jewish malpractice to monopolize pain and minimize victims."<ref name = "Defending-Lexicon">{{cite news | last = Haberman | first = Clyde | title = NYC; Defending Jews' Lexicon Of Anguish | publisher = New York Times | url = http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E07E0D81F30F930A25750C0A96E958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all | date = [[1998-03-13]] | accessdate = 2007-12-31}}</ref> AJC Executive Director [[David A. Harris]] stated during the controversy, "...We have not claimed Jewish exclusivity for the term 'concentration camps.'"<ref name = "HarrisLetter">{{cite news | last = Harris | first = David A | title = Exhibition on Camps | publisher = New York Times | url = http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A05E5D71F30F930A25750C0A96E958260 | date = [[1998-03-13]] | accessdate = 2007-12-31}}</ref> ==Before World War II== [[Image:OwensValleyPaiutewoman.gif‎|thumb|left|Owens Valley Paiute woman weaving a basket]] ===Owens Valley Paiute=== Manzanar was first inhabited by Native Americans nearly 10,000 years ago, and approximately 1,500 years ago the area was settled by the Owens Valley Paiute,<ref name = "NPSHistoryCulture"/> who range across the Owens Valley from [[Long Valley Caldera|Long Valley]] on the north to [[Owens Lake]] on the south, and from the crest of the Sierra Nevada on the west to the [[Inyo Mountains]] on the east.<ref name =" ThreeFarewells151">{{cite book | author = Burton, Jeffery F. | title = Three Farewells To Manzanar: The Archeology of Manzanar National Historic Site, California. Part 1: Chapters 1&ndash;14 | publisher = Western Archaeological and Conservation Center, National Park Service, US Department of the Interior | year = 1996 | id = Publications in Anthropology 67 | pages = 151}}</ref> Other Native American nations in the region included the [[Miwok]], Western [[Mono tribe|Mono]], and [[Tubatulabal]] to the west, the [[Shoshone]] to the south and east, and the [[Mono Lake]] Paiute to the north.<ref name = "ThreeFarewells151"/> The Owens Valley Paiute hunted, fished, collected pine nuts, raised crops utilizing irrigation in the Manzanar area,<ref name =" NPSHistoryCulture"/><ref name = "OWPaiute">{{cite web | title = Manzanar National Historic Site - Owens Valley Paiute (U.S. National Park Service) | publisher = National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior | url = http://www.nps.gov/manz/historyculture/owens-valley-paiute.htm | accessdate = July 26 | accessyear = 2007 }}</ref> and traded brown ware pottery for salt from the Saline Valley. They also traded other wares and goods across the Sierra Nevada during the summer and fall.<ref name = "ThreeFarewells155">{{cite book | author = Burton | title = Three Farewells To Manzanar: The Archeology of Manzanar National Historic Site, California. Part 1: Chapters 1&ndash;14 | pages = 155}}</ref> The Owens Valley had received scant attention from the white man before the early 1860s, it being little more than a crossroads on the routes through the area. When gold and silver were then discovered in the Sierra Nevada and the Inyo Mountains, the resulting sudden influx of miners, farmers, cattlemen and their hungry herds brought conflict with the Owens Valley Paiute, whose crops were being destroyed.<ref name = "MillitaryMuseum">{{cite web | title = California and the Indian Wars: The Owens Valley Indian War, 1861&ndash;1865 | publisher = The California Military Museum | url = http://www.militarymuseum.org/OwensValley.html | date = 1979 | accessdate = April 23 | accessyear = 2007 }}</ref> The Owens Valley Indian War of 1861&ndash;1863 ensued, at the end of which the Owens Valley Paiute, along with other native peoples in the region, were forced at gunpoint by the [[United States Army]] to walk almost {{convert|200|mi|km}} to [[Fort Tejon]]<ref name="OWPaiute"/> in one of the many “[[Trail of Tears|Trails of Tears]]” inflicted upon Native Americans in United States history.<ref name="NAConsultations3&ndash;4">{{cite book | author = Van Horn, Lawrence F. | title = Native American Consultations and Ethnographic Assessment: The Paiutes and Shoshones of Owens Valley, California | publisher = Western Archaeological and Conservation Center, National Park Service, US Department of the Interior, Denver Service Center | year = 1995 |pages = 3&ndash;4}}</ref><ref name = "FortTejon">{{cite web | title = Fort Tejon, California | publisher = CivilWarAlbum.com | url = http://www.civilwaralbum.com/misc/tejon.htm | date=[[2002-09-09]] | accessdate = April 23 | accessyear = 2007 }}</ref> Approximately one-third of the Native Americans in the Owens Valley were forcibly relocated to Fort Tejon, but after 1863, many returned to their permanent villages that had been established along creeks flowing down from the Sierra Nevada mountains.<ref name = "NAConsultations3&ndash;4"/> In the Manzanar area, the Owens Valley Paiute had established villages along Bairs, Georges, Shepherds, and Symmes creeks.<ref name = "NAConsultations3&ndash;4"/> Evidence of Paiute settlement in the area is still present. [[Image:ManzanarCommunityHall.jpg‎|thumb|right|Manzanar Community Hall, ca. 1912. In back is Hatfield's (later Bandhauer's) General Store, which housed the post office]] ===Ranchers=== When white settlers first arrived in the Owens Valley in the mid&ndash;19th century they found a number of large Paiute villages in the Manzanar area.<ref name = "ThreeFarewells2">{{cite book | author = Burton | title = Three Farewells To Manzanar: The Archeology of Manzanar National Historic Site, California. Part 1: Chapters 1&ndash;14 | pages = 2}}</ref> John Shepherd, one of the first settlers, homesteaded {{convert|160|acre|ha}} of land three miles (4.8&nbsp;km) north of Georges Creek in 1864. With the help of Owens Valley Paiute field workers and laborers,<ref name = "Shepherd">{{cite web | title = Manzanar National Historic Site - Miners and Homesteaders (U.S. National Park Service) | url = http://www.nps.gov/manz/historyculture/miners-and-homesteaders.htm | publisher = National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior | accessdate = July 26 | accessyear = 2007 }}</ref> his ranch eventually expanded to {{convert|2000|acre|ha}}.<ref name = "ThreeFarewells2&ndash;3">{{cite book | author = Burton | title = Three Farewells To Manzanar: The Archeology of Manzanar National Historic Site, California. Part 1: Chapters 1&ndash;14 | pages = 2&ndash;3}}</ref> In 1905, [[George Chaffey]], an agricultural developer from [[Southern California]], purchased Shepherd's ranch and subdivided it, along with other adjacent ranches, and founded the town of Manzanar in 1910.<ref name = "Chaffey"/><ref name = "ThreeFarewells3">{{cite book | author = Burton | title = Three Farewells To Manzanar: The Archeology of Manzanar National Historic Site, California. Part 1: Chapters 1&ndash;14 | pages = 3}}</ref> Chaffey's Owens Valley Improvement Company built an irrigation system and planted thousands of fruit trees,<ref name = "Chaffey"/> and by 1920, the town had more than twenty-five homes, a two-room school, a town hall, and a general store.<ref name = "ThreeFarewells3"/> Also at that time, nearly {{convert|5000|acre|ha}} of apple, pear, and peach trees were being grown, along with grapes, prunes, potatoes, corn, alfalfa and large vegetable and flower gardens.<ref name = "Chaffey"/><ref name = "DeBoer">{{cite journal | last = DeBoer | first = Lucille | title = Following Manzanar: A Life Story | journal = The Album, Times & Tales of Inyo-Mono | publisher = Chalfant Press | date = 1993 | url = http://www.owensvalleyhistory.com/stories2/manzanar_town.pdf | format = PDF | accessdate = 2007-07-26}}</ref> "Manzanar was a very happy place and a pleasant place to live during those years, with its peach, pear, and apple orchards, alfalfa fields, tree-lined country lanes, meadows and corn fields," said Martha Mills, who lived at Manzanar from 1916 to 1920.<ref name = "ManzanarPeoplePage">{{cite web | title = Manzanar National Historic Site - People (U.S. National Park Service) | publisher = National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior | url = http://www.nps.gov/manz/historyculture/people.htm | accessdate = July 26 | accessyear = 2007}}</ref> Some of the early orchards, along with some remnants of the town and ranches, are still present at Manzanar today.<ref name="ThreeFarewells3"/> [[Image:LAAqueductUnlined2.jpg|thumb|right|Unlined section of the Los Angeles Aqueduct, just south of Manzanar near US Highway 395.]] ===Quenching Los Angeles’s thirst=== As early as March 1905, the City of Los Angeles began secretly acquiring [[water rights]] in the Owens Valley,<ref name = "Smith192">{{cite book | author = Smith, Genny Schumacher | title = Deepest Valley | publisher = Genny Smith Books | year = 1969, 1978 | id = ISBN 0-931378-01-X | pages = 192}}</ref><ref name = "TEDCases">{{cite journal | last = Neal | first = Kevin | title = TED Case Studies: The Los Angeles Aqueduct and the Owens and Mono Lakes (MONO Case) | journal = TED Case Studies | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages = 4&ndash;6 | date = January 1997 | url = http://www.american.edu/TED/mono.htm | accessdate = 2007-07-23}}</ref> and it completed construction of its {{convert|233|mi|km|0|adj=on}} [[Los Angeles Aqueduct]] in 1913,<ref name = "NPSHistoryCulture"/> transporting diverted [[Owens River]] water to Los Angeles instead of allowing it to drain into Owens Lake.<ref name = "DWPHist">{{cite web | title = LADWP: History and Facts: LA Aqueduct | url = http://www.ladwp.com/ladwp/cms/ladwp001006.jsp | publisher = Los Angeles Department of Water and Power | accessdate = April 16 | accessyear = 2007 }}</ref><ref name = "DWPFacts">{{cite web | title = LADWP: Los Angeles Aqueduct Facts | url = http://www.ladwp.com/ladwp/cms/ladwp001006.jsp | publisher = Los Angeles Department of Water and Power | accessdate = April 16 | accessyear = 2007 }}</ref> But it did not take long for Los Angeles water officials to realize that Owens River water was not enough to quench the thirst of a rapidly growing metropolis, and in 1920, they began to purchase more of the water rights on the Owens Valley floor. As the decade went on, the City of Los Angeles bought out one Owens Valley farmer after another, and even extended its reach northward into [[Mono County, California|Mono County]], including Long Valley.<ref name = "Smith 195-196">{{cite book | author = Smith | title = Deepest Valley | pages = 195&ndash;196}}</ref> By 1933, the City owned 85% of all town property and 95% of all ranch and farm land in the Owens Valley, including Manzanar.<ref name = "ThreeFarewells3"/> Although there were those who sold their land (for prices that made them financially independent), a significant number chose to stay. But in dry years, Los Angeles pumped ground water and drained all surface water, diverting all of it into its aqueduct and leaving Owens Valley ranchers without water.<ref name = "Smith 196">{{cite book | author = Smith | title = Deepest Valley | pages = 196}}</ref> {{quote|There was so much water during those early years, that when a horse pulled a buggy, the water frequently came up to the horse's knees," said Lucille DeBoer, who lived on a ranch at Manzanar. "When this happened, the children took off their shoes and socks to walk home. In the early 1900s the City of Los Angeles started to purchase ranches in the Owens Valley for the sole purpose of supplying water to the people in Los Angeles. People started to sell their land to the City; the City put in wells to drain the water out of the ground; the trees began to die; and the land finally turned to vacant dirt. This ended the Land of the Big Red Apples.<ref name = "DeBoer"/>}} Even though they chose not to sell, without water for irrigation the holdout ranchers were forced out of their ranches and communities; that included the town of Manzanar, which was abandoned by 1929.<ref name = "NPSHistoryCulture"/> Manzanar remained uninhabited until the [[United States Army]] leased {{convert|6200|acre|ha}} from the City of Los Angeles for the Manzanar War Relocation Center.<ref name = "NPSHistoryCulture"/> ==Wartime: 1942&ndash;45== [[Image:Barrack Construction.jpg|thumb|left|Barracks under construction at Poston. Barrack construction and materials were the same at all ten camps, including Manzanar. Poston, Arizona [[May 5]], [[1942]]]] After the [[December 7]], [[1941]], [[attack on Pearl Harbor]], the United States Government swiftly moved to begin solving the “[[Japanese people|Japanese]] Problem” on the West Coast of the United States,<ref name = "Reflections2">{{cite book | author = Manzanar Committee | title = Reflections: Three Self-Guided Tours Of Manzanar | pages = 2}}</ref> and in the evening hours of that same day the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] (FBI) arrested selected “enemy” aliens, including 2,192 who were of Japanese descent.<ref name = "DenshoCauses">{{cite web | title = Densho: Causes of the Incarceration | publisher = Densho | url = http://www.densho.org/causes/default.asp | accessdate = April 17 | accessyear = 2007 }}</ref> On [[February 19]] [[1942]], President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] signed [[Executive Order 9066]], which authorized the [[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]] to designate military commanders to prescribe military areas and to exclude “any or all persons” from such areas. The order also authorized the construction of what would later be called “relocation centers” by the [[War Relocation Authority]] (WRA) to house those who were to be excluded.<ref name = "Reflections3">{{cite book | author = Manzanar Committee | title = Reflections: Three Self-Guided Tours Of Manzanar | pages = 3}}</ref> This order resulted in the forced relocation of over 120,000 Japanese Americans, two-thirds of whom were native-born [[United States nationality law|American citizens]]. The rest had been prevented from becoming citizens by federal law.<ref name = "AAPolitics">{{cite book | author = Nakanishi, Don T. | title = Asian American Politics | publisher = Rowman & Littlefield | year = 2003 | pages = 35, 41 | id = ISBN 0-742518-50-7}}</ref><ref name = "AAPacificNorthwest">{{cite web | author = Center for the Study of the Pacific Northwest | title = History of Washington State & The Pacific Northwest: Lesson 22: Asian Americans and the Modern Pacific Northwest | url = http://www.washington.edu/uwired/outreach/cspn/Website/Course%20Index/Lessons/22/22.html | publisher = University of Washington | date = July, 1998 | accessdate = 2007-12-28}}</ref> Over 110,000 were imprisoned in the ten concentration camps.<ref name = "DenshoCauses"/> Manzanar was the first of the ten concentration camps to be established.<ref name = "Reflections15">{{cite book | author = Manzanar Committee | title = Reflections: Three Self-Guided Tours Of Manzanar | pages = 15}}</ref> Initially, it was a temporary “reception center”, known as the ''Owens Valley Reception Center'' from [[March 21]], [[1942]], to [[May 31]], [[1942]].<ref name = "Reflections15"/> At that time, it was operated by the US Army's Wartime Civilian Control Administration (WCCA).<ref name = "CAE162">{{cite book | author = Burton, Jeffery F., Farrell, Mary M., Lord, Florence B., Lord, Richard W. | title = Confinement and Ethnicity: An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites | publisher = Western Archaeological and Conservation Center, National Park Service, US Department of the Interior | year = 1999 | id = Publications in Anthropology 74 | pages = 162}}</ref> The Owens Valley Reception Center was transferred to the WRA on [[June 1]], [[1942]], and officially became the "Manzanar War Relocation Center." The first Japanese American prisoners to arrive at Manzanar were volunteers who helped build the camp. By mid&ndash;April up to 1,000 Japanese Americans were arriving daily, and by July the population of the camp neared 10,000.<ref name = "CAE162&ndash;163">{{cite book | author = Burton, Farrell, Florence B., Lord, Richard W | title = Confinement and Ethnicity: An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites | pages = 162&ndash;163}}</ref> Over 90% of the prisoners were from the Los Angeles area, with the rest coming from [[Stockton, California|Stockton]], [[California]], and [[Bainbridge Island]], [[Washington]].<ref name = "CAE162&ndash;163"/> Manzanar held 10,046 prisoners at its peak, and a total of 11,070 people were imprisoned there.<ref name = "NPSHistoryCulture"/> [[Image:Barrack Row.jpg|thumb|right|Far end of a barrack row looking west to the desert beyond with the mountains in the background. Evacuees at Manzanar are encountering the terrific desert heat [[July 2]], [[1942]]]] ===Climate=== The weather at Manzanar had a tremendous impact on the prisoners, few of whom were accustomed to the extremes of the area's climate. The Owens Valley lies at an elevation of about {{convert|4000|ft|m}}.<ref name = "ManzanarWeather">{{cite web | title = Manzanar National Historic Site - Weather (U.S. National Park Service) | publisher = National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior | url = http://www.nps.gov/manz/planyourvisit/weather.htm | date = [[2006-07-26]] | accessdate = August 4 | accessyear = 2007 }}</ref> Summers on the desert floor of the Owens Valley are generally hot, with temperatures exceeding {{convert|100|°F|°C}} not uncommon.<ref name = "ManzanarWeather"/> Winters bring occasional snowfall and daytime temperatures that often drop into the {{convert|40|°F|°C}} range.<ref name = "ManzanarWeather"/> At night, temperatures are generally 30&ndash;40&nbsp;°F (16 to 22 °C) lower than the daytime highs, and high winds are common day or night.<ref name = "CAE162"/><ref name = "ManzanarWeather"/> The area's mean annual precipitation is barely five inches (12.7&nbsp;cm). The ever-present dust was a continual problem due to the frequent high winds, so much so that prisoners usually woke up in the morning covered from head to toe with a fine layer of dust, and barracks constantly had to be swept.<ref name = "Reflections8">{{cite book | author = Manzanar Committee | title = Reflections: Three Self-Guided Tours Of Manzanar | pages = 8}}</ref> "In the summer, the heat was unbearable," said former Manzanar prisoner Ralph Lazo (''see'' Notable Manzanar prisoners section, below). "In the winter, the sparsely rationed oil didn't adequately heat the tar paper covered pine barracks with the knotholes in the floor. The wind would blow so hard, it would toss rocks around."<ref name = "Lazo-LATimes">{{cite news | last = Rasmussen | first = Cecilia | title = Following His Beliefs Led Him To Manzanar | publisher = Los Angeles Times | date = [[2007-05-27]] | url = http://www.stelzriede.com/ms/html/mshwma72.htm | accessdate = 2008-04-06}}</ref> [[Image:Barracks Interior.jpg|thumb|right|Typical interior scene in a Manzanar barrack apartment. Note the cloth partition separating one apartment from another, lending a small amount of privacy [[June 30]], [[1942]]]] ===Camp layout and facilities=== The camp site was situated on {{convert|6200|acre|ha}} at Manzanar, leased from the City of Los Angeles,<ref name = "NPSHistoryCulture"/> with the developed portion covering approximately {{convert|540|acre|ha}}.<ref name = "CAE163">{{cite book | author = Burton, Farrell, Lord, Florence B., Lord, Richard W | title = Confinement and Ethnicity: An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites | pages = 163}}</ref> The residential area was about one square mile (2.6&nbsp;km²), and consisted of 36 blocks of hastily constructed,<ref name = "JAsAtManzanar">{{cite web | title = Manzanar National Historic Site - Japanese Americans at Manzanar (U.S. National Park Service) | publisher = National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior | url = http://www.nps.gov/manz/historyculture/japanese-americans-at-manzanar.htm | accessdate = July 26 | accessyear = 2007 }}</ref> {{convert|20|ft|m|adj=on}} by {{convert|100|ft|m|adj=on}} tarpaper barracks, with each prisoner family living in a single {{convert|20|ft|m|adj=on}} by {{convert|25|ft|m|adj=on}} “apartment” in the barracks. These apartments consisted of partitions with no ceilings, eliminating any chance of privacy.<ref name = "Reflections16">{{cite book | author = Manzanar Committee | title = Reflections: Three Self-Guided Tours Of Manzanar | pages = 16}}</ref><ref name = "CAE167">{{cite book | author = Burton, Farrell, Lord, Florence B., Lord, Richard W | title = Confinement and Ethnicity: An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites | pages = 167}}</ref> To be sure, privacy was a major problem for the prisoners, especially since the camp had communal men's and women's latrines.<ref name = "Reflections16"/><ref name = "CAE167"/> “…One of the hardest things to endure was the communal latrines, with no partitions; and showers with no stalls,” said former Manzanar prisoner Rosie Kakuuchi.<ref name="JAsAtManzanar"/> Each residential block also had a communal mess hall, a laundry room, a recreation hall, an ironing room, and a heating oil storage tank, although Block 33 lacked a recreation hall.<ref name = "CAE167"/> In addition to the residential blocks, Manzanar had 34 additional blocks that had staff housing, camp administration offices, two warehouses, a garage, a camp hospital, and 24 firebreaks.<ref name = "CAE163"/> The camp also had sentry posts at the main entrance, school facilities, a high school auditorium, staff housing, chicken and hog farms, churches, a cemetery, a post office, a cooperative store, other shops, a camp newspaper, and other necessary amenities that one would expect to find in most American cities.<ref name = "Reflections16"/> Manzanar also had a camouflage net factory, an experimental plantation for producing [[natural rubber]] from the [[Guayule]] plant, and an orphanage called Children's Village, which housed 101 Japanese American orphans.<ref name = "Reflections16"/><ref name = "DenshoManzanar">{{cite web | title = Densho: Sites of Shame: Manzanar | publisher = Densho | url = http://www.densho.org/sitesofshame/facilities.xml | accessdate = April 23 | accessyear = 2007 }}</ref> The camp perimeter had eight watchtowers manned by armed [[Military Police]], and it was enclosed by five-strand barbed wire.<ref name = "CAE163"/><ref name = "Reflections16"/> [[Image:Manzanar calisthenics 0016u.jpg|thumb|right|Female prisoners practicing [[calisthenics]]]] ===Life behind the barbed wire=== {{seealso|Japanese_American_internment#Conditions_in_the_camps|l1=Japanese American internment: Conditions in the camps}} After being uprooted from their homes and communities, the prisoners found themselves having to endure primitive, sub-standard conditions,<ref name = "JAsAtManzanar"/> lack of privacy, and having to wait in one line after another for meals, at latrines, and at the laundry room.<ref name = "Reflections7">{{cite book | author = Manzanar Committee | title = Reflections: Three Self-Guided Tours Of Manzanar | pages = 7}}</ref> Each camp was intended to be self-sufficient, and Manzanar was no exception. Cooperatives operated various services, such as the camp newspaper,<ref name = "FreePress">{{cite web | title = Manzanar National Historic Site - Manzanar Free Press Index (U.S. National Park Service) | publisher = National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior | url = http://www.nps.gov/manz/historyculture/mfpindex.htm | date = 2004 | accessdate = April 18 | accessyear = 2007 }}</ref><ref name = "Newspapers-LATimes">{{cite news | last = Chawkins | first = Steve | title = Barbed Wire And Free Press | publisher = Los Angeles Times | date = [[2007-05-03]]}}</ref><ref name = "DenshoNewspapers">{{cite web | title = Densho: From The Archive | publisher = Densho | url = http://www.densho.org/archive/fromthearchive.asp#200706 | date = June 2007 | accessdate = August 5 | accessyear = 2007 }}</ref> beauty and barber shops, shoe repair, and more.<ref name = "Reflections7"/> In addition, prisoners raised chickens, hogs, and vegetables, and cultivated the existing orchards for fruit.<ref name = "Reflections7"/> Prisoners even made their own [[soy sauce]] and [[tofu]].<ref name = "Reflections7"/> [[Image:Mess Hall Line.jpg|thumb|left|Waiting for lunch outside a mess hall at noon [[July 7]], [[1942]]]] Food at Manzanar was based on military requirements. Meals usually consisted of hot rice and vegetables, since meat was scarce due to [[rationing]].<ref name = "Reflections7"/> In early 1944, a chicken ranch began operation, and in late April of the same year, a hog farm was opened. Both operations provided a welcome supplement to the prisoners' diet.<ref name = "CAE171">{{cite book | author = Burton, Farrell, Lord, Florence B., Lord, Richard W | title = Confinement and Ethnicity: An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites | pages = 171}}</ref> Most prisoners were employed at Manzanar to keep the camp running. Unskilled workers earned [[United States dollar|US$]]8 per month, semi-skilled workers earned $12 per month, skilled workers made $16 per month, and professionals earned $19 per month. In addition, all prisoners received $3.60 per month as a clothing allowance.<ref name = "Reflections7"/> [[Image:Manzanar Baseball Ansel Adams.jpg|thumb|right|A [[baseball]] game at Manzanar, 1943.]] The prisoners also made Manzanar more liveable through recreation, and participated in sports, including baseball and [[American football|football]], and [[martial arts]].<ref name = "Reflections8">{{cite book | author = Manzanar Committee | title = Reflections: Three Self-Guided Tours Of Manzanar | pages = 8}}</ref> They also personalized and beautified their barren surroundings by building elaborate [[Japanese garden|gardens]], which often included pools, waterfalls, and rock ornaments. There was even a nine-hole golf course.<ref name = "Reflections7"/><ref name = "CAE168">{{cite book | author = Burton, Farrell, Lord, Florence B., Lord, Richard W | title = Confinement and Ethnicity: An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites | pages = 168}}</ref> Remnants of some of the gardens, pools, and rock ornaments are still present at Manzanar. ===Resistance=== Although most prisoners quietly accepted their fate during World War II, there was some resistance in the camps. [[Poston War Relocation Center|Poston]], [[Heart Mountain War Relocation Center|Heart Mountain]], [[Topaz War Relocation Center|Topaz]], and [[Tule Lake War Relocation Center|Tule Lake]] each had civil disturbances about wage differences, [[black market]]ing of sugar, intergenerational friction, rumors of “informers” reporting to the camp administration or the FBI, and other issues.<ref name = "Reflections8"/> However, the most serious incident occurred at Manzanar on December 5&ndash;6, 1942, and became known as the Manzanar Riot.<ref name = "CAE172">{{cite book | author = Burton, Farrell, Lord, Florence B., Lord, Richard W | title = Confinement and Ethnicity: An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites | pages = 172}}</ref> After several months of tension between prisoners who supported the [[Japanese American Citizens League]] (JACL) and a group of [[Kibei]] (Japanese Americans educated in Japan), rumors spread that sugar and meat shortages were the result of black marketing by camp administrators.<ref name = "Reflections8"/> To make matters worse, prisoner and JACL leader Fred Tayama was beaten by six masked men. Harry Ueno, the leader of the Kitchen Workers Union, was suspected of involvement and was arrested and removed from Manzanar.<ref name = "CAE172"/> Soon after, 3,000 to 4,000 prisoners gathered and marched to the administration area, protesting Ueno's arrest. After Ueno's supporters negotiated with the camp administration, he was returned to the Manzanar jail,<ref name = "CAE172"/> but a crowd of several hundred returned to protest. When the crowd surged forward, military police threw [[tear gas]] to disperse them. As people ran to avoid the tear gas, some in the crowd pushed a driverless truck toward the jail. At that moment, the military police fired into the crowd, killing a 17&ndash;year&ndash;old boy instantly. A 21&ndash;year&ndash;old man who was shot in the abdomen died days later. Nine other prisoners were wounded, and a military police corporal was wounded by a ricocheting bullet.<ref name = "Reflections8"/><ref name = "CAE173">{{cite book | author=Burton, Farrell, Lord, Florence B., Lord, Richard W | title = Confinement and Ethnicity: An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites | pages = 173}}</ref> [[Image:Manzanar shrine.jpg|thumb|left|Monument at Manzanar cemetery, 2002]] ===Closure=== On [[November 21]], [[1945]], the [[War Relocation Authority|WRA]] closed Manzanar, the sixth camp to be closed. Although the prisoners had been brought to the Owens Valley by the United States Government, they had to leave the camp on their own,<ref name = "CAE172"/><ref name = "Reflections11">{{cite book | author = Manzanar Committee | title = Reflections: Three Self-Guided Tours Of Manzanar | pages = 11}}</ref> with the WRA giving $25, one-way train or bus fare, and meals to those who had less than $600.<ref name = "Reflections11"/> While many left the camp voluntarily, a significant number refused to leave because they had no place to go after having lost everything when they were forcibly uprooted and removed from their homes. As such, they had to be forcibly removed once again, this time from Manzanar. Indeed, those who refused to leave were generally removed from their barracks, sometimes by force, even if they had no place to go.<ref name = "Reflections11"/> 146 prisoners died at Manzanar.<ref name = "IReiTo5">{{cite book | author = Burton, Jeffery F., Haines, Jeremy D., Farrell, Mary M. | title = I Rei To: Archaeological Investigations at the Manzanar Relocation Center Cemetery, Manzanar National Historic Site, California | publisher = Western Archeological and Conservation Center, National Park Service, US Department of the Interior | year = 2001 | id = Publications in Anthropology 79 | pages = 5}}</ref> Fifteen prisoners were buried there, but only five graves remain, as most were later reburied elsewhere by their families.<ref name = "IReiTo18">{{cite book | author = Burton, Haines, Farrell | title = I Rei To: Archeological Investigations at the Manzanar Relocation Center Cemetery, Manzanar National Historic Site, California | pages = 18}}</ref> The Manzanar cemetery site is marked by a monument that was built by prisoner stonemason Ryozo Kado in 1943.<ref name = "Reflections28">{{cite book | author = Manzanar Committee | title = Reflections: Three Self-Guided Tours Of Manzanar | pages = 28}}</ref> An inscription in Japanese on the front of the monument reads, {{lang|ja|慰靈塔}} (Soul Consoling Tower).<ref name = "IReiTo5"/> The inscription on the back reads "Erected by the Manzanar Japanese" on the left, and "August 1943" on the right.<ref name = "IReiTo5"/> Today, the monument is often draped in strings of [[origami]], and sometimes offerings of personal items are left by survivors and other visitors. The National Park Service periodically collects and catalogues these items. After the camp was closed, the site eventually returned to its original state, and within a couple of years all the structures had been removed, with the exception of the two sentry posts at the entrance, the cemetery monument, and the former Manzanar High School auditorium, which was purchased by the [[Inyo County, California|County of Inyo]]. The County leased the auditorium to the Independence [[Veterans of Foreign Wars]], who used it as a meeting facility and community theater until 1951. After that, the building was used as a maintenance facility by the Inyo County Road Department.<ref name = "CAE172"/><ref name = "Reflections18">{{cite book | author = Manzanar Committee | title = Reflections: Three Self-Guided Tours Of Manzanar | pages = 18}}</ref> As of 2007, the site also retains numerous building foundations, portions of the water and sewer systems, the outline of the road grid, remains of the landscaping constructed by prisoners, and much more.<ref name = "Reflections18"/> And despite four years of use by the prisoners, the site also retains evidence of the ranches and of the town of Manzanar, as well as artifacts from the days of the Owens Valley Paiute settlement.<ref name = "Reflections19"/><ref name = "CAE173&ndash;200">{{cite book | author = Burton, Farrell, Lord, Florence B., Lord, Richard W | title = Confinement and Ethnicity: An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Site | pages = 173&ndash;200}}</ref> [[Image:SueEmbrey.jpg|thumb|right|Manzanar Committee Chair Sue Kunitomi Embrey welcoming crowd at 33rd annual Manzanar Pilgrimage, [[April 27]], [[2002]]]] ===Notable prisoners=== ''Sue Kunitomi Embrey'', born on [[January 6]], [[1923]], was an editor of the ''Manzanar Free Press'', the camp newspaper, and wove camouflage nets to support the war effort. She left Manzanar in late 1943 for [[Madison, Wisconsin|Madison]], [[Wisconsin]] and one year later moved to [[Chicago]], [[Illinois]]. She returned to California in 1948 and went on to become a schoolteacher and a labor and community activist.<ref name = "BruceObit">{{cite press release | publisher = Embrey, Bruce | date = May, 2006 | title = Sue Kunitomi Embrey Obituary | accessdate = 2007-04-23}}</ref> In 1969, Embrey was one of approximately 150 people who attended the first organized Manzanar Pilgrimage (''see'' Manzanar Pilgrimage section, below) and was one of the founders of the annual event. She also went on to become the primary force behind the preservation of the site and its gaining National Historic Site status.<ref name = "BruceObit"/><ref name = "RafuObit">{{cite news | last = Gunji, Nao | first = Muranaka, Gwen | title = Sue Embrey, 83, Led Movement to Preserve Manzanar | publisher = Rafu Shimpo | date = [[2006-05-17]] | url = http://www.rafu.com/sue_embrey.html | accessdate = 2007-05-27}}</ref> {{quote|"Embrey took her pain and anger from the unjust internment and turned it into a life dedicated to making certain that would never happen again," said Rose Ochi, legal counsel for the Manzanar Committee, after Embrey passed away on [[May 15]], [[2006]]. "She was just tireless and as a teacher she was making certain that our history books did talk about the tragic episode."<ref name = "RafuObit"/> "The reason [that the Manzanar National Historic Site has] been accepted by Japanese Americans, local Owens Valley residents and general visitors is in large part because of [Embrey's] knowledge and her personal experience," said Alisa Lynch, Chief of Interpretation, Manzanar National Historic Site. "She had the insight to help us be able to be truthful, to be accurate. She was a historian and an internee, she could wear many different hats."<ref name = "RafuObit"/>}} ''Aiko Yoshinaga-Herzig'', born in 1925 in Los Angeles, was 17 years old when she was imprisoned at Manzanar. Later, she was incarcerated at [[Jerome War Relocation Center|Jerome]] and [[Rohwer War Relocation Center|Rohwer]], [[Arkansas]].<ref name = "TomFujita">{{cite journal | last = Fujita-Rony | first = Thomas Y. | title = Destructive Force: Aiko Herzig-Yoshinaga's Gendered Labor in the Japanese American Redress Movement | journal = Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | pages = 38&ndash;60 | publisher = Frontiers Editorial Collective | date = 2003 | url = http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/frontiers/v024/24.1fujita-rony.html | accessdate = 2007-04-24 | doi = 10.1353/fro.2003.0017}}</ref> Yoshinaga-Herzig later moved to [[New York]] where she became a community activist in the 1960s and was a member of Asian Americans for Action (AAA), the first Asian American political organization on the East Coast, which included Asian American activists Bill and [[Yuri Kochiyama]].<ref name="TomFujita"/> Although she was not trained to be an archival researcher, Yoshinaga-Herzig decided to find out what historical documents about herself and her family might exist at the [[National Archives and Records Administration|National Archives]].<ref name = "TomFujita"/> Yoshinaga-Herzig and her husband, John "Jack" Herzig, pored over mountains of documents from the War Relocation Authority, a task that "was roughly equivalent to indexing all the information in a library, working from a card catalog that only gave a subject description by shelf, without giving individual book titles or authors."<ref name = "TomFujita"/> Their efforts resulted in the discovery of evidence that the US Government perjured itself before the [[Supreme Court of the United States|United States Supreme Court]] in the 1944 cases ''[[Korematsu v. United States]]'', ''[[Hirabayashi v. United States]],'' and ''Yasui v. United States'' by presenting falsified evidence to the Court, by destroying evidence, and by withholding other vital information.<ref name = "UnrauEpilogue856&ndash;857">{{cite book | author = Unrau, Harlan D. | title = Manzanar National Historic Site: The Evacuation And Relocation Of Persons Of Japanese Ancestry During World War II: A Historical Study Of The Manzanar War Relocation Center: Historic Resource Study/Special History Study, Volume Two | publisher = National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior | year = 1996 | pages = 856&ndash;857}}</ref> This evidence provided the legal basis Japanese Americans needed to seek redress and reparations for their wartime imprisonment. The Herzigs' research was also valuable in their work with the National Coalition for Japanese American Redress (NCJAR), which filed a [[class-action lawsuit]] against the US Government on behalf of the prisoners. The US Supreme Court ruled against the plaintiff.<ref name = "TomFujita"/> ''William Minoru Hohri'', born in [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]], [[California]], in 1927,<ref name = "AWHohri">{{cite news | last = Nash | first = Philip Taijitsu | title = William Minoru Hohri: Visionary, Writer and Activist for Resisters of Injustice | publisher = Asian Week | date = [[2001-08-17]] | url = http://www.asianweek.com/2001_08_17/news_washj.html | accessdate = 2007-05-07}}</ref> was imprisoned at Manzanar when he was 15 years old. His family entered Manzanar on [[April 3]], [[1942]], and remained behind the barbed wire until [[August 25]], [[1945]].<ref name = "RepairingAmerica1">{{cite book | author = Hohri, William Minoru | title = Repairing America: An Account of the Movement for Japanese-American Redress | publisher = Washington State University Press | year = 1988 | id = ISBN 0-87422-034-3 | pages = 1}}</ref> Hohri became a civil rights and anti-war activist after World War II. In the late 1970s he became the chair of NCJAR, which brought a class-action lawsuit against the US Government on [[March 16]], [[1983]], asserting that it had unjustly imprisoned Japanese Americans during World War II.<ref name = "RepairingAmerica203">{{cite book | author = Hohri | title = Repairing America: An Account of the Movement for Japanese-American Redress | pages = 203}}</ref> The lawsuit stated twenty-two causes of action, including fifteen alleged violations of [[constitutional right]]s, and sought $27 billion in damages.<ref name = "UnrauEpilogue857">{{cite book | author = Unrau | title = Manzanar National Historic Site: The Evacuation And Relocation Of Persons Of Japanese Ancestry During World War II: A Historical Study Of The Manzanar War Relocation Center: Historic Resource Study/Special History Study, Volume Two | pages = 857}}</ref> Despite the fact the US Supreme Court eventually ruled against the class action plaintiffs, the lawsuit helped bring the case for redress and reparations to public awareness. It showed the [[United States Congress|Congress]] and the Executive Branch that the US Government would have far greater exposure in the still-pending lawsuit than by legislation under consideration in Congress for reparations. The proposed bill called for $20,000 reparations payments to each former prisoner or their immediate relatives, along with money for a civil liberties education fund (''see'' [[Civil Liberties Act|Civil Liberties Act of 1988]]).<ref name = "RepairingAmerica210">{{cite book | author = Hohri | title = Repairing America: An Account of the Movement for Japanese-American Redress | pages = 210}}</ref><ref name = "SacBee">{{cite news | last = Magagnini | first = Stephen | title = A Nation's Apology | publisher = Sacramento Bee | date = [[2001-10-08]]}}</ref> {{quote|...(The class action lawsuit) remained active until after Congress had passed the redress legislation. While it remained alive, it played a significant part in publicizing the issues. The NCJAR lawsuit demanded $220,000 for each individual whose liberties had been denied. This was more than twenty times greater than the $20,000 per surviving incarcerated person that the redress bills proposed, allowing proponents to portray the legislative solution as a moderate alternative.<ref name = "TomFujita"/>}} [[Image:ralphlazo.jpg|thumb|left|Ralph Lazo in a group photo at Manzanar]] ''Ralph Lazo'', born in 1924 in Los Angeles, was of [[Mexican American]] and [[Irish American|Irish]] descent, but when at age 16 he learned that his Japanese American friends and neighbors were being forcibly relocated and imprisoned at Manzanar, he was outraged.<ref name = "Lazo-LATimes"/> Lazo was so incensed that he joined friends on a train that took hundreds to Manzanar in May 1942.<ref name = "DenshoLazo">{{cite web | title = Densho: Reading: The Incarceration Years | publisher = Densho | url = http://www.densho.org/learning/spice/lesson4/4reading4.asp | accessdate = April 23 | accessyear = 2007 }}</ref><ref name = "NCRRWhoWasLazo">{{cite news | last = Yen | first = Janice | title = Who Was Ralph Lazo? | publisher = National Coalition for Civil Rights and Redress | url = http://www.ncrr-la.org/news/7_6_03/2.html | accessdate = 2007-08-02}}</ref> Manzanar officials never asked him about his ancestry. "Internment was immoral," Lazo told the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]''. "It was wrong, and I couldn't accept it."<ref name = "Lazo-LATimes"/> "These people hadn't done anything that I hadn't done except to go to Japanese language school."<ref name = "LAAlmanac">{{cite web | title = Ralph Lazo - A True Friend | publisher = Los Angeles Almanac | url = http://www.laalmanac.com/history/hi07se.htm | accessdate = April 23 | accessyear = 2007 }}</ref> In 1944, Lazo was elected president of his class at Manzanar High School.<ref name = "Lazo-LATimes"/> He remained at Manzanar until August of that year, when he was inducted into the US Army.<ref name = "Lazo-LATimes"/> He served as a Staff Sergeant in the [[Pacific Ocean theater of World War II|South Pacific]] until 1946, helping liberate the [[Philippines]]. Lazo was awarded the [[Bronze Star Medal|Bronze Star]] for heroism in combat.<ref name = "Lazo-LATimes"/><ref name = "DenshoLazo"/> After the war, he was a strong supporter of redress and reparations for Japanese Americans imprisoned during the war.<ref name = "LAAlmanac"/> The film, ''[[Stand Up for Justice: The Ralph Lazo Story]]'', from [[Visual Communications (VC)|Visual Communications]], documents his life story, particularly his stand against the internment.<ref name = NCRRLazo">{{cite web | title = Stand Up for Justice:The Ralph Lazo Story | publisher = National Coalition for Civil Rights and Redress | url = http://www.ncrr-la.org/news/stand_up_for_justice.html | date = January, 2004 | accessdate = April 23 | accessyear = 2007 }}</ref> [[Image:Manzanar portrait Toyo Miyatake 00100u.jpg|thumb|right|Photographer Toyo Miyatake]] ''[[Toyo Miyatake]]'', who was born in [[Kagawa Prefecture|Kagawa]], [[Shikoku]], [[Japan]], in 1896, immigrated to the United States in 1909. He settled in the [[Little Tokyo]] section of Los Angeles, and was imprisoned at Manzanar along with his family. A photographer, Miyatake smuggled a lens and film holder into Manzanar and later had a craftsman construct a wooden box with a door that hid the lens. He took many now-famous photos of life and the conditions at Manzanar. His contraband camera was eventually discovered by the camp administration and confiscated. However, camp director Ralph Merritt later allowed Miyatake to photograph freely within the camp, even though he was not allowed to actually press the shutter button, requiring a guard or camp official to perform this simple task. Merritt finally saw no point to this technicality, and allowed Miyatake to take photos himself.<ref name = "MiyatakeNPS">{{cite web | title = Manzanar National Historic Site - Photo Gallery (U.S. National Park Service) | publisher = National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior | url = http://www.nps.gov/manz/photosmultimedia/photogallery.htm | accessdate = April 12 | accessyear = 2007 }}</ref> [[Image:Sadao Munemori.jpg|thumb|left|PFC Sadao S. Munemori]] ''[[Sadao Munemori]]'' volunteered for service with the US Army directly from Manzanar, and served in [[European Theater of Operations|Europe]] with the [[100th Infantry Battalion (United States)|100th Battalion]]/[[442nd Regimental Combat Team]]. He was posthumously awarded the [[Medal of Honor]] for his courage when he single-handedly knocked out two machine guns and dove on a grenade, smothering its blast&mdash;sacrificing his own life to save two comrades near [[Seravezza]], [[Italy]], on [[April 5]], [[1945]].<ref name = "ArmyMOH">{{cite web | title = Medal Of Honor Recipients: World War II (M-S) | publisher = United States Army, United States Department of Defense | url = http://www.army.mil/cmh/html/moh/wwII-m-s.html | date = [[2007-07-16]] | accessdate = August 2 | accessyear = 2007 }}</ref> ''Harry Ueno'', born in Hawaii in 1907, was a ''Kibei'' (Japanese American educated in Japan) who was imprisoned at Manzanar with his wife and children.<ref name = "AsianWeekUenoObit">{{cite news | last = Lin | first = Sam Chu | title = Harry Yoshio Ueno, Manzanar Martyr, Dies at 97 | publisher = Asian Week | date = [[2004-12-24]] | url = http://news.asianweek.com/news/view_article.html?article_id=ade0cf080d81312a85b86853f0b1b0c4 | accessdate = 2007-04-23}}</ref> After volunteering for mess hall work, Ueno discovered that Manzanar camp staff were stealing rationed sugar and meat and selling them on the black market.<ref name = "AsianWeekUenoObit"/><ref name = "Martyr30&ndash;34">{{cite book | author = Embrey, Sue Kunitomi, Hansen, Arthur A., Kulberg, Betsy Mitson | title = Manzanar Martyr: An Interview With Harry Ueno | publisher = The Oral History Program, California State University, Fullerton | year = 1986 | id = ISBN 0-930046-07-2 | pages = 30&ndash;34}}</ref> Ueno exposed the thefts, and worked to organize prisoners to deal with them.<ref name = "Martyr34&ndash;37">{{cite book | author = Embrey, Sue Kunitomi, Hansen, Arthur A., Kulberg, Betsy Mitson | title = Manzanar Martyr: An Interview With Harry Ueno | pages = 34&ndash;37}}</ref> This led to his arrest, which resulted in Ueno becoming the focal point of the Manzanar Riot.<ref name = "AsianWeekUenoObit"/><ref name = "Martyrxvi">{{cite book | author = Embrey, Sue Kunitomi, Hansen, Arthur A., Kulberg, Betsy Mitson | title = Manzanar Martyr: An Interview With Harry Ueno | pages = xvi}}</ref> Ueno was one of the prisoners featured in Emiko Omori's [[Emmy Award]]-winning film ''Rabbit in the Moon''.<ref name = "RabbitMoon">{{cite web | title = Rabbit in the Moon: About the Film - PBS | publisher = Public Broadcasting System | url = http://www.pbs.org/pov/pov1999/rabbitinthemoon/about/index.html | date = 1999 | accessdate = April 23 | accessyear = 2007 }}</ref> "Ueno made us aware there was opposition in the camps," said Omori. "He made us feel that people did fight back and made us realize that one person can make a difference."<ref name="AsianWeekUenoObit"/> [[Image:KarlYoneda.jpg|thumb|right|Karl Yoneda [[July 3]] [[1942]]]] ''Karl Yoneda'' was born in [[Glendale, California|Glendale]], [[California]], on [[July 15]], [[1906]], but his family moved to Japan in 1913.<ref name = "YonedaHero">{{cite news | last = Price | first = Tom | title = Karl Yoneda, Working Class Hero | publisher = International Longshore and Warehouse Union and Recollection Books | date = May, 1999 | url = http://recollectionbooks.com/bleed/Encyclopedia/EroshenkoVasily/people_0599.htm | accessdate = 2007-08-02}}</ref><ref name = "Ganbatte5">{{cite book | last = Yoneda | first = Karl | title = Ganbatte: Sixty-Year Struggle of a Kibei Worker | publisher = UCLA Asian American Studies Center, Regents of the University of California | date = 1983 | location = Los Angeles | pages = 5 | id = ISBN 0-934052-07-7}}</ref> He became an activist early in his life.<ref name = "YonedaHero"/> With [[Empire of Japan|Japan]] on a path towards war, Yoneda returned to the United States rather than be drafted into the [[Imperial Japanese Army|Japanese Army]].<ref name = "YonedaHero"/> He arrived in San Francisco on [[December 14]], [[1926]]. He was taken to the Immigration Detention House on [[Angel Island, California|Angel Island]], where he was detained for two months, despite having his California birth certificate.<ref name = "Ganbatte5"/> Yoneda later moved to Los Angeles, where he found work organizing with the Trade Union Educational League, and later the Japanese Workers' Association.<ref name = "YonedaHero"/> Yoneda arrived at Manzanar on [[March 22]], [[1942]], one of the first Japanese Americans to arrive as a volunteer to build the camp.<ref name = "Ganbatte126">{{cite book | last = Yoneda | first = Karl | title = Ganbatte: Sixty-Year Struggle of a Kibei Worker | pages = 126}}</ref> Yoneda later distinguished himself in service to the US, volunteering to serve in the Military Intelligence Service.<ref name = "Ganbatte145&ndash;165">{{cite book | last = Yoneda | first = Karl | title = Ganbatte: Sixty-Year Struggle of a Kibei Worker | pages = 145&ndash;165}}</ref> After the war, Yoneda continued to support progressive causes and civil and human rights issues.<ref name = "YonedaHero"/> ==Preservation and remembrance== ===Manzanar Pilgrimage=== In 1969, about 150 people departed Los Angeles by car and bus, headed for Manzanar.<ref name = "ManzanarCommitteeHistory">{{cite web | title = Manzanar History | publisher = Manzanar Committee | url = http://www.manzanarcommittee.org/manzhistory.html | date = November, 2006 | accessdate = April 18 | accessyear = 2007}}</ref> It was the "first" annual Manzanar Pilgrimage. But as it turned out, two ministers, Reverends Sentoku Maeda and Soichi Wakahiro, had been making annual pilgrimages to Manzanar since the camp closed in 1945.<ref name = "ManzanarCommitteeHistory"/> [[Image:ManzanarCrowd07.jpg‎|thumb|right|Approximately 1,100 people attended the 38th Annual Manzanar Pilgrimage, [[April 28]], [[2007]].]] The [[non-profit]] Manzanar Committee, formerly led by Sue Kunitomi Embrey, has sponsored the Pilgrimage since 1969. The event is held annually on the last Saturday of April<ref name = "ManzanarCommitteeHistory"/> with hundreds of visitors of all ages and backgrounds, including some former prisoners, gathering at the Manzanar cemetery to remember the internment and to learn about it in the hope that what is generally accepted to be a tragic chapter in American history is neither forgotten nor repeated. The program traditionally consists of speakers, cultural performances, an interfaith service, and [[Ondo (music)|Ondo]] dancing. In 1997, the Manzanar At Dusk program became a part of the Pilgrimage.<ref name = "MAD1997">{{cite web | title = Manzanar After Dark | publisher = Manzanar Committee | url = http://www.manzanarcommittee.org/madness.html | date = November 2006 | accessdate = April 18 | accessyear = 2007 }}</ref> The program attracts local area residents, as well as descendents of Manzanar's ranch days and the town of Manzanar. Through small-group discussions, the event gives participants the opportunity to hear directly about the experiences of former prisoners firsthand, to share their experiences and feelings about what they learned, and talk about the relevance of what happened at Manzanar to their own lives. Since the events of [[September 11]], [[2001]], [[American Muslims]] have participated in the Pilgrimage, in large numbers since 2007, to promote and increase awareness of civil rights protections in the wake of widespread suspicions harbored against them in the post 9/11 world.<ref name ="ManzanarCommitteeDiversity">{{cite news | last = Matsuda | first = Gann | title = Manzanar Pilgrimage: A Diversity of Faces...And Much More | url = http://blog.manzanarcommittee.org/2008/05/manzanar-pilgrimage-diversity-of.html | publisher = Manzanar Commttee | date = [[2008-05-09]] | accessdate = 2008-05-25}}</ref> [[Image:MAD-Sato07.jpg|thumb|left|Manzanar At Dusk: In a small group session, former Manzanar prisoner Wilbur Sato (far right) relates his experiences behind the barbed wire. [[April 28]] [[2007]].]] ===California Historical Landmark=== The Manzanar Committee's efforts resulted in the [[State of California]] naming Manzanar as [[California Historical Landmark]] #850 in 1972, with an historical marker being placed at the sentry post on [[April 14]], [[1973]].<ref name = "Reflections19"/><ref name = "OHP">{{cite web | title = Inyo: California Historical Landmarks | publisher = Department of Parks and Recreation, State of California | url = http://ohp.parks.ca.gov/?page_id=21422 | date = 2004 | accessdate = 2007-08-04}}</ref> ===National Historic Landmark and National Historic Site=== The Manzanar Committee also spearheaded efforts for Manzanar to be listed in the [[National Register of Historic Places]], and in February 1985, Manzanar was designated a [[National Historic Landmark]].<ref name = "NHLSUM"/><ref name = "Reflections19"/><ref name = "NRHPINV2">{{cite web | author = Thompson, Irwin H. | title = National Register of Historic Places Inventory-Nomination: Manzanar War Relocation Center/Manzanar Internment Camp | url = http://pdfhost.focus.nps.gov/docs/NHLS/Text/76000484.pdf | publisher = National Park Service | format = PDF | date = [[1984-08-12]] | accessdate = 2008-05-29}}</ref> Embrey and the Committee also led the effort to have Manzanar designated a [[National Historic Site]], and on [[March 3]], [[1992]], President [[George H. W. Bush]] signed House Resolution 543 into law ({{USPL|102|248}}; {{USStat|106|40}}). This [[act of Congress]] established the Manzanar National Historic Site "to provide for the protection and interpretation of the historical, cultural, and natural resources associated with the relocation of Japanese Americans during World War II."<ref name = "Legislation"/><ref name = "Reflections20">{{cite book | author = Manzanar Committee | title = Reflections: Three Self-Guided Tours Of Manzanar | pages = 20}}</ref> Five years later, the National Park Service acquired {{convert|814|acre|ha}} of land at Manzanar from the City of Los Angeles.<ref name = "Reflections20"/> [[Image:ManzanarWatchTowerReplica.jpg|thumb|right|Replica of an historic watch tower at the Manzanar National Historic Site, built in 2005. Eight watchtowers, equipped with searchlights and machine guns pointed inward at the prisoners, were positioned around the perimeter of the camp. [[April 27]], [[2007]].]] The site features an Interpretive Center housed in the historically restored Manzanar High School Auditorium, which has a permanent exhibit that tells the stories of the prisoners at Manzanar, the Owens Valley Paiute, the ranchers, the town of Manzanar, and water in the Owens Valley.<ref name = "InterpretiveCenter">{{cite web | title = Manzanar National Historic Site: Interpretive Center (U.S. National Park Service) | publisher = National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior | url = http://www.nps.gov/manz/planyourvisit/interpretive-center.htm | accessdate = August 23 | accessyear = 2007 }}</ref> <blockquote> “...Stories like this need to be told, and too many of us have passed away without telling our stories," Embrey said during her remarks at the Grand Opening ceremonies for the Manzanar National Historic Site Interpretive Center on [[April 24]], [[2004]]. "The Interpretive Center is important because it needs to show to the world that America is strong as it makes amends for the wrongs it has committed, and that we will always remember Manzanar because of that."<ref name = "RafuObit"/></blockquote> The site, which has seen 522,749 people visit between 2000 and 2007,<ref name = "ManzanarVisitation"/> features restored sentry posts at the camp entrance, a replica of a camp watchtower, a self-guided tour road, and informational markers.<ref name = "OutdoorActivities">{{cite web | title = Manzanar National Historic Site: Outdoor Activities (U.S. National Park Service) | publisher = National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior | url = http://www.nps.gov/manz/planyourvisit/outdooractivities.htm | accessdate = August 23 | accessyear = 2007 }}</ref> Staff offer guided tours and other educational programs,<ref name = "GuidedTours">{{cite web | title = Manzanar National Historic Site: Guided Tours (U.S. National Park Service) | publisher = National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior | url = http://www.nps.gov/manz/planyourvisit/guidedtours.htm | accessdate = August 23 | accessyear = 2007 }}</ref> including a Junior Ranger educational program for children between four and fifteen years of age.<ref name = "JuniorRanger">{{cite web | title = Manzanar National Historic Site: Be A Junior Ranger (U.S. National Park Service) | publisher = National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior | url = http://www.nps.gov/manz/forkids/beajuniorranger.htm | accessdate = August 24 | accessyear = 2007 }}</ref> The National Park Service is working to restore an historic mess hall; build a replica of a portion of a residential block, including barracks; and plant historically appropriate vegetation.<ref name = "Centennial">{{cite press release | publisher = National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior | url = http://www.nps.gov/manz/parknews/upload/Aug%2023%2007%20Press%20Release%20for%20certified%20eligible.doc | format = DOC | date = [[2007-08-23]] | title= Centennial Proposals Eligible For Matching Funds | accessdate=2007-09-14}}</ref> They are also taking oral histories of former prisoners and others from all periods of Manzanar's history. ==Other works== A made-for-television movie, ''[[Farewell to Manzanar]]'', aired on [[March 11]], [[1976]] on [[NBC]]. It was based on the 1973 novel of the same name, written by [[Jeanne Wakatsuki Houston]], who was imprisoned at Manzanar as a child, and her husband James D. Houston.<ref name = "FarewellMovie">{{cite web | title = Farewell to Manzanar (1976) (TV) | publisher = National Broadcasting Corporation | url = http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0074518 | accessdate = 2008-01-12}}</ref> The book and the movie tell the story of the Wakatsuki family and their experiences behind the barbed wire through young Jeanne's eyes.<ref name = "FarewellBook">{{cite book | author = Houston, Jeanne Wakatsuki | title = Farewell To Manzanar: A True Story of Japanese American Experience During and After the World War II Internment | publisher = Laurel Leaf | year = 1973, 1983 | id = ISBN 0-553272-58-6}}</ref><ref name = "DiscoverNikkeiJWH">{{cite web | title = Discover Nikkei: Jeanne Wakatsuki Houston | url = http://www.discovernikkei.org/wiki/index.php/Jeanne_Wakatsuki_Houston | publisher = DiscoverNikkei.org | date = [[2007-01-09]] | accessdate = 2008-01-12}}</ref> ''[[Come See The Paradise]]'', was a feature film about how forced relocation and imprisonment at Manzanar affected a Japanese American family from Los Angeles and a [[Caucasian race|Caucasian]] union organizer. The film, released in 1990, starred [[Dennis Quaid]] and [[Tamlyn Tomita]], and was written and directed by Alan Parker.<ref name = "Paradise">{{cite web | title = Come See The Paradise (1990) | publisher = Twentieth-Century Fox Film Corporation | url = http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0099291 | accessdate = September 24 | accessyear = 2007}}</ref> The 1994 award-winning novel ''[[Snow Falling on Cedars]]'' by David Guterson contains many scenes and details relating to Japanese Americans from the [[Puget Sound]], [[Washington]], area and their internment experiences at Manzanar,<ref name = "Cedars">{{cite book | author = Guterson, David | title = Snow Falling On Cedars | publisher = Vintage | year = 1995 | id = ISBN 0-679764-02-X}}</ref> as does the [[Snow Falling on Cedars (film)|2000 film]] based on the book.<ref name = "Snow">{{cite web | title = Snow Falling On Cedars (1999) | publisher = The Kennedy-Marshall Company/Universal Studios | url = http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0120834 | accessdate = September 24 | accessyear = 2007}}</ref> [[Fort Minor]]'s song ''[[Kenji (song)|Kenji]]'', from the album ''[[The Rising Tied]]'' (2005), tells the true story of [[Mike Shinoda]]'s family and their experiences before, during, and after World War II, including their imprisonment at Manzanar.<ref name =" ShinodaInterview">{{cite news | title = MorleyViews: Interviews by Morley Seaver: Mike Shinoda (Linkin Park, Fort Minor) | publisher = AntiMusic/Iconoclast Entertainment Group | url = http://www.antimusic.com/morley/05/FortMinor.shtml | accessdate = 2007-09-24}}</ref> The Asian American jazz fusion band [[Hiroshima (band)|Hiroshima]] has a song entitled "Manzanar" on its album ''The Bridge'' (2003). It is an instrumental song inspired by Manzanar and the Japanese American Internment.<ref name = "HiroshimaBridge">{{cite web | title = Bridge | publisher = Hiroshima, Inc. | url = http://www.hiroshimamusic.com/bridgereview.html | date = October, 2003 | accessdate = May 27 | accessyear = 2007}}</ref> Also, its song "Living In America", on its album entitled ''East'' (1990), contains the phrase "I still remember Manzanar" in its lyrics. [[Channel 3 (band)|Channel 3]]'s song titled "Manzanar" is about the internment.<ref name = "Channel3">{{cite web | title = Song Meanings - Lyrics - Channel 3 - Manzanar | publisher = SongMeanings | url = http://www.songmeanings.net/lyric.php?lid=3530822107858628118 | date = [[2006-09-30]] | accessdate = September 24 | accessyear = 2007}}</ref> A 2007 episode of the [[CBS]] television crime drama [[Cold Case]] titled "Family 8108" dealt with the 1945 murder of a Japanese American man in [[Philadelphia]], [[Pennsylvania]] after he and his family were released from Manzanar. The episode originally aired on [[December 9]], [[2007]].<ref name = "ColdCasetv.com">{{cite web | title = Cold Case: Family 8108 - TV.com | url = http://www.tv.com/cold-case/family-8108/episode/1142751/summary.html | year = 2007 | accessdate = December 10 | accessyear = 2007}}</ref> Folk/country musician [[Tom Russell]] wrote "Manzanar", a song about the Japanese American internment that was released on his album, ''Box of Visions'' (1993).<ref name = "RollingStone"> {{cite web | author = Tom Jurek | title = Album Reviews: Tom Russell | url = http://www.rollingstone.com/artists/tomrussell/albums/album/218693/review/5944760/box_of_visions | publisher = Rolling Stone | year = 1993 | accessdate = December 24 | accessyear = 2007}}</ref> [[Laurie Lewis]] covered the song on her album ''Seeing Things'' (1998), adding the Japanese string instrument, the [[koto (musical instrument)|koto]], to her performance.<ref name = "BlueGrassWorks"> {{cite web | author = Geffen, Lewis| title = Laurie Lewis | url = http://www.bluegrassworks.com/profile.php?profileID=26 | publisher = Bluegrass Works LLC | date = [[2004-01-01]] | accessdate = December 24 | accessyear = 2007}}</ref> ==See also== {{portal|California|WPCF.svg}} {{portal|History|Portal.svg}} {{portal|United States|Flag_of_the_United_States.svg}} *[[Ansel Adams]] *''[[Born Free and Equal|Born Free and Equal:The Story of Loyal Japanese Americans]]'' *[[California Water Wars]] *[[Dorothea Lange]] *[[Japanese American internment|Japanese American Internment]] *Other camps: **[[Gila River War Relocation Center]] **[[Granada War Relocation Center]] **[[Heart Mountain War Relocation Center]] **[[Jerome War Relocation Center]] **[[Minidoka Internment National Monument]] **[[Poston War Relocation Center]] **[[Rohwer War Relocation Center]] **[[Topaz War Relocation Center]] **[[Tule Lake War Relocation Center]] ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==Additional reading== ===Owens Valley resources=== *{{cite book | author = Burton, Jeff | title = The Archeology of Somewhere: Archeological Testing Along U.S. Highway 395, Manzanar National Historic Site | publisher = Western Archeological Center, National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior | year = 1998 | id = Publications in Anthropology 72 (''Covers archeological finds at Manzanar from the pre-World War II, wartime and post-war periods'')}} *{{cite book | author = Chalfant, William A. | title = Story Of Inyo | publisher = Chalfant Press | year = 1980 | id = ISBN 0-912494-34-4}} *{{cite book | author = Ewan, Rebecca Fish | title = A Land Between: Owens Valley, California | publisher = The Johns Hopkins University Press | year = 2000 | id = ISBN 0-801864-61-5}} *{{cite book | author = Hoffman, Abraham | title = Vision or Villainy: Origins of the Owens Valley-Los Angeles Water Controversy | publisher = Texas A&M University Press | year = 1992 | id = ISBN 0-890965-09-9}} *{{cite book | author = Kahri, William L. | title = Water and Power: The Conflict Over Los Angeles Water Supply in the Owens Valley | publisher = University of California Press | year = 1983 | id=ISBN 0-520050-68-1}} *{{cite book | author = Nadeau, Remi A. | title = The Water Seekers | publisher = Crest Publishers | year = 1997 | id = ISBN 0-962710-45-8}} *{{cite journal | last = Steward | first = Julian | title = Ethnography of the Owens Valley Paiute | journal = University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology | volume = 33 | issue = 3 | pages = 233&ndash;250 | date = 1933}} *{{cite book | author= Steward, Julian | title = Myths of the Owens Valley Paiute | publisher = Kessinger Publishing, LLC | year = 1934, 2007 | id = ISBN 1-432565-38-9}} *{{cite book | author = Wehrey, Jane | title = Voices From This Long Brown Land: Oral Recollections of Owens Valley Lives and Manzanar Pasts | publisher = Palgrave Macmillan | year = 2006 | id = ISBN 0-312295-41-3}} ===Wartime-related resources=== *{{cite book | author=Armor, John and Wright, Peter. | title=Manzanar; Photographs by Ansel Adams | publisher=Vintage Books | year=1989}} *{{cite book | author=Adams Ansel, Benti, Wynne (ed.), Embrey, Sue Kunitomi (contributor), Michael, William H. (contributor). | title=[[Born Free And Equal]]: The Story of Loyal Japanese Americans | publisher=Spotted Dog Press | year=2001 | id=ISBN 1-893343-05-7}} *{{cite book | author=Bunting, Eve, Soentpiet, Chris K. | title=So Far from the Sea | publisher=Clarion Books | year=1998 | id=ISBN 0-395720-95-8}} *{{cite book | author=Cooper, Michael. | title=Remembering Manzanar: Life In A Japanese Relocation Camp | publisher=Clarion Books | year=2002 | id=ISBN 0-618067-78-7}} *{{cite book | author=Embrey, Sue Kunitomi. | title=The Lost Years: 1942–1946 | publisher=Moonlight Publications | year=1972 | id=ISBN 0-930046-07-2}} *{{cite book | author=Garrett, Jessie A., Larson, Ronald C. (ed). | title=Camp and Community: Manzanar and the Owens Valley | publisher=Japanese American Oral History Program: California State University, Fullerton | year=1977 | id=ISBN 0-930046-00-5}} *{{cite book | author=Inada, Lawson Fusao (ed.) | title=Only What We Could Carry: The Japanese American Internment Experience | publisher=Heyday Books and the California Historical Society | year=2000 | id=ISBN 1-890771-30-9}} *{{cite journal | last = Peterson | first = Robert | title = Scouting in World War II Detention Camps | journal = Scouting Magazine: The Way It Was | date = November/December, 1999 | url = http://www.scoutingmagazine.org/issues/9911/d-wwas.html | publisher = Boy Scouts of America | accessdate = 2007-09-28}} *{{cite web| author = Shiozaki, Cory | title = From Barbed Wire to Barbed Hooks: Fishing Stories From Manzanar | url = http://www.fearnotrout.com | publisher = Cory Shiozaki | accessdate = 2007-09-05 | year = 2007}} *{{cite book | author = Weglyn, Michi | title = Years Of Infamy: The Untold Story Of America's Concentration Camps | publisher = University of Washington Press | year = 1976, 1996 | id = ISBN 0-295-97484-2}} ===Post-War-related resources=== *{{cite book | author=Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians. | title=Personal Justice Denied: Report of the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians | publisher=Civil Liberties Public Education Fund and University of Washington Press | year=1997 | id=ISBN 0-295-97558-X}} *{{cite book | author=Daniels, Roger, Kitano, Harry H.L., Taylor, Sandra C. | title=Japanese Americans From Relocation To Redress | publisher=University of Utah Press | year=1986 | id=ISBN 0-87480-258-X}} *{{cite book | author=Irons, Peter. | title=Justice At War | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1983 | id=ISBN 0-19-503273-X}} *{{cite book | author=Japanese American Historical Society of Southern California. | title=Nanka Nikkei Voices: Resettlement Years, 1945–1955 | publisher=Japanese American Historical Society of Southern California | year=1998}} *{{cite book | author=Maki, Mitchell T., Kitano, Harry H.L., Berthold, S. Megan. | title=Achieving The Impossible Dream: How Japanese Americans Obtained Redress | publisher=University of Illinois Press | year=1999 | id=ISBN 0-252-02458-3}} *{{cite news | last = Silber | first = Rebecca R | title = Lexicon of Genocide (Letter to the Editor) | publisher = New York Times | url = http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9907E7D91639F936A25750C0A96E958260 | date = [[1998-03-15]] | accessdate = 2008-01-01}} *{{cite book | author=Takei, Barbara, Tachibana, Julie | title=Tule Lake Revisited | publisher=T & T Press | year=2001 | id=ISBN 0-971167-60-5}} ==External links== {{commons|Manzanar}} *[http://crm.cr.nps.gov/archive/24-05/24-05-6.pdf "American Indian Links to Manzanar," by Larry Van Horn] *[http://www.countyofinyo.org/ecmuseum/index.html Eastern California Museum] *{{Nrhp source1|CA|Inyo|state}} *[http://www.manzanarcommittee.org/ Manzanar Committee] *[http://blog.manzanarcommittee.org Manzanar Committee - official blog] *[http://www.nps.gov/manz Manzanar National Historic Site, National Park Service] *[http://www.rafu.com/manzanar_gallery.html "Manzanar: A Photo Essay," by Mario G. Reyes, ''Rafu Shimpo''] *[http://www.bonita.k12.ca.us/schools/sandimas/teachers/MONO/pages2000/Projects/NativeAmericans/report.htm Mono Basin Paiutes: Mono Lake And Owens Valley Native Americans] *[http://www.farwestern.com/owensvalley/owens.htm Prehistory of Owens Valley] *[http://americanhistory.si.edu/perfectunion/experience/index.html Smithsonian Institution: A More Perfect Union] {{Registered Historic Places}} {{Japanese American internment camps}} {{Protected Areas of California}} [[Category:Concentration camps]] [[Category:History of California]] [[Category:Internment camps]] [[Category:Inyo County, California]] [[Category:Japanese American internment]] [[Category:National Historic Landmarks in California]] [[Category:National Historic Sites in California]] [[Category:Protected areas of California]] [[Category:Sierra Nevada]] [[Category:1942 establishments]] [[de:Manzanar]] [[fr:Manzanar]] [[ja:マンザナール強制収容所]] [[no:Manzanar]] [[vi:Manzanar]]