Margarine
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2008-07-16T05:46:38Z
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[[Image:Margarine.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Margarine in a tub]]
'''Margarine''' ({{pronEng|ˈmɑrdʒərɪn}} or {{IPA|/ˈmɑrgəriːn/}}), as a generic term, can indicate any of a wide range of [[butter]] substitutes. In many parts of the world, margarine has become the best-selling table spread, although butter and [[olive oil]] also command large market shares. Margarine is an ingredient in the preparation of many other foods. In some regions people may refer to margarine as ''butter'' in informal speech, but in several countries laws forbid food packaging to refer to margarine as "butter". Recipes sometimes refer to margarine as ''oleo''.
==History==
{{Story|date=July 2008}}
Margarine has a long and sometimes confusing history. Its name originates with the discovery by [[Michel Eugène Chevreul]] in 1813 of "margaric acid" (itself named after the pearly deposits of the fatty acid from [[Greek (language)|Greek]] {{lang|grc|μαργαρίς, -ρῖτης}} or μάργαρον (margarís, -îtēs / márgaron), meaning "a pearl-oyster" or "a pearl"). Scientists at the time regarded margaric acid, like [[oleic acid]] and [[stearic acid]], as one of the three [[fatty acid]]s which, in combination, formed most [[animal]] [[fat]]s. In 1853 the German structural chemist [[Wilhelm Heinrich Heintz]] analyzed margaric acid as simply a combination of stearic acid and of the previously unknown [[palmitic acid]].{{Fact|date=July 2007}}
In 1869 [[Napoleon III of France|Emperor Louis Napoleon III]] of [[France]] offered a prize to anyone who could make a satisfactory substitute for butter, suitable for use by the [[military|armed forces]] and the [[lower class]]es.<ref>''Science Power 9: Atlantic Edition,'' McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. ISBN 0-07-560905-3.</ref> French [[chemist]] [[Hippolyte Mège-Mouriés]] invented a substance he called '''oleomargarine''', the name of which became shortened to the trade name "Margarine". ''Margarine'' now refers [[generic term|generically]] to any of a range of broadly similar edible [[Cooking oil|oil]]s. The name ''oleomargarine'' is sometimes abbreviated to '''oleo'''.
Manufacturers produced oleomargarine by taking clarified vegetable fat, extracting the [[liquid]] portion under [[pressure]], and then allowing it to [[solid]]ify. When combined with [[butyrin]] and [[water]], it made a cheap and more-or-less palatable butter-substitute. Sold as ''Margarine'' or under any of a host of other trade names, butter-substitutes soon became a substantial market segment, but too late to help Mège-Mouriés: Athough he expanded his initial manufacturing operation from [[France]] to the [[United States]] in 1873, he had little commercial success. By the end of the decade both the [[old world]] and the [[new world|new]] could buy artificial butters.{{Fact|date=July 2007}}
From that time on, two main trends would dominate the margarine [[industry]]: on one hand a series of refinements and improvements to the product and its manufacture, and on the other a long and bitter struggle with the [[dairy industry]], which defended itself from the margarine industry with vigor. As early as 1877 the first [[United States|U.S.]] states had passed laws to restrict the sale and labelling of margarine. By the mid-1880s the United States federal government had introduced a tax of two cents per pound, and devotees needed an expensive license to make or sell the product. Individual states began to require the clear labelling of margarine, banning passing it off as real butter.{{Fact|date=July 2007}}
The key to slowing margarine sales (and protecting the established dairy industries), however, emerged as restricting its color. Margarine naturally appears white or almost white: by forbidding the addition of artificial coloring agents, legislators found that they could keep margarine off kitchen tables. Bans on coloration became commonplace around the world and endured for almost 100 years. It did not become legal to sell colored margarine in [[Australia]], for example, until the 1960s.
=== Margarine in the United States ===
In the United States, the color bans, drafted by the butter lobby, began in the dairy states of [[New York]] and [[New Jersey]]. In several states, the legislature enacted laws to force margarine manufacturers to add pink colorings to make the product look unpalatable, but the Supreme Court struck down New Hampshire's law and overruled these measures. By the start of the 20th century, eight out of ten Americans could not buy yellow margarine, and those that could had to pay a hefty tax on it. Bootleg colored margarine became common, and manufacturers began to supply food-coloring capsules so that the consumer could knead the yellow color into margarine before serving it. Nevertheless, the regulations and taxes had a significant effect: the 1902 restrictions on margarine color, for example, cut annual U.S. consumption from 120 million to 48 million pounds (54,000 to 22,000 [[ton]]s). However, by the end of the 1910s, it had become more popular than ever {{Fact|date=June 2008}}.
With the coming of [[World War I]], margarine consumption increased enormously, even in unscathed regions like the United States. In the countries closest to the fighting, dairy products became almost unobtainable and were strictly [[Rationing|rationed]]. The [[United Kingdom]], for example, depended on imported butter from Australia and [[New Zealand]] and the risk of [[submarine]] attack meant that little arrived. Margarine became the [[Staple food|staple]] spread, and butter a rare and expensive [[Luxury good|luxury]].{{Fact|date=July 2007}}
The long-running [[rent seeking|rent-seeking]] battle between the margarine and dairy [[Lobbying|lobbies]] continued: in the United States, the [[Great Depression]] brought a renewed wave of pro-dairy legislation; the [[Second World War]], a swing back to margarine. Post-war, the margarine lobby gained power and, little by little, the main margarine restrictions were lifted, the last state to do so being [[Wisconsin]] in 1967. However, some vestiges of the legal restrictions remain in the U.S.: the [[Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act]] still prohibits the retail sale of margarine in packages larger than one pound.<ref>[http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=browse_usc&docid=Cite:+21USC347 Intrastate sales of colored oleomargarine]</ref>
===Margarine in Canada===
In Canada, margarine was banned from 1886 until 1948 though this ban was temporarily lifted from 1917 until 1923 due to dairy shortages.<ref name=cana/> Nevertheless, [[bootleg]] margarine was produced in neighboring British colony of [[Newfoundland]] from whale, seal and fish oil by the Newfoundland Butter Company (which, in fact, produced only margarine) and was smuggled to Canada where it was widely sold for half the price of butter. The [[Supreme Court of Canada]] lifted the margarine ban in 1948. In 1950, as a result of a court ruling giving provinces the right to regulate the product, rules were implemented in much of Canada regarding margarine's color, requiring it to be bright yellow or orange in some provinces or colorless in others. By the 1980s, most provinces had lifted the restriction, however, in [[Ontario]] it was not legal to sell butter-colored margarine until 1995.<ref name=cana>{{cite web | title = Canada's conflicted relationship with margarine | url = http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/food/margarine.html | accessdate = 2007-08-28 | publisher = CBC News Online | date = 2005-03-18}}</ref> [[Quebec]], the last Canadian province to regulate margarine coloring, repealed its law requiring margarine to be colorless in July, 2008.<ref name=queb>{{cite web | title = Resolving Canada's conflicted relationship with margarine | url = http://www.cbc.ca/consumer/story/2008/07/09/f-margarine.html | accessdate = 2008-07-10 | publisher = CBC News Online | date = 2008-07-09}}</ref>
==Margarine today==
[[Image:Rama-Margarine.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A [[Germany|German]] Rama margarine.]]
In the meantime, margarine manufacturers had made many changes. Modern margarine can be made from any of a wide variety of animal or vegetable fats, and is often mixed with [[skimmed milk]], [[salt]], and emulsifiers. Margarine made from vegetable oils is especially important in today's market, as it provides a [[Veganism|vegan]] and [[Kosher foods|pareve]] substitute for butter. Nearly all margarine is salted, which makes [[shortening]] (which contains no salt) a better choice for baking.
In terms of microstructure, margarine is a water-in-oil [[emulsion]], containing dispersed water droplets of typically 5-10 µm diameter. The amount of [[Crystallization processes|crystallizing]] fat in the continuous oil+fat phase determines the firmness of the product. In the relevant temperature range, [[saturated fat]]s contribute most to the amount of crystalline fat, whereas [[Monounsaturated fat|monounsaturated]] and [[polyunsaturated fat]]s contribute relatively little to the amount of crystalline fat in the product. Mono- and polyunsaturated fats and oils can be transformed into suitable [[substrate (biochemistry)|substrate]]s by the chemical process of [[hydrogenation]], which renders them solid at room temperature. Full hydrogenation results in saturated fats only, but [[Trans fat|partial hydrogenation]] will lead to the formation of trans-fats as well (see [[#Trans fat|Trans fat]]).
Three main types of margarine are common:
* Hard, generally uncolored margarine for cooking or baking. ([[Shortening]])
* "Traditional" margarines for such uses as spreading on [[toast]], which contain saturated fats, are mostly made from vegetable oils.
* Margarines high in mono- or polyunsaturated fats, which are made from [[safflower]], [[sunflower]], [[soybean]], [[cottonseed]], [[rapeseed]], or [[olive]] oil.
Many popular table spreads today are blends of margarine and butter — something that was long illegal in countries including the United States and Australia — and are designed to combine the lower cost and easy-spreading of artificial butter with the taste of the real thing.
Margarine, particularly polyunsaturated margarine, has become a major part of the Western diet. In the United States, for example, in 1930 the average person ate over 18 lb (8 kg) of butter a year and just over 2 lb (900g) of margarine. By the end of the 20th century, an average American ate just under 4 lb (1.8 kg) of butter and nearly 8 lb (3.6 kg) of margarine.
Under [[European Union]] directives, margarine products cannot be called "butter", even if most of it consists of natural butter. In some European countries butter based table spreads and margarine products are marketed as "butter mixtures".
These "butter mixtures" compose a significant portion of the table spread market. The brand "[[I Can't Believe It's Not Butter]]" spawned a variety of similarly-named spreads that can be found on supermarket shelves all over the world. With names like "Utterly Butterly," "You'd Butter Believe it," "Unbelievable! This Is Not Butter," and "Butterlicious," these butter mixtures avoid the restrictions on labeling with marketing techniques that imply a strong similarity to real butter.
The United States imports 10 billion pounds (4.5 million tons) of margarine a year. Additionally, the United States exports 2 billion pounds (900,000 tons) of margarine annually.
Margarine has a particular market to [[Orthodox Jews]]. The laws of [[Kashrut]] (the Jewish dietary laws) forbid the mixing of meat and dairy products, and hence there are strictly [[Kosher]] margarines available, which are often used by Jews adapting recipes that use meat and butter to be Kosher.
== Nutrition ==
Discussions concerning the nutritional value of margarine revolve around two aspects: the total amount of fat, and the types of fat ([[saturated fat]], [[trans fat]]). Usually, a comparison between margarine and butter is included in this context as well.
===Amount of fat===
Fat is an essential part of nutrition. It is needed in the production of cell membranes, as well as in several hormone-like compounds called eicosanoids. In addition, fat acts as carrier for fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K.<ref>
{{cite web
|url = http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/fat/NU00262
|title = Dietary fats: Know which types to choose
|author = Mayo Clinic
|date = January 31, 2007
|accessdate = 2008-05-18
}}</ref>
The total amount of fat you eat isn't really linked with disease.<ref name=Harward>
{{cite web
|url = http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/what-should-you-eat/fats-and-cholesterol/
|title = The Nutrition Source - Fats and Cholesterol
|author = Harvard School of Public Health
|date =
|accessdate = 2008-05-18
}}</ref> However, fat consumption in the Western world is quite high, which is one of the reasons for weight problems. Traditional margarine (~80% fat) contributes to this, but is not the main factor causing over-consumption. Low-fat spreads could serve as an alternative, and are widely available.
The roles of butter and margarine are quite similar with respect to their energy content.
===Saturated fat===
The [[saturated fat]]ty acids in triglycerides contribute to elevated blood cholesterol levels,<ref>A. Keys, J.T. Anderson, F. Grande, Serum cholesterol response to changes in the diet. IV. Particular fatty acids in the diet, Metabolism 14, 776-787 (1965).</ref><ref>R.P. Mensink, P.L. Zock, A.D.M. Kester, M.B. Katan, Effects of dietary fatty acids and carbohydrates on the ratio of serum total to HDL cholesterol and on serum lipids and apolipoproteins: a meta-analysis of 60 controlled studies, American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 77, 1146-1155 (2003).</ref> which in turn has often been linked to cardiovascular diseases. Saturated fat increases both LDL and HDL cholesterol.
Vegetable fats can contain anything between 10% and 100% saturated fatty acids. Liquid oils (unhardened [[Canola|canola oil]], sunflower oil) tend to be on the low end, while tropical oils ([[coconut]] oil, [[Palm oil|palm kernal oil]]) and fully hardened oils are at the high end of the scale.<ref name=fatoils>
{{cite web
|url = http://www.nutristrategy.com/fatsoils.htm
|title = Fats, Cooking Oils and Fatty Acids
|author = NutriStrategy
|date = 2005
|accessdate = 2008-05-18
}}</ref> A margarine blend is a mixture of both types of components, and will rarely exceed 50% saturated fatty acids on fat. Exceptions are some traditional kitchen margarines or products that have to maintain stability under tropical conditions.<ref>D.W. de Bruijne, A. Bot, Fabricated Fat-based Foods, in: Food Texture - Measurement and Perception (editor A.J. Rosenthal), Aspen, Gaithersburg, 1999, pp. 185-227.</ref> Generally, firmer margarines contain more saturated fat.
Regular butterfat contains ~65% saturated fatty acids on fat,<ref>http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/</ref> although this varies somewhat with season. One tablespoon of butter contains over 7g of saturated fat.
=== Unsaturated fat ===
The [[unsaturated fat]]ty acids are said to decrease LDL cholesterol (the "bad" cholesterol) levels and increase HDL cholesterol (the "good" cholesterol) levels in the blood, thus reducing the risk of contracting cardiovascular diseases.<ref>
{{cite web
|url = http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/content/abstract/133/1/78
|title = The Serum LDL/HDL Cholesterol Ratio Is Influenced More Favorably by Exchanging Saturated with Unsaturated Fat Than by Reducing Saturated Fat in the Diet of Women
|author = Müller et al.
|date = January 2003
|accessdate = 2008-05-18
}}</ref>.<ref>
{{cite web
|url = http://www.jacn.org/cgi/content/abstract/20/1/5
|title = Types of Dietary Fat and Risk of Coronary Heart Disease: A Critical Review
|author = Hu, Manson, Willett
|date = 2001
|accessdate = 2008-05-18
}}</ref><ref>
{{cite web
|url = http://archinte.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/abstract/161/3/361
|title = Low Triglycerides–High High-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol and Risk of Ischemic Heart Disease
|author = Jeppesen et al.
|date = 2001
|accessdate = 2008-05-18
}}</ref>
There are two types of unsaturated oils: mono- and polyunsaturated fats. Their nutritional and health effects are recognized in contrast to saturated fats; each degree of unsaturation conferring additional benefits.
Some widely grown vegetable oils such as [[rapeseed]] (and its variant [[canola]]), [[sunflower]], [[safflower]], and [[olive]] oils contain high amount of unsaturated fats.<ref name=fatoils/> During the manufacture of margarine, some of the unsaturated fats are converted into saturated fats or trans fats in order to give them a higher melting point so that they are solid at room temperatures. These hydrogenated oils lose the health benefits of unsaturation, but the process need not be declared to the consumer; it will depend on local laws.
* '''[[Omega-3 fatty acid]]s''' are a family of triply unsaturated fatty acids, which have been found especially good for health (see the main article) because, although only needed in small quantities in the diet, their absence can cause serious illness. Omega-3 fatty acids are mostly obtained from oily fish caught in high-latitude waters, but flax oil (linseed oil) is exceptionally rich in the Omega-3 fatty acid alpha-lineloic acid (LNA). This is one of the two [[Essential Fatty Acids]], so called because humans cannot manufacture it and must get it from food. It is comparatively uncommon and most modern Western diets are severely deficient in it. Flax oil contains 30-50% LNA, easily more than any other source, and is becoming a popular dietary supplement to rival fish oils; both are often added to premium margarines. Hemp oil contains about 20% LNA. Small amounts of LNA are found in vegetable oils such as soybean oil (7%), rapeseed oil (7%) and wheat germ oil (5%). A new commercial plant (with ancient importance) is camelina (from ''[[camelina sativa]]'', or false flax). Its oil is also high in LNA. Because of this, camelina oil has also recently been added to margarines.
* '''[[Omega-6 fatty acid]]s''' are also important for health. They include the Essential Fatty Acid Linoleic Acid (LA), which is abundant in vegetable oils grown in temperate climates. Some, such as hemp (60%) and the common margarine oils corn (60%), cottonseed ((50%) and sunflower (50%), have large amounts, but most temperate oil seeds have over 10% LA. Containing a major source of twice unsaturated fatty acids, such oils have positive health benefits. Much more Omega-6 oils are needed in the diet than Omega-3, therefore it is often recommended that the ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 in the diet should be between 2.5:1 and 4:1, depending on both the individual's general diet and metabolism. Modern Western diets are frequently quite high in Omega-6 but very deficient in Omega-3.
===Trans fat===
Several large studies<ref>W.C. Willett, M.J. Stampfer, J.E. Mason, G.A. Colditz, F.E. Speizer, B.A. Rosner, L.A. Sampson, C.H. Hennekes, Intake of trans fatty acids and risk of coronary heart disease among women, Lancet 341, 581-585 (1993)</ref><ref>F.B. Hu, M.J. Stampfer, J.E. Manson, E. Rimm, G.A. Colditz, B.A. Rosner, C.H. Hennekens, W.C. Willett, Dietary Fat Intake and the Risk of Coronary Heart Disease in Women, New England Journal of Medicine 337, 1491-1499 (1997) http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/short/337/21/1491</ref><ref>K. Hayakawa, Y.Y. Linko, P. Linko, The role of trans fatty acids in human nutrition, Journal of Lipid Science and Technology 102, 419-425 (2000)</ref><ref>[http://www.channing.harvard.edu/nhs/ The Nurses' Health Study (NHS)<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> indicate a link between consumption of high amounts of [[trans fat]] and coronary heart disease, and possibly some other diseases. This is mainly because trans fats increase the amount of LDL cholesterol and decrease the amount of HDL cholesterol in blood stream. The United States [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA), the [[National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute]] and the [[American Heart Association]] (AHA) all have recommended people to limit intake of trans-fat.
Trans fats occur naturally in vegetable oils in only tiny quantities. However, they are a deliberate consequence of partial hydrogenation of light oils, intended to 'harden' the oil sufficiently for it to take on the eating quality of butter oil. In contrast, full hydrogenation generates few trans fats, but is intended to turn light oils into fully saturated fats. The intended effect of partial hydrogenation is to straighten the molecule of polyunsaturated fatty acids, so that they behave more like saturated fats. These trans fatty acids are used by the body like saturated fats, mainly as fuel, but tend to block the use of Omega-3 and Omega-6 for vital bodily functions. They have been indicted as worse for health than even the well-publicized saturated fats in butter and meat.<ref>M. G. Enig, Trand- Fatty Acids in the Food Supply: a comprehensive report covering 60 years of research., Silver Springs, MD, Enig Associates, 1993.</ref>
Particularly in the US, partial hydrogenation has been common as a result of national dependence on a limited number of vegetable oil sources, US-grown oils being preferred to tropical oils which are principally saturated fat. However, in other parts of the world, the industry started to move away from using partially hydrogenated oils in the mid-nineties.<ref>E. Flöter, G. van Duijn, Trans-free fats for use in foods, in: Modifying lipids for use in foods (editor F.D. Gunstone), Woodhead, Cambridge, UK, 2006, pp. 429-443.</ref> This led to the production of new margarine varieties that contain less or no trans fat, the buttery consistency and 'mouth' being produced using other ingredients.<ref>G. van Duijn, Technical aspects of trans reduction in modified fats, Oléagineux, Corps Gras, Lipides, 12, 422-426 (2005)</ref> Many manufacturers in the US now label their products (following government regulations) as "zero grams" trans-fat, which effectively means less than 500 mg trans-fat per serving - no fat is entirely free of trans fats. For example, natural butterfat contains 2-5% trans fatty acids (mainly trans-vaccenic acid, a variant of the normal vaccenic acid).<ref>See e.g. P.S. Anand ''et al'', J. Dairy Res. 71, 66-73 (2004)</ref>
===Cholesterol===
Typically about 70% of human cholesterol is produced by the human body and only 30% comes from food sources. Thus intake of cholesterol as food has less effect on blood cholesterol levels than the type of fat you eat.<ref name=Harward/> However, some individuals are more responsive to dietary cholesterol than others. In the US, the [[FDA]] states that healthy people should not consume more than 300 mg of cholesterol each day.
Butter contains approximately 33 mg of cholesterol in each tablespoon.<ref>
{{cite web
|url = http://www.clevelandclinic.org/heartcenter/pub/guide/prevention/askdietician/margarine.htm
|title = Butter vs. Margarine
|author = Cleveland Clinic
|date =
|accessdate = 2008-05-18
}}</ref> Margarine contains only negligible amounts of or no cholesterol.<ref>
{{cite web
|url = http://www.cspinet.org/nah/12_01/
|title = Better than Butter?
|author = Jane Hurley, Bonnie Liebman
|date = December 2001
|accessdate = 2008-05-20
}}</ref>
=== Plant sterol/stanol esters ===
Plant [[sterol ester]]s or plant [[stanol ester]]s have been added to some margarines and spreads because of their cholesterol lowering effect.
Several studies have indicated that consumption of about 2 grams per day provides a reduction in LDL cholesterol of about 10%.<ref>
{{cite web
|url = http://www.mayoclinicproceedings.com/pdf/7808/7808r1.pdf
|title = Efficacy and Safety of Plant Stanols and Sterols in the Management of Blood Cholesterol Levels
|author = Katan et al.
|date = 2003
|accessdate = 2008-04-08
}}</ref><ref name="IFIC-07">
{{cite web
|url = http://www.ific.org/publications/factsheets/sterolfs.cfm
|title = Functional Foods Fact Sheet: Plant Stanols and Sterols
|author = [[International Food Information Council|IFIC]]
|date = July 2007
|accessdate = 2008-04-08
}}</ref>
Sterol/stanol esters are tasteless and odorless, and have the same physical and chemical properties typical of most fats. However, they do not enter the blood stream but instead pass through the gut. Thus they suit well to be used in low-fat spreads.
==See also==
* [[:Category:Margarine brands]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
==External links==
{{wiktionary}}
* [http://www.cjly.net/deconstructingdinner/090607.htm One-hour Radio Broadcast on Margarine in Canada (Deconstructing Dinner)]
* American Heart Association [http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=4776 article]
* [http://www.hyfoma.com/en/content/food-branches-processing-manufacturing/oil-margarines-sauces/margarine/ Hyfoma about margarine]
* [http://www.westonaprice.org/knowyourfats/skinny.html Online Article: "The Skinny on Fats"] (includes information on health concerns connected with margarine and certain oils)
* [http://www.newmediaexplorer.org/sepp/2003/09/29/the_good_the_bad_and_margarine.htm Sepp Hasslberger's Review]Roland Barthes, “Operation Margarine" [http://www2.english.uiuc.edu/finnegan/English%20256/roland_barthes.htm]
*[http://www.fromwhatiheard.com/2008/04/03/i-cant-believe-its-not-fat-free/ The truth about so-called 'fat free' butter sprays - beware!]
*[http://www.newmediaexplorer.org/chris/2004/11/24/butter_versus_margarine.htm|Butter vs. margarine]
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[[Category:Spreads]]
[[Category:Cooking fats]]
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