Maritime history 3704148 226047073 2008-07-16T16:20:34Z Reddi 13833 /* The Persian Wars */ [[Image:Buttersworth - flying cloud.jpg|thumb|right|333px|The Clipper Ship "Flying Cloud" off the Needles, Isle of Wight, off the southern English coast. Painting by James E. Buttersworth]] '''Maritime history''' is a broad thematic element of [[history]] that often uses a global approach, although national and regional histories remain predominant. As an academic subject, it often crosses the boundaries of standard [[disciplines]], focusing on understanding mankind's various relationships to the [[ocean]]s, [[sea]]s, and major [[waterway]]s of the globe. [[Nautical]] history records and interprets past events involving ships, shipping, navigation, and seamen. Maritime history is the broad overarching subject that includes [[fishing]], [[whaling]], international [[maritime law]], [[naval history]], the history of [[ship]]s, ship design, [[shipbuilding]], the history of [[navigation]], the history of the various maritime-related sciences ([[oceanography]], [[cartography]], [[hydrography]], etc.), sea exploration, maritime economics and trade, [[shipping]], [[yachting]], [[seaside resort]]s, the history of [[lighthouse]]s and aids to navigation, maritime themes in literature, maritime themes in art, the social history of [[sailor]]s and sea-related communities. {{TOClimit|limit=3}} ==History== ===Ancient times=== ====Prehistory==== [[Image:Dugout canoe manner boats de bry.jpg|thumb|222px|Indigenous Americans making a dugout canoe, a practice which they had done for centuries.]] In [[ancient maritime history]], the first boats are presumed to have been [[Dugout (boat)|dugout canoes]], developed independently by various stone age populations, and used for coastal fishing and travel. The [[Indigenous peoples of North America|Indigenous]] of the [[Pacific Northwest]] are very skilled at crafting wood. Best known for [[totem poles]] up to {{convert|80|ft|m|0}} tall, they also construct dugout canoes over {{convert|60|ft|m}} long for everyday use and ceremonial purposes.<ref>[http://mle.matsuk12.us/american-natives/nw/nw.html Pacific Northwest Coastal Indians website]</ref> The earliest seaworthy boats may have been developed as early as 45,000 years ago, according to one hypothesis explaining the habitation of [[Prehistory of Australia|Australia]]. In the [[history of whaling]], humans began whaling in pre-historic times. The oldest known method of catching [[whales]] is to simply drive them ashore by placing a number of small boats between the whale and the open sea and attempting to frighten them with noise, activity, and perhaps small, non-lethal weapons such as arrows. Typically, this was used for small species, such as [[Pilot Whales]], [[Belugas]] and [[Narwhals]]. The earliest known reference to an organization devoted to ships in [[ancient India]] is to the [[Mauryan Empire]] from the 4th century BC. It is believed that the navigation as a science originated on the river [[Indus]] some [[Indus Valley Civilisation|5000 years ago]]. [[Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact]] refers to interactions between the Americans and peoples of other continents – [[Europe]], [[Africa]], [[Asia]], or [[Oceania]] – [[pre-Columbian|before]] the arrival of [[Christopher Columbus]] in 1492. Many such events have been proposed at various times, based on historical reports, archaeological finds, and cultural comparisons. ====Egypt==== [[Image:Wells egyptian ship red sea.png|thumb|222px|Egyptian ship, 1250 BC]] [[Image:Maler der Grabkammer des Menna 013.jpg|thumb|222px|World's oldest depiction of a [[stern]]-mounted steering rudder (ca. 1420 BC)]] The [[Ancient Egypt]]ians had knowledge to some extent of [[sail]] construction.<ref>[[Hatshepsut]] oversaw the preparations and funding of an expedition of five ships, each measuring seventy feet long, and ''with several sails''. Various other [http://www.artsales.com/Ancient%20Ships/gEgyptianGalleons.htm instances of Egyptian sailing vessels] exist, also.</ref> This is governed by the [[science]] of [[aerodynamics]]. A primary feature of a properly designed sail is an amount of "[[draft (sailing)|draft]]", caused by curvature of the surface of the sail. According to the [[Greece|Greek]] historian [[Herodotus]], [[Necho II]] sent out an expedition of [[Phoenicians]], which in three years sailed from the [[Red Sea]] around [[Africa]] to the mouth of the [[Nile]]. Many current historians tend to believe Herodotus on this point, even though Herodotus himself was in disbelief that the Phoenicians had accomplished the act. [[Hannu]] was an [[ancient Egypt]]ian [[exploration|explorer]] (around 2750 BC) and the first explorer of whom there is any knowledge. Hannu made the first recorded exploring expedition. He wrote his account of his exploration in stone. Hannu travelled along the [[Red Sea]] to [[Punt (region)|Punt]]. He sailed to what is now part of eastern [[Ethiopia]] and [[Somalia]]. He returned to Egypt with great treasures, including precious [[myrrh]], [[metals|metal]] and [[wood]]. The [[Sea Peoples]] was a [[Confederation|confederacy]] of seafaring raiders who sailed into the eastern shores of the [[Mediterranean]], caused political unrest, and attempted to enter or control [[Egypt]]ian territory during the late [[Nineteenth dynasty of Egypt|19th dynasty]], and especially during Year 8 of [[Ramesses III]] of the [[Twentieth dynasty of Egypt|20th Dynasty]].<ref>A convenient table of sea peoples in [[hieroglyphics]], transliteration and English is given in the dissertation of Woodhuizen, 2006, who developed it from works of Kitchen cited there</ref> The Egyptian Pharaoh [[Merneptah]] explicitly refers to them by the term "the foreign-countries (or 'peoples'<ref>As noted by Gardiner V.1 p.196, other texts have "foreign-peoples"; both terms can refer to the concept of "foreigners" as well. Zangger in the external link below expresses a commonly held view that "sea peoples" does not translate this and other expressions but is an academic innovation. The Woudhuizen dissertation and the Morris paper identify [[Gaston Maspero]] as the first to use the term "peuples de la mer" in 1881.</ref>) of the sea"<ref>Gardiner V.1 p.196.</ref><ref>Manassa p.55.</ref> in his [[Great Karnak Inscription]].<ref>Line 52. The inscription is shown in Manassa p.55 plate 12.</ref> Although some scholars believe that they "invaded" [[Cyprus]], [[Hati]] and the [[Levant]], this hypothesis is disputed. ====The Mediterranean==== [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] traders from [[Crete]] were active in the eastern Mediterranean by the 2nd millennium BC. The [[Phoenicia]]ns were an ancient [[civilization]] centered in the north of ancient [[Canaan]], with its heartland along the coast of modern day [[Lebanon]], [[Syria]] and northern [[Israel]]. Phoenician civilization was an enterprising [[thalassocracy|maritime trading culture]] that spread across the [[Mediterranean]] during the first millennium BC, between the period of 1200 BC to 900 BC. Though ancient boundaries of such city-centered cultures fluctuated, the city of [[Tyre (Lebanon)|Tyre]] seems to have been the southernmost. [[Sarepta]] between [[Sidon]] and Tyre, is the most thoroughly excavated city of the Phoenician homeland. The Phoenicians often traded by means of a [[galley]], a man-powered sailing vessel. They were the first civilization to create the [[Galley#Biremes and Triremes|bireme]]. There is still debate on the subject of whether the Canaanites and Phoenicians were different peoples or not. The [[Mediterranean]] was the source of the vessel, [[galley]], developed before 1000 BC, and development of nautical technology supported the expansion of Mediterranean culture. The [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] [[trireme]] was the most common ship of the ancient Mediterranean world, employing the propulsion power of [[oar]]smen. Mediterranean peoples developed [[lighthouse]] technology and built large fire-based lighthouses, most notably the [[Lighthouse of Alexandria]], built in the 3rd century BC (between 285 and 247 BC) on the island of Pharos in Alexandria, Egypt. Many in ancient western societies, such as [[Ancient Greece]], were in awe of the seas and deified them, believing that man no longer belonged to himself when once he embarked on a sea voyage. They believed that he was liable to be sacrificed at any time to the anger of the great [[Water deity|Sea God]]. Before the Greeks, the [[Carians]] were an early Mediterranean seagoing people that travelled far. Early writers do not give a good idea about the progress of navigation nor that of the man's seamanship. One of the early stories of seafaring was that of [[Odysseus]]. In [[Greek mythology]], the [[Argonauts]] were a band of heroes who, in the years before the [[Trojan War]], accompanied [[Jason]] to [[Colchis]] in his quest to find the [[Golden Fleece]]. Their name comes from their ship, the [[Argo]] which in turn was named after its builder [[Argus]]. Thus, "Argonauts" literally means "Argo sailors". The voyage of the Greek navigator [[Pytheas|Pytheas of Massalia]] is an example of a very early voyage.<ref name="eb703">Encyclopædia Britannica (1911). "Navigation". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th edition) 19. Ed. Chisholm, Hugh. Page703.</ref> A competent astronomer and geographer,<ref name="eb703"/> Pytheas ventured from Greece to Western Europe and the British Isles.<ref name="eb703"/> The ''[[periplus]]'', literally "a sailing-around', in the ancient navigation of [[Phoenicians]], [[Greeks]], and [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] was a manuscript document that listed in order the ports and coastal landmarks, with approximate distances between, that the captain of a vessel could expect to find along a shore. Several examples of ''periploi'' have survived. The concept of an [[submarine|underwater boat]] has roots deep in antiquity. The very first report of someone attempting to put the idea into practice seems to have been an attempt by [[Alexander the Great]]. According to [[Aristotle]], Alexander the Great had developed a primitive [[submersible]] for reconnaissance missions by 332BC. ''[[Piracy]]'', which is a [[robbery]] committed at sea or sometimes on the shore, dates back to [[Classical Antiquity]] and, in all likelihood, much further. The [[Tyrrhenians]] and [[Thracians]] were known as [[pirates]] in ancient times. The island of [[Lemnos]] long resisted [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] influence and remained a haven for Thracian pirates. By the 1st century BC, there were pirate states along the [[Anatolia]]n coast, threatening the [[commerce]] of the [[Roman Empire]]. =====The Persian Wars===== {{Main|Greco-Persian Wars|Peloponnesian War}} [[Image:Trireme.jpg|right|thumb|222px|Greek Trireme]] In [[Ionia]] (the modern Aegean coast of [[Turkey]]) the Greek cities, which included great centres such as [[Miletus]] and [[Halicarnassus]], were unable to maintain their independence and came under the rule of the [[Persian Empire]] in the mid 6th century BC. In 499 BC the [[Greeks]] rose in the [[Ionian Revolt]], and [[Athens]] and some other Greek cities went to their aid. In 490 BC the Persian Great King, [[Darius I of Persia|Darius I]], having suppressed the Ionian cities, sent a fleet to punish the Greeks. The Persians landed in [[Attica]], but were defeated at the [[Battle of Marathon]] by a Greek army led by the Athenian general [[Miltiades]]. The burial mound of the Athenian dead can still be seen at Marathon. Ten years later Darius' successor, [[Xerxes I of Persia|Xerxes I]], sent a much more powerful force by land. After being delayed by the Spartan King [[Leonidas I]] at [[Battle of Thermopylae|Thermopylae]], Xerxes advanced into Attica, where he captured and burned Athens. But the Athenians had evacuated the city by sea, and under [[Themistocles]] they defeated the Persian fleet at the [[Battle of Salamis]]. A year later, the Greeks, under the Spartan [[Pausanias (general)|Pausanius]], defeated the Persian army at [[Battle of Plataea|Plataea]]. The Athenian fleet then turned to chasing the Persians out of the Aegean Sea, and in 478 BC they captured [[Byzantium]]. In the course of doing so Athens enrolled all the island states and some mainland allies into an alliance, called the [[Delian League]] because its treasury was kept on the sacred island of [[Delos]]. The [[Spartans]], although they had taken part in the war, withdrew into isolation after it, allowing Athens to establish unchallenged naval and [[commercial]] power. =====Achaean League===== {{main|Achaean League}} The [[Achaean League]] was a [[confederation]] of [[Greece|Greek]] [[polis|city state]]s in [[Achaea]], a territory on the northern coast of the [[Peloponnese]]. An initial confederation existed during the [[5th century BC|5th]] through the 4th century BC. The Achaean League was reformed early in the 3rd century BC, and soon expanded beyond its Achaean heartland. The League's dominance was not to last long, however. During the [[Third Macedonian War]] (171-168 BC), the League flirted with the idea of an alliance with [[Perseus of Macedon|Perseus]], and the [[Roman Republic|Romans]] punished it by taking several hostages to ensure good behavior, including [[Polybius]], the [[Hellenistic]] historian who wrote about the rise of the Roman Empire. In 146 BC, the league erupted into open revolt against Roman domination. The [[Roman Republic|Romans]] under [[Lucius Mummius Achaicus|Lucius Mummius]] defeated the Achaeans, [[razed]] [[Corinth]] and dissolved the league. Lucius Mummius received the [[cognomen]] ''Achaicus'' ("conqueror of Achaea") for his role. =====Ancient Rome===== [[Ancient Rome]] was a [[civilization]] that grew from a small [[agricultural]] community founded on the [[Italian Peninsula]] circa the 9th century BC to a massive [[empire]] straddling the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. In its twelve-century existence, Roman civilization shifted from a [[monarchy]], to a [[Roman Republic|republic]] based on a combination of [[oligarchy]] and [[democracy]], to an [[autocracy|autocratic]] [[Roman Empire|empire]]. It came to dominate [[Western Europe]] and the entire area surrounding the [[Mediterranean Sea]] through [[invasion|conquest]] and [[cultural assimilation|assimilation]]. =====Punic Wars===== {{Main|Punic Wars}} The [[Punic Wars]] were a series of three wars fought between [[ancient Rome|Rome]] and [[Carthage]]. The main cause of the Punic Wars was the clash of interests between the existing Carthaginian Empire and the expanding Roman sphere of influence. The Romans were initially interested in expansion via [[Sicily]], part of which lay under Carthaginian control. At the start of the [[first Punic War]], Carthage was the dominant power of the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]], with an extensive maritime empire, while Rome was the rapidly ascending power in [[Italy]]. By the end of the third war, after the deaths of many hundreds of thousands of soldiers from both sides, Rome had conquered Carthage's empire and razed the city, becoming in the process the most powerful state of the Western Mediterranean. With the end of the [[Macedonian wars]] &mdash; which ran concurrently with the Punic wars &mdash; and the defeat of the [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid Emperor]] [[Antiochus III the Great]] in the [[Roman-Syrian War]] ([[Treaty of Apamea]], [188 BC) in the eastern sea, Rome emerged as the dominant Mediterranean power and the most powerful city in the classical world. This was a turning point that meant that the civilization of the ancient [[Mediterranean]] would pass to the modern world via Europe instead of Africa. ====Pre-Roman Britain==== [[Image:0057-Ancient-British-Canoes-q75-500x225.jpg|thumb|250px|Ancient British Canoe]] The [[Coracle]], a small single passenger sized float has been used in Britain since before the first Roman invasion as noted by the invaders. Coracles are round or oval in shape, made of a wooden frame with a hide stretched over it then [[tared]] to provide waterproofing. Being so light, an operator can carry the light craft over the shoulder. They are capable of operating in mere inches of water due to the keel-less hull. The early people of Wales used these boats for fishing and light travel and updated models are still in use to this day on the rivers of [[Scotland]] and [[Wales]]. Early [[Britons (historic)|Britons]] also used the world-common hollowed tree trunk [[canoe]]. Examples of these canoes have been found buried in marshes and mud banks of rivers at lengths of upward eight feet.<ref>[http://www.fromoldbooks.org/OldEngland/pages/0057-Ancient-British-Canoes/ 57.—Ancient British Canoes. [500x225&#93;<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> In 1992 a notable archaeological find, named the "[[Dover Bronze Age Boat]]", was unearthed from beneath what is modern day [[Dover, England]]. The [[Bronze Age]] boat which is about 9.5 meters long x 2.3 meters is determined to have been a seagoing vessel. [[Carbon dating]] reveals that the craft dating from approximately [[1,600 B.C]]. is the oldest known ocean-going boat. The hull was of half [[oak]] logs and side panels also of oak were stitched on with [[yew]] lashings. Both the straight grained oak and yew bindings are now extinct as a shipbuilding method in [[England]]. A reconstruction in 1996 proved that a crew between four and sixteen paddlers could have easily propelled the boat during Force 4 winds upwards of four knots but with a maximum of {{convert|5|kn|km/h|0}}. The boat could have easily carried a significant amount of cargo and with a strong crew may have been able to traverse near thirty nautical miles in a day. <ref>[http://www.canterburytrust.co.uk/hilights/d_boat.htm Canterbury Archaeological Trust: Buckland Anglo-Saxon Cemetery<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> ====Northern Europe==== The ''[[Norsemen]]'', or 'people from the North', were people from southern and central [[Scandinavia]] which established states and settlements Northern Europe from the late 8th century to the 11th century. [[Viking]]s has been a common term for Norsemen in the early [[medieval period]], especially in connection with raids and [[monastic]] plundering made by Norsemen in Great Britain and Ireland. [[Leif Ericson]] was an [[Iceland]]ic [[explorer]] known to be the first [[Europe]]an to have landed in [[North America]] (presumably in [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]], [[Canada]]). During a stay in [[Norway]], Leif Ericsson converted to [[Christianity]], like many Norse of that time. He also went to Norway to serve the [[List of Norwegian monarchs|King of Norway]], [[Olaf I of Norway|Olaf Tryggvason]]. When he returned to [[Greenland]], he bought the boat of [[Bjarni Herjólfsson]] and set out to explore the land that Bjarni had found (located [[west]] of Greenland), which was, in fact, Newfoundland, in Canada. The ''[[Saga of the Greenlanders]]'' tells that Leif set out around the year 1000 to follow Bjarni's route with 15 crew members, but going north.<ref>Another saga, ''[[The Saga of Eric the Red]]'', relates that Leif discovered the American mainland while returning from Norway to Greenland in 1000 (or possibly 1001), but does not mention any attempts to settle there. However, the ''Saga of the Greenlanders'' is usually considered the more reliable of the two.</ref> ====Indian subcontinent==== {{main|Indian maritime history}} In the [[Indian maritime history]], the world's first [[tidal dock]] was built in [[Lothal]] around 2500 BC during the [[Harappan civilisation]] at [[Lothal]] near the present day [[Mangrol harbour]] on the [[Gujarat]] coast{{Fact|date=July 2007}}. Other ports were probably at [[Balakot]] and [[Dwarka]]. However, it is probable that many small-scale ports, and not massive ports, were used for the Harappan maritime trade.<ref>[[Gregory Possehl|Possehl, Gregory]]. Meluhha. in: J. Reade (ed.) The Indian Ocean in Antiquity. London: Kegan Paul Intl. 1996, 133–208</ref> Ships from the harbour at these ancient port cities established [[trade]] with [[Mesopotamia]],<ref>(eg Lal 1997: 182-188)</ref> where the Indus Valley was known as [[Meluhha]]. Emperor [[Chandragupta Maurya]]'s [[Prime Minister]] [[Kautilya]]'s [[Arthashastra]] devotes a full chapter on the state department of waterways under ''navadhyaksha'' ([[Sanskrit]] for [[Public administration|Superintendent]] of ships) {{Ref|Kautilya}}. The term, ''nava dvipantaragamanam'' (Sanskrit for sailing to other lands by ships) appears in this book in addition to appearing in the Buddhist text, ''Baudhayana Dharmasastra'' as the interpretation of the term, ''Samudrasamyanam''. ====Asia and the Far East==== {{main|Naval history of China|Chinese exploration}} [[Image:Qingming Festival Detail 4.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Close up of a ship from ''[[Along the River During Qingming Festival]]'', painted by [[Zhang Zeduan]], early 12th century.]] In [[ancient China]], during the [[Spring and Autumn Period]] (722 BC–481 BC), large rectangular-based [[barge]]-like ships with [[layered]] decks and [[Cabin (ship)|cabins]] with [[rampart]]s acted as floating fortresses on wide rivers and lakes.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 3 678 679">Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 678-679.</ref> These were called 'castle ships' ('lou chuan'), yet there were 4 other ship types known in that period, including a [[ramming]] vessel.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 3 678 679"/> During the short-lived [[Qin Dynasty]] (221 BC-207 BC) the Chinese sailed south into the [[South China Sea]] during their invasion of [[Annam]], modern [[Vietnam]]. During the [[Han Dynasty]] (202 BC–220 AD), a ship with a [[stern]]-mounted steering [[rudder]] along with masts and sails was innovated, known as the [[junk (ship)|junk]] in Western terminology.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 3 649 650">Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 649-650.</ref> The Chinese had been sailing through the [[Indian Ocean]] since the 2nd century BC, with their travels to [[Kanchipuram]] in [[India]].<ref name="sun 161 167">Sun, 161-167.</ref><ref name="chen 67 71">Chen, 67-71.</ref> This was followed up by many recorded maritime travelers following the same route to India, including [[Faxian]], Zhiyan, Tanwujie, etc.<ref name="sun 220 221">Sun, 220-221.</ref> Like in the Western tradition, the earlier [[Zhou Dynasty]] Chinese also made use of the floating [[pontoon bridge]], which became a valuable means to [[blockade]] the entire [[Yangtze]] River during [[Naval history of China#Early literature|Gongsun Shu's rebellion]] against the re-established Han government in 33 AD.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 3 680">Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 680.</ref> Although first described in ancient [[Ptolemaic]] Egypt, the [[Song Dynasty]] scientist [[Shen Kuo]] (1031-1095) was the first to describe the use of the [[drydock]] system in China to repair boats out of water.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 3 660">Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 660</ref> The [[canal]] [[pound lock]] was invented in [[China]] during the previous century, while [[Shen Kuo]] wrote of its effectiveness in his day, writing that ships no longer had the grievances of the old [[flash lock]] design and no longer had to be hauled over long distances (meaning heavier ships with heavier cargo of goods could traverse the waterways of China).<ref name="needham, volume 4, part 3 352">Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 352</ref> There were many other improvements to nautical technology during the Song period as well, including [[crossbeams]] bracing the ribs of ships to strengthen them, [[rudders]] that could be raised or lowered to allow ships to travel in a wider range of water depths, and the teeth of [[anchors]] arranged circularly instead of in one direction, "making them more reliable".<ref name="graff 86">Graff, 86.</ref> [[Image:Funagata-haniwa 01(trim).JPG|thumb|right|200px|A clay figure of a [[haniwa]] model of a ship, from [[Japan]]'s [[Kofun period]] (250&ndash;538); during the [[Three Kingdoms of Korea]], the Japanese sided with [[Baekje]] against a naval alliance between the Chinese [[Tang Dynasty]] and Korean [[Silla]].]] [[Image:Tiangong Kaiwu Ship.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A two-masted Chinese [[Junk (ship)|junk ship]], from the ''Tiangong Kaiwu'' [[encyclopedia]] published in 1637 by the [[Ming Dynasty]] scholar [[Song Yingxing]].]] [[Asuka period|Japan]] had become a naval power by at least the 6th century, with their invasions and involvement in political alliances during the [[Three Kingdoms of Korea]]. A joint alliance between the Korean [[Silla]] Kingdom and the Chinese [[Tang Dynasty]] (618-907 AD) heavily defeated the Japanese and their Korean allies of Baekje in the [[Battle of Baekgang]] in [[August 27]] to [[August 28]] of the year 663 AD. This decisive victory expelled the Japanese from Korea and allowed the Silla Kingdom to conquer [[Goguryeo]]. However, the Japanese invaded [[Korea]] again during the [[Imjin War]] of the late 16th century, the attack against the [[Joseon]] Kingdom led by the famous [[Japanese]] warlord [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]]. The exploits of the Korean admiral [[Yi Sun-sin]] during this war were made famous with his [[military strategy]] and use of the armored '[[turtle ship]]'. Although there were numerous naval battles beforehand, China's first permanent standing navy was established in 1132 during the [[History of the Song Dynasty|Song Dynasty]] (960-1279 AD).<ref name="needham volume 4 part 3 476">Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 476.</ref> [[Gunpowder warfare]] at sea was also first known in China, with battles such as the [[Battle of Caishi]] and the [[Battle of Tangdao]] on the [[Yangtze]] River in 1161 AD. One of the most important books of medieval maritime literature was [[Zhu Yu (author)|Zhu Yu]]'s ''Pingzhou Table Talks'' of 1119 AD. Although the Chinese scientist [[Shen Kuo]] (1031-1095) was the first to describe the [[magnetic]]-needle [[compass]], Zhu Yu's book was the first to specify its use for [[navigation]] at sea. Zhu Yu's book also described [[Bulkhead (partition)|watertight bulkhead compartments]] in the [[Hull (watercraft)|hull]] of Chinese ships, which prevented sinking when heavily damaged in one compartment.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 3 463">Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 463.</ref> Although the drydock was known, Zhu Yu wrote of expert [[diver]]s who were often used to repair boats that were damaged and still submersed in water. Divers in China continued to have a maritime significance, as the later [[Ming Dynasty]] author [[Song Yingxing]] (1587-1666) wrote about [[pearl hunting|pearl divers]] who used [[Snorkeling#Swimmer's snorkel|snorkeling gear]] (a watertight leather [[face mask]] and breathing tube secured with [[tin]] rings) to breathe [[underwater]] while tied by the waist to the ship in order to be secure while hunting for [[pearl]]s.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 3 668">Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 668.</ref> ===Age of Navigation=== {{main|History of navigation}} In ancient [[India]] and [[Arabia]] the [[lateen]]-sail ship known as the [[dhow]] was used on the waters of the [[Red Sea]], Indian Ocean, and [[Persian Gulf]]. There were also Southeast Asian [[Seafarers]] and [[Polynesian culture|Polynesians]], and the Northern European [[Vikings]], developed oceangoing vessels and depended heavily upon them for travel and population movements prior to 1000 AD. China's ships in the medieval period were particularly massive; multi-mast sailing [[junk (ship)|junks]] were carrying over 200 people as early as 200 AD. The [[Astrolabe]] was the chief tool of [[Celestial navigation]] in early maritime history. It was invented in [[ancient Greece]] and developed and by [[Islamic astronomy|Islamic astronomers]]. In [[ancient China]], the engineer [[Ma Jun]] (c. 200-265 AD) invented the [[South Pointing Chariot]], a wheeled device employing a [[differential]] gear that allowed a fixed [[figurine]] to always point in the southern [[cardinal direction]]. The [[magnetic]] needle [[compass]] for [[navigation]] was not written of until the ''[[Dream Pool Essays]]'' of 1088 AD by the author [[Shen Kuo]] (1031-1095), who was also the first to discover the concept of [[true north]] (to discern against a compass' magnetic declination towards the [[North Pole]]). By at least 1117 AD, the Chinese used a magnetic needle that was submersed in a bowl of water, and would point in the southern cardinal direction. The first use of a magnetized needle for seafaring navigation in Europe was written of by [[Alexander Neckham]], circa 1190 AD. Around 1300 AD, the pivot-needle dry-box compass was invented in Europe, its cardinal direction pointed north, similar to the modern-day mariners compass. There was also the addition of the compass-card in Europe, which was later adopted by the Chinese through contact with [[Wokou|Japanese pirates]] in the 16th century. ====Ships and vessels==== {{Main|Medieval ships|Medieval European maritime culture}} Various ships were in use during the [[Middle Ages]]. The [[longship]] was a type of ship that was developed over a period of centuries and perfected by its most famous user, the [[Vikings]], in approximately the 9th century. The ships was [[clinker-built]], utilizing overlapping wooden strakes. The [[knaar]], a relative of the longship, was a type of cargo vessel. It differed from the longship in that it was larger and relied solely on its [[square rigged]] sail for propulsion. The [[cog]] was a design which is believed to have evolved from (or at least been influenced by) the longship, and was in wide use by the 12th century. It too used the clinker method of construction. The [[caravel]] was a ship invented in [[Al-Andalus|Islamic Spain]] and used in the Mediterranean from the 13th century.<ref name=Hobson>John M. Hobson (2004), ''The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation'', p. 141, [[Cambridge University Press]], ISBN 0521547245.</ref> Unlike the [[longship]] and [[Cog (ship)|cog]], it used a [[Carvel (boat building)|carvel]] method of construction. It could be either [[square rigged]] (''Caravela Redonda'') or [[lateen rigged]] (''Caravela Latina''). The [[carrack]] was another type of ship invented in the Mediterranean in the 15th century. It was a larger vessel than the caravel. Columbus’s ship, the [[Santa María (ship)|Santa María]] was a famous example of a carrack. ====Arab age of discovery==== {{main|Islamic geography}} {{see also|Pre-Columbian Islamic contact theories}} The [[Arab Empire]] significantly contributed to [[globalization]] during the [[Middle Ages]], when the [[knowledge]], [[trade]] and [[economy|economies]] from many previously [[Isolationism|isolated]] regions and [[civilization]]s began integrating due to contacts with [[Islamic geography|Muslim explorers]], sailors, scholars, traders, and [[travel]]ers. Some have called this period the "Pax Islamica" or "Afro-Asiatic [[age of discovery]]", in reference to the Muslim [[Southwest Asia]]n and [[North Africa]]n traders and explorers who travelled most of the [[Old World]], and established an early [[global economy]]<ref name=Hobson-29-30/> across most of [[Asia]], [[Africa]] and [[Europe]], with their trade [[network]]s extending from the [[Atlantic Ocean]] and [[Mediterranean Sea]] in the west to the [[Indian Ocean]] and [[China Sea]] in the east,<ref name=Labib>Subhi Y. Labib (1969), "Capitalism in Medieval Islam", ''The Journal of Economic History'' '''29''' (1), p. 79-96.</ref> and even as far as [[Japan]], [[Korea]]<ref>{{citation|last=Al-Monaes|first=Walled A.|title=Muslim contributions to geography until the end of the 12th century AD|journal=[[GeoJournal]]|volume=25|issue=4|pages=393-400|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media]]|date=December 1991}}</ref> and the [[Bering Strait]].<ref name=A104>Alavi, S. M. Ziauddin (1965), ''Arab geography in the ninth and tenth centuries'', pp. 104-5, [[Aligarh]]: [[Aligarh Muslim University]] Press</ref> This helped establish the Arab Empire (including the [[Rashidun Empire|Rashidun]], [[Umayyad]], [[Abbasid]] and [[Fatimid]] [[caliphate]]s) as the world's leading extensive economic power throughout the 7th-13th centuries.<ref name=Hobson-29-30>John M. Hobson (2004), ''The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation'', p. 29-30, [[Cambridge University Press]], ISBN 0521547245.</ref> Several medieval [[Arabic language|Arabic]] sources have suggested that [[Muslim]] explorers from the [[Maghreb]] and [[Al-Andalus]] ([[Islam]]ic [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]], comprising modern [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]]) may have travelled in expeditions across the Atlantic to the Americas between the 9th and 14th centuries.<ref>Tabish Khair (2006). ''Other Routes: 1500 Years of African and Asian Travel Writing'', p. 12. Signal Books. ISBN 1904955118.</ref><ref>Dr. Youssef Mroueh (2003). [http://www.mediamonitors.net/youssefmroueh1.html Pre-Columbian Muslims in the Americas]. Media Monitors Network.</ref> Apart from the [[Nile]], [[Tigris]] and [[Euphrates]], navigable rivers in the Islamic regions were uncommon, so transport by sea was very important. [[Islamic geography]] and navigational sciences were highly developed, making use of a magnetic [[compass]] and a rudimentary instrument known as a [[kamal]], used for [[celestial navigation]] and for measuring the [[altitude]]s and [[latitude]]s of the [[star]]s. When combined with detailed maps of the period, sailors were able to sail across [[ocean]]s rather than skirt along the coast. Muslim sailors were also responsible for introducing the [[lateen]] sails and large three-[[Mast (sailing)|masted]] [[merchant vessel]]s to the Mediterranean. The origins of the [[caravel]] ship, used for long-distance travel by the Spanish and Portuguese since the 15th century, also date back to the ''qarib'' used by [[al-Andalus|Andalusian]] explorers by the 13th century.<ref name=Hobson>John M. Hobson (2004), ''The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation'', p. 141, [[Cambridge University Press]], ISBN 0521547245.</ref> ====Hanseatic League==== {{Main| Hanseatic League}} The [[Hanseatic League]] was an alliance of trading guilds that established and maintained a trade monopoly over the Baltic Sea, to a certain extent the North Sea, and most of Northern Europe for a time in the Late Middle Ages and the early modern period, between the 13th and 17th centuries. Historians generally trace the origins of the League to the foundation of the Northern German town of [[Lübeck]], established in 1158/1159 after the capture of the area from the Count of Schauenburg and Holstein by [[Henry the Lion]], the [[Duchy of Saxony|Duke of Saxony]]. Exploratory trading adventures, [[Raid (military)|raid]]s and [[piracy]] had occurred earlier throughout the Baltic (see [[Viking]]s) — the [[sailor]]s of [[Gotland]] sailed up rivers as far away as [[Novgorod]], for example — but the scale of international [[economic system|economy]] in the Baltic area remained insignificant before the growth of the Hanseatic League. German cities achieved domination of trade in the Baltic with striking speed over the next century, and Lübeck became a central node in all the sea-borne trade that linked the areas around the [[North Sea]] and the Baltic Sea. The 15th century saw the climax of Lübeck's hegemony. ([[Visby]], one of the midwives of the Hanseatic league in 1358, declined to become a member. Visby dominated trade in the Baltic before the Hanseatic league, and with its monopolistic ideology, suppressed the [[Gotland]]ic free-trade competition.) By the late 16th century, the League imploded and could no longer deal with its own internal struggles, the social and political changes that accompanied the [[Reformation]], the rise of Dutch and English merchants, and the incursion of the [[Ottoman Turks]] upon its trade routes and upon the Holy Roman Empire itself. Only nine members attended the last formal meeting in 1669 and only three (Lübeck, Hamburg and Bremen) remained as members until its final demise in 1862. ===Age of Exploration=== {{main|Age of Exploration}} The [[Age of Discovery]] was a period from the early 15th century and continuing into the early 17th century, during which [[Europe]]an ships traveled around the world to search for new trading routes and partners to feed burgeoning [[capitalism]] in Europe. They also were in search of trading goods such as [[gold]], [[silver]] and [[spices]]. In the process, Europeans encountered peoples and mapped lands previously unknown to them. [[Christopher Columbus]] was a [[navigator]] and [[List of maritime explorers|maritime explorer]] who is one of several historical figures credited as the [[discoverer of the Americas]]. It is generally believed that he was born in [[Genoa]], although other theories and possibilities exist. Columbus' voyages across the [[Atlantic Ocean]] began a [[Europe]]an effort at [[exploration]] and [[European colonization of the Americas|colonization]] of the [[Western Hemisphere]]. While history places great significance on his first voyage of 1492, he did not actually reach the [[South America|mainland]] until his third voyage in 1498. Likewise, he was not the earliest European explorer to reach the Americas, as there are accounts of [[Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact|European transatlantic contact]] prior to 1492. Nevertheless, Columbus's voyage came at a critical time of growing [[Imperialism|national imperialism]] and [[Competition|economic competition]] between [[History of Europe|developing nation states]] seeking wealth from the establishment of [[trade route]]s and [[Colonialism|colonies]]. Therefore, the period before 1492 is known as [[Pre-Columbian]]. [[John Cabot]] was a [[Genoa|Genoese]] [[navigator]] and [[exploration|explorer]] commonly credited as one of the first [[early modern Europe]]ans to land on the [[North America]]n mainland, aboard the ''[[Matthew (ship)|Matthew]]'' in 1497. [[Sebastian Cabot (explorer)|Sebastian Cabot]] was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[List of explorers|explorer]] may have sailed with his father John Cabot in May, 1497. John Cabot and perhaps Sebastian, sailing from [[Bristol]], took their small fleet along the coasts of a [[Newfoundland (island)|"New Found Land"]]. There is much controversy over where exactly Cabot landed, but two likely locations that are often suggested are [[Nova Scotia]] and Newfoundland. Cabot and his crew (including perhaps Sebastian) mistook this place for China, without finding the passage to the east they were looking for. Some scholars maintain that the name America comes from [[Richard Amerik]], a Bristol merchant and customs officer, who is claimed on very slender evidence to have helped finance the Cabot voyages. [[Jacques Cartier]] was a [[French people|French]] [[navigator]] who first explored and described the Gulf of St-Lawrence and the shores of the [[Saint Lawrence River]], which he named [[Canada]]. [[Juan Fernández]] was a [[Spain|Spanish]] explorer and navigator. Probably between 1563 and 1574 he discovered the [[Juan Fernández Islands]] west of [[Valparaíso]], [[Chile]]. He also discovered the [[Pacific]] islands of [[San Félix]] and [[San Ambrosio]] (1574). Among the other famous [[exploration|explorer]]s of the period were [[Vasco da Gama]], [[Pedro Álvares Cabral]], [[Yermak Timofeyevich|Yermak]], [[Juan Ponce de León]], [[Francisco Coronado]], [[Juan Sebastián Elcano]], [[Bartolomeu Dias]], [[Ferdinand Magellan]], [[Willem Barentsz]], [[Abel Tasman]], [[Jean Alfonse]], [[Samuel de Champlain]], [[Willem Jansz]], Captain [[James Cook]], [[Henry Hudson]], and [[Giovanni da Verrazzano]]. [[Peter Martyr d'Anghiera]] was an [[Italy|Italian]]-born [[historian]] of [[Spain]] and of the discoveries of her representatives during the [[Age of Exploration]]. He wrote the first accounts of explorations in [[Central America|Central]] and [[South America]] in a series of letters and reports, grouped in the original [[Latin]] publications of 1511-1530 into sets of ten chapters called "decades." His ''Decades'' are thus of great value in the history of geography and discovery. His ''De Orbe Novo'' (published 1530; "On the New World") describes the first contacts of Europeans and [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|native Americans]] and contains, for example, the first [[Europe]]an reference to [[India rubber]]. [[Richard Hakluyt]] was an [[England|English]] writer, and is principally remembered for his efforts in promoting and supporting the settlement of [[North America]] by the [[English people|English]] through his works, notably ''Divers Voyages Touching the Discoverie of America'' (1582) and ''The Principal Navigations, Voiages, Traffiques and Discoueries of the English Nation'' (1598–1600). ====European expansion==== {{main|Maritime history of Europe}} The [[maritime history of Europe]] is a term used to describe significant past events relating to the northwestern region of [[Eurasia]] in areas concerning [[shipping]] and [[shipbuilding]], [[shipwrecks]], [[naval battle]]s, and [[military]] installations and [[lighthouses]] constructed to protect or aid [[navigation]] and the development of [[Europe]]. Although Europe is the world's second-smallest [[continent]] in terms of area, is has a very long coastline, and has arguably been influenced more by its ''maritime history'' than any other continent. Europe is uniquely situated between several navigable [[seas]] and intersected by navigable [[river]]s running into them in a way which greatly facilitated the influence of maritime traffic and commerce. When the [[carrack]] and then the [[caravel]] were developed in [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]] that European thoughts returned to the fabled East. These explorations have a number of causes. [[Monetarists]] believe the main reason the Age of Exploration began was because of a severe shortage of [[bullion]] in Europe. The European economy was dependent on gold and silver currency, but low domestic supplies had plunged much of Europe into a recession. Another factor was the centuries long conflict between the Iberians and the Muslims to the south. The [[Silk Road|eastern trade routes]] were controlled by the [[Ottoman Empire]] after the [[Turkish people|Turk]]s took control of [[Constantinople]] in 1453, and they barred Europeans from those trade routes.<ref>{{cite book |title=New York: the World's Capital City, Its Development and Contributions to Progress |chapter=Chapter 1 |author=Rankin, Rebecca B., Cleveland Rodgers |publisher=Harper |year=1948}}</ref> The ability to outflank the Muslim states of North Africa was seen as crucial to their survival. At the same time, the Iberians learnt much from their Arab neighbours. The carrack and caravel both incorporated the Arab [[lateen sail]] that made ships far more manoeuvrable. It was also through the Arabs that [[History of geography#Ancient Greek geography|Ancient Greek geography]] was rediscovered, for the first time giving European sailors some idea of the shape of Africa and Asia. ====European colonization==== {{main|History of colonialism|Chronology of colonialism}} {{seealso|Columbian Exchange|European colonization of the Americas}} In 1492, [[Christopher Columbus]] reached the [[Americas]], after which European exploration and colonization rapidly expanding. The post-1492 era is known as the [[Columbian Exchange]] period. The first conquests were made by the [[Spain|Spanish]], who quickly conquered most of [[South America|South]] and [[Central America]] and large parts of [[North America]]. The [[Portugal|Portuguese]] took [[Brazil]]. The [[United Kingdom|British]], [[France|French]] and [[Netherlands|Dutch]] conquered islands in the [[Caribbean Sea]], many of which had already been conquered by the Spanish or depopulated by disease. Early European colonies in North America included [[Spanish Florida]], the British settlements in [[Colony and Dominion of Virginia|Virginia]] and [[New England]], French settlements in [[New France|Quebec]] and [[Louisiana (New France)|Louisiana]], and Dutch settlements in [[New Netherlands]]. [[Denmark-Norway]] revived its former colonies in Greenland from the 18th until the 20th century, and also colonised a few of the Virgin Islands. [[Image:colonisation2.gif|thumb|center|444px|World Colonization 1492-2007]] From its very outset, Western colonialism was operated as a joint public-private venture. Columbus' voyages to the Americas were partially funded by Italian investors, but whereas the Spanish state maintained a tight reign on trade with its colonies (by law, the colonies could only trade with one designated port in the mother country and treasure was brought back in special [[Spanish treasure fleet|convoys]]), the English, French and Dutch granted what were effectively trade [[monopolies]] to [[Joint stock company|joint-stock companies]] such as the [[British East India Company|East India Companies]] and the [[Hudson's Bay Company]]. In the [[exploration of Africa]], there was the proliferation of conflicting [[Europe]]an claims to [[Africa]]n territory. By the 15th century, [[Europe]]ans explored the [[Africa]]n coast in search of a water route to [[India]]. These expeditions were mostly conducted by the [[Portugal|Portuguese]], who had been given papal authority to exploit all non-[[Christian]] lands of the [[Eastern Hemisphere]]. The Europeans set up coastal colonies to prosecute <!-- QUESTION: is this really the right word? History suggests that the right word might be "perpetuate" --> the [[slave trade]], but the interior of the continent remained unexplored until the 19th century This was a cumulative period resulted in European colonial rule in Africa and altered the future of the African continent.<ref>Robert O. Collins, ''Historical Problems of Imperial Africa,'' (Princeton: Markus Wiener Publishers, 1994), 7</ref> [[Imperialism in Asia]] traces its roots back to the late 15th century with a series of voyages that sought a sea passage to India in the hope of establishing direct trade between Europe and Asia in spices. Before 1500 European economies were largely self-sufficient, only supplemented by minor trade with Asia and Africa. Within the next century, however, European and Asian economies were slowly becoming integrated through the rise of new global trade routes; and the early thrust of European political power, commerce, and culture in Asia gave rise to a growing trade in lucrative commodities—a key development in the rise of today's modern world capitalist economy. [[European colonies in India]] were set up by several European nations beginning at the beginning of the 16th century. Rivalry between reigning European powers saw the entry of the Dutch, British and French among others. ====Clipper route==== {{main|Clipper route}} [[Image:ClipperRoute.png|thumb|right|222px|The ''[[Clipper route]]'' followed by ships sailing between England and Australia/New Zealand.]] During this time, the [[clipper route]] was established by [[clipper|clipper ships]] between [[Europe]] and the [[Far East]], [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]]. The route ran from west to east through the [[Southern Ocean]], in order to make use of the strong westerly winds of the [[Roaring Forties]]. Many ships and sailors were lost in the heavy conditions along the route, particularly at [[Cape Horn]], which the clippers had to round on their return to Europe. In September 1578, Sir [[Francis Drake]], in the course of his circumnavigation of the world, discovered Cape Horn. This discovery went unused for some time, as ships continued to use the known passage through the Strait of Magellan.<ref>[http://www.goldenhind.co.uk/education/worksheets/voyage.html ''Voyage of the Golden Hind''], from The Golden Hind. Retrieved [[February 5]], [[2006]].</ref> By the early 1600s, the Dutch merchant [[Jacob le Maire]], together with navigator [[Willem Schouten]], set off to investigate Drake's suggestion of a route to the south of Tierra del Fuego. At the time it was discovered, the Horn was believed to be the southernmost point of Tierra del Fuego; the unpredictable violence of weather and sea conditions in the Drake Passage made exploration difficult, and it was only in 1624 that the Horn was discovered to be an island. It is an interesting testament to the difficulty of conditions there that Antarctica, only 650 kilometres (400 mi) away across the Drake Passage, was discovered as recently as 1820, despite the passage having been used as a major shipping route for 200 years. The clipper route fell into commercial disuse with the introduction of [[steamboat|steam ships]], and the opening of the [[Suez Canal|Suez]] and [[Panama Canal]]s. ====End of exploration==== The age of exploration is generally said to have ended in the early seventeenth century. By this time European vessels were well enough built and their navigators competent enough to travel to virtually anywhere on the planet. Exploration, of course, continued. The Arctic and Antarctic seas were not explored until the nineteenth century. ===Age of Sail=== {{Main|Age of sail}} [[Image:Warship diagram orig.jpg|thumb|222px|A Ship of War, Cyclopaedia, 1728, Vol 2]] The [[age of sail]], technically and formally speaking, is the period in which [[international trade]] and [[naval warfare]] were both dominated by [[sail]]ing ships. The age of sail mostly coincided with the [[age of discovery]], from the 15th to the 18th century. After the 17th century, English naval maps stopped using the term of [[British Sea]] for the [[English Channel]]. From 15th to the 18th centuries, the period saw [[square rig]]ged sailing ships carry [[European ethnic groups|European]] settlers to many parts of the world in one of the most important [[human migration]]s in recorded history. This period was marked by extensive exploration and colonization efforts on the part of European kingdoms. The [[sextant]], developed in the 1700s, made more accurate charting of nautical position possible. ====Notable individuals==== [[Juan of Austria]] was a military leader whose most famous victory was in the naval [[Battle of Lepanto (1571)|Battle of Lepanto]] in 1571. Philip had appointed Juan to command the [[navy|naval forces]] of the [[Holy League (Mediterranean)|Holy League]] which was pitted against the [[Ottoman Empire]]. Juan, by dint of leadership ability and charisma, was able to unite this disparate coalition and inflict a historic defeat upon the Ottomans and their [[corsair]] allies in the [[Battle of Lepanto (1571)|Battle of Lepanto]]. His role in the battle is commemorated in the poem "[[s:Lepanto|Lepanto]]" by [[G. K. Chesterton]]. [[Maarten Tromp]] was an officer and later [[admiral]] in the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[navy]]. In 1639, during the [[Eighty Years' War|Dutch struggle for independence from Spain]], Tromp defeated a large [[Spain|Spanish]] fleet bound for [[Flanders]] at the [[Battle of the Downs]], marking the end of Spanish naval power. In a preliminary battle, the [[Action of 18 September 1639]], Tromp was the first fleet commander known to deliberately use [[line of battle]] tactics. His flagship in this period was the ''Aemilia''. In the [[First Anglo-Dutch War]] of 1652&ndash;1653 Tromp commanded the Dutch fleet in the battles of [[Battle of Dungeness|Dungeness]], [[Battle of Portland|Portland]], [[Battle of the Gabbard|the Gabbard]] and [[Battle of Scheveningen|Scheveningen]]. In the last of these, he was killed by a sharpshooter in the rigging of [[William Penn (admiral)|William Penn]]'s ship. His acting flag captain, [[Egbert Bartholomeusz Kortenaer]], on the ''[[Dutch ship Brederode|Brederode]]'' kept up fleet morale by not lowering Tromp's standard, pretending Tromp was still alive. [[Cornelis Tromp]] was a Commander in chief of the [[Dutch Republic|Dutch]] and Danish navy. In 1656 he participated in the relief of [[Gdańsk]] ([[Danzig]]). In 1658 it was discovered he had used his ships to trade in luxury goods; as a result he was fined and not allowed to have an active command until 1662. Just before the [[Second Anglo-Dutch War]] he was promoted to [[Vice-Admiral]] on 29 January 1665; at the [[Battle of Lowestoft]] he prevented total catastrophe by taking over fleet command to allow the escape of the larger part of the fleet. In 1676 he became Admiral-General of the Danish navy and Knight in the [[Order of the Elephant]]. He defeated the Swedish navy in the [[Battle of Öland]], his only victory as a fleet commander. [[Charles Hardy]] was a [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] [[naval]] [[Officer (armed forces)|officer]] and [[colonial]] [[governor]]. He was appointed governor and commander-in-chief of the [[British Empire|British colony]] of [[Colony of Newfoundland|Newfoundland]] in 1744. In 1758, he and [[James Wolfe]] attacked French posts around the mouth of the [[St. Lawrence River]] and destroyed all of the French fishing stations along the northern shores of what is now [[New Brunswick]] and along the [[Gaspé peninsula]]. [[Augustus Keppel, 1st Viscount Keppel]] was a [[Great Britain|British]] [[admiral]] who held sea commands during the [[Seven Years' War]] and the [[War of American Independence]]. During the final years of the latter conflict he served as [[First Lord of the Admiralty]]. During the Seven Years' War he saw constant service. He was in North America in 1755, on the coast of France in 1756, was detached on a cruise to reduce the French settlements on the west coast of Africa in 1758, and his ship the ''Torbay'' (74) was the first to get into action in the [[Battle of Quiberon Bay]] in 1759. In 1757 he had formed part of the court martial which had condemned Admiral [[John Byng|Byng]], but was active among those who endeavoured to secure a pardon for him; but neither he nor those who had acted with him could produce any serious reason why the sentence should not be carried out. When [[Spain]] joined [[France]] in 1762 he was sent as second in command with Sir [[George Pocock]] in the expedition which took [[Havana]]. His health suffered from the fever which carried off an immense proportion of the soldiers and sailors, but the £25,000 of prize money which he received freed him from the unpleasant position of younger son of a family ruined by the extravagance of his father. [[Edward Hawke, 1st Baron Hawke]] was a naval officer of the [[Royal Navy]]. During the [[War of the Austrian Succession]] he was promoted to [[Rear Admiral]]. In the [[Seven Years' War]], Hawke replaced Admiral [[John Byng]] as commander in the [[Mediterranean]] in 1756. [[Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe]] was a [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] [[admiral]]. During the rebellion in North America, Howe was known to be sympathetic to the colonists - he had in prior years sought the acquaintance of [[Benjamin Franklin]], who was a friend of Howe's sister, a popular lady in London society. During his career, Howe displayed a tactical uncommon originality. His performance was unexcelled even by [[Horatio Nelson|Nelson]], who, like Howe's other successors, was served by more highly trained squadrons and benefitted from Howe's example. [[Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson]] was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[admiral]] famous for his participation in the [[Napoleonic Wars]], most notably in the [[Battle of Trafalgar]], a decisive British victory in the war, where he lost his life.<ref name='nelsocchron'>{{cite web |url=http://www.nelson-society.org.uk/html/chronology.html |title=Chronology |author=The Nelson Society |date=2007-02-15 |accessdate=2007-03-02}}</ref> Nelson was noted for his considerable ability to inspire and bring out the best in his men, to the point that it gained a name: "The Nelson Touch". His actions during these wars meant that before and after his death he was revered like few military figures have been throughout British history. [[Alexander Davison]] was a contemporary and close friend of Horatio Nelson. Davison is responsible for several acts that glorified Nelson's public image. These included the creation of a medal commemorating the victory at the [[Battle of the Nile]] and the creation of the [[Nelson Memorial, Swarland|Nelson Memorial]] at his estate at [[Swarland]], Northumberland. As a close friend of the Admiral he acted as an intermediary when Nelson's marriage to his wife, [[Fanny Nelson]] fell apart due in large part to his affair with [[Emma Hamilton]]. [[Sir Hyde Parker, 5th Baronet|Hyde Parker]] in 1778 was engaged in the [[Savannah, Georgia|Savannah]] expedition, and in the following year his ship was wrecked on the hostile [[Cuba]]n coast. His men, however, entrenched themselves, and were in the end brought off safely. Parker was with his father at the Dogger Bank, and with [[Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe|Richard Howe]] in the two actions in the [[Straits of Gibraltar]]. In 1793, having just become [[Rear Admiral]], he served under [[Samuel Hood, 1st Viscount Hood|Samuel Hood]] at [[Toulon]] and in [[Corsica]], and two years later, now a [[Vice Admiral]], he took part, under [[William Hotham, 1st Baron Hotham|The Lord Hotham]], in the indecisive fleet actions on [[1795-03-13]] and the [[1795-07-13]]. From 1796 to 1800 he was in command at [[Jamaica]] and ably conducted the operations in the [[West Indies]]. [[Edward Pellew, 1st Viscount Exmouth]] was a [[United Kingdom|British]] naval officer who fought during the [[American War of Independence]], the [[French Revolutionary Wars|French Revolutionary]], and the [[Napoleonic wars|Napoleonic]] Wars. Pellew is remembered as an officer and a gentleman of great courage and leadership, earning his land and titles through courage, leadership and skill - serving as a paradigm of the versatility and determination of Naval Officers during the Napoleonic Wars. [[Antoine de Sartine]], a French statesman, was the [[List of Naval Ministers of France|Secretary of State for the Navy]] under King [[Louis XVI of France|Louis XVI]]. Sartine inherited a strong [[French Navy]], resurrected by [[Étienne François, duc de Choiseul|Choiseul]] after the disasters of the [[Seven Years' War]] when France lost [[Canada, New France|Canada]], [[Louisiana (New France)|Louisiana]], and [[French India|India]], and which would later defeat the [[Royal Navy|British Navy]] in the [[France in the American Revolutionary War|War of American Independence]]. [[James Saumarez, 1st Baron de Saumarez]] was an [[admiral]] of the British [[Royal Navy]], notable for his victory at the [[Battle of Algeciras]]. In 1801 he was raised to the rank of [[Rear Admiral of the Blue]], was created a baronet, and received the command of a small squadron which was destined to watch the movements of the Spanish fleet at Cadiz. Between the 6th and 12th of July he performed a brilliant piece of service, in which after a first repulse at Algeciras he routed a much superior combined force of French and Spanish ships at the [[Battle of Algeciras]]. For his services Saumarez received the [[order of the Bath]] and the [[freedom of the City of London]]. [[David Porter (naval officer)|David Porter]] during the [[Barbary Wars]] (1801–07) was 1st lieutenant of [[USS Enterprise (1799)|''Enterprise'']], [[USS New York (1800)|''New York'']] and [[USS Philadelphia (1799)|''Philadelphia'']] and was taken prisoner when ''Philadelphia'' ran aground in [[Tripoli]] harbor [[31 October]] [[1803]]. After his release [[3 June]] [[1805]] he remained in the [[Mediterranean]] as acting captain of [[USS Constitution|''Constitution'']] and later captain of ''Enterprise''. He was in charge of the naval forces at [[New Orleans]] 1808–10. As commander of [[USS Essex (1799)|USS ''Essex'']] in the [[War of 1812]], Captain Porter achieved fame by capturing the first British warship of the conflict, [[HMS Alert (1804)|''Alert'']], [[13 August]] [[1812]] as well as several merchantmen. In 1813 he sailed ''Essex'' around [[Cape Horn]] and cruised in the [[Pacific]] warring on British whalers. On [[28 March]] [[1814]] Porter was forced to surrender off [[Valparaiso]] after an unequal contest with the frigates [[HMS Phoebe (1795)|HMS ''Phoebe'']] and [[HMS Cherub (1806)|''Cherub'']] and only when his ship was too disabled to offer any resistance. ====Spanish and English Armadas==== {{main|Spanish Armada|English Armada}} The [[Spanish Armada]] was the [[Spain|Spanish]] fleet that sailed against [[England]] under the command of the [[Alonso de Guzmán El Bueno, 7th Duke of Medina Sidonia|Duke of Medina Sidona]] in 1588. The Spanish Armada was sent by King [[Philip II of Spain]], who had been king consort of England until the death of his wife [[Mary I of England]] thirty years earlier. The purpose of the expedition was to escort the [[Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma|Duke of Parma's]] army of [[tercio]]s from the [[Spanish Netherlands]] across the [[North Sea]] for a landing in south-east England. Once the army had suppressed English support for the [[Dutch Republic|United Provinces]] &mdash; part of the [[Spanish Netherlands]] &mdash; it was intended to cut off attacks against [[Spanish Empire|Spanish possessions]] in the [[New World]] and the Atlantic [[Spanish treasure fleet|treasure fleet]]s. It was also hoped to reverse the Protestant revolution in England, and to this end the expedition was supported by [[Pope Sixtus V]], with the promise of a subsidy should it make land.<ref>{{CathEncy|url=http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/The_Spanish_Armada|title=The Spanish Armada}}</ref> The command of the fleet was originally entrusted to Alvaro de Bazan, a highly experienced naval commander who died a few months before the fleet sailed from Lisbon in May 1588. The Spanish Armada consisted of about 130 warships and converted merchant ships. After forcing its way up the [[English Channel]], it was attacked by a fleet of 200 [[Royal Navy|English ships]], assisted by the Dutch navy, in the North Sea at [[Battle of Gravelines|Gravelines]] off the coastal border between [[France]] and the [[Spanish Netherlands]]. A [[fire ship|fire-ship]] attack drove the Armada ships from their safe anchorage, and in the ensuing battle the Spanish abandoned their rendezvous with Parma's army. The Spanish Armada was blown north up the east coast of England and in a hasty strategic move, attempted a return to Spain by sailing around Scotland and out into the Atlantic, past Ireland. But very severe weather destroyed a portion of the fleet, and more than 24 vessels were wrecked on the north and western coasts of Ireland, with the survivors having to seek refuge in Scotland. Of the Spanish Armada's initial complement of vessels, about 50 did not return to Spain. However, the loss to Philip's Royal Navy was comparatively small: only seven ships failed to return, and of these only three were lost to enemy action. The [[English Armada]] was a fleet of warships sent to the Iberian coast by Queen [[Elizabeth I of England]] in 1589, during the [[Anglo-Spanish War (1585)|Anglo-Spanish War]] (1585&ndash;1604). It was led by Sir [[Francis Drake]] as admiral and Sir [[John Norreys]] as general, and failed in its attempt to drive home the advantage England had won upon the defeat and dispersal of the [[Spanish Armada]] in the previous year. With the opportunity to strike a decisive blow against the weakened Spanish lost, the failure of the expedition further depleted the crown treasury that had been so carefully restored during the long reign of [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]]. The [[Anglo-Spanish War (1585)|Anglo-Spanish war]] was very costly to both sides, and Spain itself, also fighting [[France]] and the [[United Provinces]], had to default on its debt repayments in 1596, following another raid on Cadiz. But the failure of the English Armada was a turning point, and the fortunes of the various parties to this complicated conflict fluctuated until the [[Treaty of London, 1604|Treaty of London]] in 1604, when a peace was agreed. Spain's rebuilt navy had quickly recovered and exceeded its pre-Armada dominance of the sea, until defeats by the [[Eighty Years' War|Dutch]] fifty years later marked the beginning of its decline. With the peace, the English were able to consolidate their hold on Ireland and make a concerted effort to establish colonies in North America. {{Seealso|Spanish Armada in Ireland}} ====North American maritime==== The ''[[maritime history of the United States]]'' starts in the modern sense with the first successful English colony established in 1607, on the [[James River (Virginia)|James River]] at [[Jamestown]]. It languished for decades until a new wave of settlers arrived in the late 17th century and set up commercial agriculture based on tobacco. The connection between the American colonies and Europe, with shipping as its cornerstone, would continue to grow unhindered for almost two hundred years. The ''[[Continental Navy]]'' was formed during the [[American Revolution]] in 1775. Through the efforts of the Continental Navy's apparent patron, [[John Adams]] and vigorous congressional support in the face of stiff opposition, the fleet cumulatively became relatively substantial when considering the limitations imposed upon the Patriot supply poole. The "''[[Six original United States frigates]]'''" were the first [[United States]] [[frigate]]s of the [[United States Navy]], first authorized by the [[United States Congress|Congress]] with the [[Naval Act of 1794]] on [[March 27]], [[1794]] at a cost of $688,888.82. [[John Paul Jones]] was [[USA|America's]] first well-known [[US Navy|naval]] hero in the [[American Revolutionary War]]. John Paul adopted the alias ''John Jones'' when he fled to his brother's home in [[Fredericksburg, Virginia]] in 1773 in order to avoid the hangman's noose in [[Tobago]] after an incident when he was accused of murdering a sailor under his command. He began using the name ''John Paul Jones'' as his brother suggested during the start of the [[American Revolution]]. Though his naval career never rose above the rank of Captain in the [[Continental Navy]] after his victory over the ''[[HMS Serapis (1779)|Serapis]]'' with the [[frigate]] ''[[USS Bonhomme Richard (1765)|Bonhomme Richard]]'', John Paul Jones remains the first genuine American Naval hero, and a highly regarded battle commander. [[Jonathan Haraden]] was a [[privateer]] during the [[American Revolution]], being the [[First Lieutenant]] of the [[sloop-of-war]] [[Tyrannicide (ship)|''Tyrannicide'']], fourteen guns. On board for two years, he captured many prizes, becoming her commander in 1777. [[George H. Preble]] was an [[United States|American]] [[naval officer]] and [[writer]], notable for his history of the [[flag of the United States]] and for taking the first photograph of the [[Fort McHenry]] flag that inspired ''[[The Star-Spangled Banner]]''. George entered the [[United States Navy|Navy]] as a [[midshipman]] on [[10 December]] [[1835]], serving on the [[USS United States (1797)|''United States'']] until 1838. [[Edward Preble]] was a [[United States of America|U.S.]] naval officer. Following his Revolutionary War service, he was appointed [[1st Lieutenant]] in the U.S. Navy. In January 1799, he assumed command of the 14 gun brig [[USS Pickering (1798)|''Pickering'']] and took her to the [[West Indies]] to protect American commerce during the [[Quasi-War]] with [[France]]. Commissioned [[Captain]] [[7 June]] [[1799]], he took command of [[USS Essex (1799)|''Essex'']] in December and sailed in January 1800 for the Pacific to provide similar protective services for Americans engaged in the [[East Indies]] trade. Given command of the 3rd Squadron, with [[USS Constitution|''Constitution'']] as his [[flagship]], in 1803, he sailed for the [[Barbary coast]] and by October had promoted a treaty with [[Morocco]] and established a blockade off [[Tripoli]] in the [[First Barbary War]]. ====War of 1812==== {{Main|War of 1812}} [[Stephen Decatur]] was an [[United States Navy|American naval]] officer notable for his heroism in the [[Barbary Wars]] and in the [[War of 1812]]. He was the youngest man to reach the rank of captain in the history of the [[U.S. Navy]], and the first American celebrated as a national military hero who had not played a role in the [[American Revolution]]. [[James Lawrence]] was an [[United States|American]] [[United States Navy|naval]] hero. During the War of 1812, he commanded the [[USS Chesapeake (1799)|USS ''Chesapeake'']] in a [[single-ship action]] against the [[HMS Shannon (1806)|HMS ''Shannon'']] (commanded by [[Philip Broke]]). He is probably best known today for his [[q:Last words|dying command]] "Don't give up the ship!", which is still a popular naval [[battle cry]]. [[John H. Aulick]] was an officer in the [[United States Navy]] whose service extended from the [[War of 1812]] to the end of the [[antebellum]] era. During the War of 1812, he served in [[USS Enterprise (1799)|''Enterprise'']] and took part in her battle with [[HMS Boxer (1812)|HMS ''Boxer'']] on 4 September 1813. After that engagement ended in an American victory, Aulick served as [[prize master]] of the prize. [[Thomas MacDonough]] was an early 19th century American naval officer, most notably as commander of American naval forces in [[Lake Champlain]] during the War of 1812. One of the leading members of "Preble's Boys", a small group of naval officers who served during the [[First Barbary War]], MacDonough's actions during the decisive [[Battle of Lake Champlain]] are often cited as a model of tactical preparation and execution. ====End of the sail==== Like most [[history by period|periodic eras]] the definition is inexact and close enough to serve as a general description. The age of sail runs roughly from the [[Battle of Lepanto (1571)|Battle of Lepanto]] in 1571, the last significant engagement in which [[oar]]-propelled [[galley]]s played a major role, to the [[Battle of Hampton Roads]] in 1862, in which the steam-powered [[CSS Virginia|CSS ''Virginia'']] destroyed the sailing ships [[USS Cumberland (1842)|USS ''Cumberland'']] and [[USS Congress (1841)|USS ''Congress'']], finally culminating with the advance of [[steam power]], rendering sail power obsolete. ===Submarines=== The ''[[history of submarines]]'' covers the [[historical]] [[chronology]] and facts related to ''[[submarines]]'', the ships and boats which operate underwater. The modern underwater boat proposal was made by the Englishman [[William Bourne (mathematician)|William Bourne]] who designed a prototype submarine in 1578. Unfortunately for him these ideas never got beyond the planning stage. The first submersible proper to be actually built in modern times was built in 1620 by [[Cornelius Jacobszoon Drebbel]], a Dutchman in the service of [[James I of England|James I]]: it was based on Bourne's design. It was propelled by means of oars. The precise nature of the submarine type is a matter of some controversy; some claim that it was merely a bell towed by a boat. Two improved types were tested in the [[Thames]] between 1620 and 1624. ===Age of Steam === [[Steam technology]] was first applied to boats in the 1770s. With the advent of economical [[steam engine]]s, efficient [[External combustion engine|external combustion]] [[heat engine]]s that makes use of the heat [[energy]] that exists in [[steam]] and converting it to [[mechanical work]], the [[Wiktionary:prime mover|prime mover]] was steam for ships. The technology only became relevant to trans-oceanic travel after 1815, the year Pierre Andriel crossed the [[English Channel]] aboard the steam ship Élise. ====Rise of the steam vessels==== A [[steamboat]], sometimes called a steamer, became the primary method of propulsion is the age of steam power, typically driving a propeller or [[paddlewheel]]. Small and large steamboats and riverboats worked on lakes and rivers. Steamships gradually replaced sailing ships for commercial shipping through the 19th century. From 1815 on, steamships increased significantly in speed and size. [[Ironclad]]s are [[steam engine|steam-propelled]] [[warship]]s of the later 19th century, protected by [[iron]] or [[steel]] armor plates.<ref>Hill, Richard. ''War at Sea in the Ironclad Age'' ISBN 0-304-35273-X; p.17</ref> The ironclad was developed as a result of the vulnerability of wooden warships to explosive or incendiary [[shell (projectile)|shells]]. The first ironclad battleship, ''[[French battleship La Gloire|La Gloire]]'', was launched by the [[French Navy]] in 1859;<ref>Sondhaus, Lawrence. ''Naval Warfare 1815&ndash;1914'' ISBN 0-415-21478-5. pp73–4</ref> she prompted the British [[Royal Navy]] to start building ironclads. After the [[Battle of Hampton Roads|first clashes of ironclads]] took place during the [[American Civil War]], it became clear that the ironclad had replaced the [[Ship of the line|unarmored line-of-battle ship]] as the most powerful warship afloat.<ref>Sondhaus, p. 86</ref> ====Greek War of Independence==== {{Main|Greek_revolution}} [[Image:Lytras-nikiforos-pyrpolisi-tourkikis-navarhidas-apo-kanari.jpeg|thumb|right|200px|left|The destruction of the Turkish flagship at Chios by Kanaris]] Greek War of Independence was a successful war waged by the Greeks to win independence for Greece from the Ottoman Empire. Success at sea was vital for the Greeks. If they failed to counter the Ottoman Navy, it would be able to resupply the isolated Ottoman garrisons and land reinforcements from the [[Ottoman Empire]]'s Asian provinces at will, crushing the rebellion. The Greeks decided to use [[fireships]] and found an effective weapon against the Ottoman vessels. Conventional naval actions were also fought, at which naval commanders like [[Andreas Vokos Miaoulis|Andreas Miaoulis]], [[Nikolis Apostolis]], [[Iakovos Tombazis]] and [[Antonios Kriezis]] distinguished themselves. The early successes of the Greek fleet in direct confrontations with the Ottomans at [[Naval Battle of Patras|Patras]] and [[Naval Battle of Spetsai|Spetsai]] gave the crews confidence, and contributed greatly to the survival and success of the uprising in the Peloponnese. Despite victories at [[Naval Battle of Samos|Samos]] and [[Naval Battle of Gerontas|Gerontas]], the Revolution was threatened with collapse until the intervention of the Great Powers in the [[Battle of Navarino]] in 1827. The Ottoman fleet was decisively defeated by the combined fleets of the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]], [[July Monarchy|France]] and the [[Russian Empire]], effectively securing the independence of Greece. ====1850 to the End of the Century==== Most warships used steam propulsion until the advent of the gas turbine. Steamships were superseded by diesel-driven ships in the second half of the twentieth century. The ''[[Confederate States Navy]]'' (''CSN'') was the [[Navy|naval branch]] of the [[Confederate States of America|Confederate States]] [[armed forces]] established by an act of the [[Congress of the Confederate States|Confederate Congress]] on [[February 21]], [[1861]]. It was responsible for Confederate naval operations during the [[American Civil War]]. The two major tasks of the Confederate Navy during the whole of its existence were the protection of [[Southern United States|Southern]] harbors and coastlines from outside invasion, and making the war costly for the [[Union (American Civil War)|North]] by attacking merchant ships and breaking the [[Union blockade|Union Blockade]]. [[David Farragut]] was the first senior officer of the [[U.S. Navy]] during the [[American Civil War]]. He was the first [[rear admiral]], [[vice admiral]], and full [[Admiral (United States)|admiral]] of the Navy. He is remembered in popular culture for his possibly apocryphal order at the [[Battle of Mobile Bay]], usually paraphrased: "Damn the torpedoes, full speed ahead!".<ref>Davis, p. 682. The [http://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/qyd/media.asp ''Reuters'']</ref> [[Franklin Buchanan]] was an officer in the [[United States Navy]] who became an [[admiral]] in the [[Confederate States Navy|Confederate Navy]] during the [[American Civil War]], and commanded the ironclad [[CSS Virginia]]. He was the captain of the [[ironclad]] [[CSS Virginia|CSS ''Virginia'']] (formerly the [[USS Merrimack (1855)|USS ''Merrimack'']]) during the [[Battle of Hampton Roads]] in [[Virginia]]. He climbed to the top deck of the ''Virginia'' and began furiously firing toward shore with a [[carbine]] as the [[USS Congress (1841)|USS ''Congress'']] was shelled. He soon was brought down by a [[sharpshooter]]'s [[minie ball]] to the [[thigh]]. He would eventually recover from his leg wound. He never did get to command the ''Virginia'' against the [[USS Monitor|USS ''Monitor'']]. That honor went to [[Catesby ap Roger Jones]]. But Buchanan had handed the [[US Navy]] the worst defeat it would take until [[Pearl Harbor]]. [[Raphael Semmes]] was an officer in the [[United States Navy]] from 1826 to 1860 and the [[Confederate States Navy]] from 1860 to 1865. During the [[American Civil War]] he was captain of the famous commerce raider [[CSS Alabama|CSS ''Alabama'']], taking a record fifty-five [[prize]]s. Late in the war he was promoted to [[admiral]] and also served briefly as a [[brigadier general]] in the [[Confederate States Army]]. In Italy, [[Carlo Pellion di Persano]] was an [[Italy|Italian]] admiral and commander of the [[Regia Marina]] fleet at the [[Battle of Lissa (1866)|Battle of Lissa]]. He commanded the fleet from 1860 to 1861, and saw action in the struggle for [[Risorgimento|Italian unification]]. After unification he was elected to the legislature; he became Minister of Marine in 1862 and in 1865 he was nominated a Senator. However, his career was marred during the [[Seven Weeks War|war with Austria]] when he commanded the Italian fleet at [[Battle of Lissa (1866)|Lissa]]. After the defeat, he was condemned for incapacity, and discharged. Again in America, [[Charles Edgar Clark]] was an officer in the [[United States Navy]] during the [[American Civil War]] and the [[Spanish-American War]]. He commanded the [[battleship]] [[USS Oregon (BB-3)|''Oregon'']] at the [[Mare Island Naval Shipyard]], [[San Francisco]], and when war with [[Spain]] was deemed inevitable, he received orders to proceed to [[Key West, Florida]], with all haste. After a most remarkable voyage of over {{convert|14000|mi|km}}, around [[Cape Horn]], he joined the American fleet in [[Cuba]]n waters on [[May 26]], and on [[July 3]] commanded his ship at the destruction of [[Pascual Cervera y Topete|Cervera]]'s squadron. [[George Dewey]] was an [[admiral]] of the [[United States Navy]], best known for his victory (without the loss of a single life of his own forces due to combat; one man died of a heart attack) at the [[Battle of Manila Bay (1898)|Battle of Manila Bay]] during the [[Spanish-American War]]. He was also the only person in the history of the United States to have attained the rank of [[Admiral of the Navy (United States)|Admiral of the Navy]], the most senior rank in the United States Navy. [[Garrett J. Pendergrast]] was an officer in the [[United States Navy]] during the [[American Civil War]]. He commanded [[USS Boston|''Boston'']] during the [[Mexican-American War]] in 1846. In 1856, he commissioned [[USS Merrimack (1855)|''Merrimack'']], the ship that would later become the ''Virginia''. [[Lewis Nixon (naval architect)|Lewis Nixon]] was a shipbuilding executive, [[naval architecture|naval architect]], and political activist. Nixon graduated first in his class from the Naval Academy in 1882 and was sent to study naval architecture at the Royal Naval College where, again, he graduated first in the class in 1885. In 1890 with help from assistant naval constructor [[David W. Taylor]] he designed the Indiana class battleships which included [[USS Indiana (BB-1)|USS ''Indiana'']], [[USS Massachusetts (BB-2)|USS ''Massachusetts'']] and [[USS Oregon (BB-3)|USS ''Oregon'']]. [[Patricio Montojo]] was the [[Spain|Spanish]] [[Admiral|naval commander]] at the [[Battle of Manila Bay]] ([[May 1]], [[1898]]), a decisive battle of the [[Spanish-American War]]. At the outbreak of the [[Spanish-American War]], Montojo was in command of the Spanish Squadron that was destroyed by the U.S. Asiatic Squadron in the Battle of Manila Bay on May 1, 1898. Montojo was wounded during this battle, as was also one of his two sons who were participating in this battle. [[United States Navy|United States naval forces]] under [[Commodore (rank)|Commodore]] [[George Dewey]] decisively defeated Spain's Pacific fleet, at anchor in Manila Bay, the Philippines. Most of the seven Spanish vessels sank or surrendered. ===20th century=== In the 1900s, the [[internal combustion engine]] and [[gas turbine]] came to replace the steam engine in most ship applications. Trans-oceanic travel, [[transatlantic]] and [[transpacific]], was a particularly important application, with steam powered [[Ocean liner]]s replacing sailing ships, then culminating in the massive [[Superliner (passenger ship)|Superliners]] which included the [[RMS Titanic]]. The event with the Titanic lead to the [[Maritime Distress Safety System]]. ====Maritime events of World War I==== {{Main|World War II|Naval Warfare of World War I|Battle of the Atlantic (1914-1918)}} At the start of the war, the German Empire had [[cruiser]]s scattered across the globe. Some of them were subsequently used to attack Allied merchant shipping. The British [[Royal Navy]] systematically hunted them down, though not without some embarrassment from its inability to protect allied shipping. For example, the detached light cruiser Emden, part of the East-Asia squadron stationed at Tsingtao, seized or destroyed 15 merchantmen, as well as sinking a Russian cruiser and a French destroyer. However, the bulk of the German East-Asia squadron – consisting of the armoured cruisers Scharnhorst and Gneisenau, light cruisers Nürnberg and Leipzig and two transport ships – did not have orders to raid shipping and was instead underway to Germany when it was lost at the [[Battle of the Falkland Islands]] in December 1914.<ref>John M. Taylor, "Audacious Cruise of the Emden", The Quarterly Journal of Military History, Volume 19, Number 4, Summer 2007, pp. 39-47</ref> {|align=center |[[Image:HMS Irresistible abandoned 18 March 1915.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.555|[[HMS Irresistible (1898)|HMS ''Irresistible'']] abandoned and sinking ([[Battle of Gallipoli]])]] | [[Image:U-14 (WW1).jpg|thumb|right|222px|German U-Boat ''U 14''.]] |} Soon after the outbreak of hostilities, Britain initiated a Naval [[Blockade]] of Germany, preventing supplies from reaching its ports. The strategy proved effective, cutting off vital military and civilian supplies, although this blockade violated generally accepted international law codified by several international agreements of the past two centuries.{{Fact|date=May 2007}} A blockade of stationed ships within a three mile (5 km) radius was considered legitimate,{{Fact|date=May 2007}} however Britain mined international waters to prevent any ships from entering entire sections of ocean, causing danger to even neutral ships.{{Fact|date=May 2007}} Since there was limited response to this tactic, Germany expected a similar response to its unrestricted submarine warfare.{{Fact|date=May 2007}} German [[U-boats]] attempted to cut the supply lines between North America and Britain.{{Fact|date=May 2007}} The nature of submarine warfare meant that attacks often came without warning, giving the crews of the merchant ships little hope of survival.{{Fact|date=May 2007}} The United States launched a protest, and Germany modified its rules of engagement. After the infamous sinking of the passenger ship [[RMS Lusitania|RMS ''Lusitania'']] in 1915, Germany promised not to target passenger liners. Britain armed its merchant ships. Finally, in early 1917 Germany adopted a policy of [[unrestricted submarine warfare]], realizing the Americans would eventually enter the war. Germany sought to strangle Allied sea lanes before the U.S. could transport a large army overseas. The U-boat threat lessened in 1917, when merchant ships entered [[convoy]]s escorted by destroyers.{{Fact|date=May 2007}} This tactic made it difficult for U-boats to find targets. The accompanying destroyers might sink a submerged submarine with [[depth charges]]. The losses to submarine attacks were reduced significantly. But the convoy system slowed the flow of supplies. The solution to the delays was a massive program to build new freighters. Troop ships were too fast for the submarines and did not travel the North Atlantic in convoys.{{Fact|date=May 2007}} The First World War also saw the first use of [[aircraft carriers]] in combat, with [[HMS Furious (47)|HMS ''Furious'']] launching [[Sopwith Camels]] in a successful raid against the [[Zeppelin]] hangars at [[Tondern]] in July 1918. ====Maritime events of World War II==== =====Battle of the Atlantic===== {{main|Battle of the Atlantic (1939-1945)}} In the [[North Atlantic]], German [[U-boat]]s attempted to cut supply lines to the United Kingdom by sinking merchant ships. In the first four months of the war they sank more than 110 vessels. In addition to supply ships, the U-boats occasionally attacked British and Canadian warships. One U-boat sank the British [[aircraft carrier|carrier]] [[HMS Courageous (50)|HMS ''Courageous'']], while another managed to sink the [[battleship]] [[HMS Royal Oak (1914)|HMS ''Royal Oak'']] in her home anchorage of [[Scapa Flow]]. In the summer of 1941, the Soviet Union entered the war on the side of the Allies. Although the Soviets had tremendous reserves in manpower, they had lost much of their equipment and manufacturing base in the first few weeks following the German invasion. The Western Allies attempted to remedy this by sending [[Arctic convoys of World War II|Arctic convoys]], which travelled from the United Kingdom and the United States to the northern ports of the Soviet Union - [[Arkhangelsk|Archangel]] and [[Murmansk]]. The treacherous route around the [[North Cape, Norway|North Cape]] of Norway was the site of many battles as the Germans continually tried to disrupt the convoys using U-boats, bombers, and surface ships. Following the entry of the United States into the war in December 1941, U-boats sank shipping along the [[East Coast of the United States]] and [[Canada]], the waters around [[Dominion of Newfoundland|Newfoundland]], the [[Battle of the Caribbean|Caribbean Sea]], and the [[Gulf of Mexico]]. They were initially so successful that this became known among U-boat crews as the [[second happy time]]. Eventually, the institution of shore [[Blackout (wartime)|blackouts]] and an interlocking convoy system resulted in a drop in attacks and U-boats shifted their operations back to the mid-Atlantic. {|align=center |[[Image:Pennsylvania Sun.jpg|thumb|222px|The tanker MS ''Pennsylvania Sun'', torpedoed by [[Unterseeboot 571|''U 571'']] on [[15 July]] [[1942]]]] |[[Image:Submarine attack (AWM 304949).jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.645|A U-Boat under attack by Allied aircraft in 1943]] |} The turning point of the [[Battle of the Atlantic (1939-1945)|Battle of the Atlantic]] took place in early 1943 as the Allies refined their [[naval tactics]], effectively making use of new technology to counter the U-Boats. The Allies produced ships faster than they were sunk, and lost fewer ships by adopting the [[convoy]] system. Improved [[anti-submarine warfare]] meant that the [[life expectancy]] of a typical U-boat crew would be measured in months. The vastly improved [[German Type XXI submarine|Type 21 U-boat]] appeared as the war was ending, but too late to affect the outcome. In December 1943, the last major sea battle between the [[Royal Navy]] and the [[Kriegsmarine|German Navy]] took place. At the [[Battle of North Cape]], Germany's last battlecruiser, the ''[[German warship Scharnhorst (1936)|Scharnhorst]]'', was sunk by [[HMS Duke of York (17)|HMS ''Duke of York'']], [[HMS Belfast|HMS ''Belfast'']], and several destroyers. =====Pacific War===== {{main|Pacific War}} The [[Pacific War]] was the part of [[World War II]]—and preceding conflicts—that took place in the [[Pacific Ocean]], its islands, and in [[East Asia]], between [[July 7]], [[1937]], and [[August 14]], [[1945]]. The most decisive actions took place after the [[Empire of Japan]] attacked various countries, later known as the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] (or Allied powers), on or after [[December 7]], [[1941]], including an [[attack on Pearl Harbor|attack on United States forces at Pearl Harbor]]. {|align=center |[[Image:USS California sinking-Pearl Harbor.jpg|thumb|222px|right|[[USS California (BB-44)|USS ''California'']] sinking]] |[[Image:USSArizona PearlHarbor 2.jpg|222px|thumb|The [[USS Arizona (BB-39)|USS ''Arizona'']] burning after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor]] |[[Image:Pennsylvania-cassin-downes.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.392|[[USS Pennsylvania (BB-38)|USS ''Pennsylvania'']], behind the wreckage of the [[USS Downes (DD-375)|USS ''Downes'']] and [[USS Cassin (DD-372)|USS ''Cassin'']]]] |} Between 1942 and 1945, there were four main [[theater (military)|theatres]] in the Pacific War, corresponding with and defined by the major Allied [[Unified Combatant Command|command]]s in the war against Japan. U.S. sources refer to two theaters within the Pacific War: the [[Pacific Theater of Operations]] (PTO) and the [[China Burma India Theater of World War II|China Burma India Theater]] (CBI). However these were not operational commands. In the PTO, the Allies divided operational control of their forces between two supreme commands, known as [[Pacific Ocean Areas (command)|Pacific Ocean Areas]] and [[South West Pacific Area (command)|Southwest Pacific Area]]. {|align=center |[[Image:Japanese battleships Yamashiro, Fuso and Haruna.jpg|thumb|right|222px|Japanese battleships [[Japanese battleship Yamashiro|''Yamashiro'']], [[Japanese battleship Fuso|''Fuso'']] and [[Japanese battleship Haruna|''Haruna'']] (more distant).]] |[[Image:Zuikaku at Cape Engano.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.637|The Japanese aircraft carriers [[Japanese aircraft carrier Zuikaku|''Zuikaku'']] and [[Japanese aircraft carrier Zuiho|''Zuiho'']] under attack.]] |} [[Island hopping]] was an important military strategy in the [[Pacific War|Pacific Theater]] of [[World War II]]. The strategy employed by the [[Allies|Allies of World War II]] [[Combined Chiefs of Staff]], beginning with [[Operation Cartwheel]], was to bypass heavily fortified [[Imperial Japanese Army|Japanese]] positions and instead concentrate the limited Allied resources on strategically important [[island]]s that were not well defended but capable of supporting the drive to the main islands of [[Japan]]. This strategy was possible in part because the Allies used submarine and air attacks to [[blockade]] and isolate Japanese bases, weakening their garrisons and reducing the Japanese ability to resupply and reinforce. Thus troops on islands which had been bypassed, such as the major base at [[Rabaul]], were useless to the Japanese war effort and left to "wither on the vine." Hard-fought battles on the [[Japanese Archipelago|Japanese home islands]] of [[Battle of Iwo Jima|Iwo Jima]], [[Battle of Okinawa|Okinawa]], and others resulted in horrific casualties on both sides, but finally produced a Japanese retreat. Faced with the loss of most of their experienced pilots, the Japanese increased their use of [[kamikaze]] tactics in an attempt to create unacceptably high casualties for the [[Allies]]. Upwards of a third of the U.S. fleet was hit,{{Fact|date=February 2007}} and the U.S. Navy recommended against an invasion of Japan in 1945.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} It proposed to force a Japanese surrender through a total naval blockade and air raids.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} {{See also|Second Sino-Japanese War||Pacific Ocean Theater of World War II|South-East Asian Theater of World War II|South West Pacific Theatre of World War II}} ====Latter half of the 20th century==== In the latter half of the 20th century, various vessels, notably [[aircraft carrier]]s, [[nuclear submarine]]s, and [[Nuclear powered icebreaker]]s, made use of [[Nuclear marine propulsion]]. [[Sonar]] and [[radio]] augmented existing navigational technology. Various [[blockade]]s were set up in international action. The [[Egypt]]ian set up blockades of the [[Straits of Tiran]] prior to the 1956 [[Suez War]] and the [[1967 Arab-Israeli War]]. The [[United States]] set up a blockade of [[Cuba]] during the [[Cuban missile crisis]] in 1962. The [[Israel]]is set up a sea blockade of the [[Gaza Strip]] since the outbreak of the [[Second Intifada]] (2000) and up to the present. The [[Israel]]i blockades of some or all the shores of [[Lebanon]] at various times during the [[Lebanese Civil War]] (1975&ndash;1990), the [[1982 Lebanon War]], and the [[1982-2000 South Lebanon conflict]] - resumed during the [[2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict]]. =====Cuban Missile Crisis===== {{Main|Cuban Missile Crisis}} [[Image:Location of Navy and Soviet ships during the Cuban Missile Crisis.jpg|right|thumb|222px|The image is a recently declassified map used by the U.S. Navy's Atlantic Fleet shows the position of American and Soviet ships at the height of the crisis.]] The [[Cuban Missile Crisis]] was a confrontation during the [[Cold War]] between the [[United States government|Government of the United States]], the [[Government of the Soviet Union]], and the [[Government of Cuba]]. After the U.S. started deploying 15 Jupiter IRBM near İzmir, Turkey, U.S. [[reconnaissance]] imagery revealed similar installations being installed in Cuba, as a response to the American threat. The event coincided with the [[Sino-Indian War]], which began on the same date that the US declared its blockade on Cuba. Historians speculate the [[China|Chinese]] attack on disputed territory in [[India]] was timed to occur at the same time as the Cuban Missile Crisis.<ref>[http://journal.frontierindia.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=section&id=7&Itemid=53 Frontier India India-China Section] Note alleged connections to Cuban Missile Crisis</ref> On [[October 22]], the [[Organization of American States]] unanimously supported the decision to quarantine Cuba and, by the end of the day, 180 U.S. Navy ships were prepared for the blockade. Nikita Khrushchev claimed that the blockade was illegal, and ordered ships to bypass the quarantine. The blockade went into effect at 10 a.m. on [[October 24]]. At the time, nineteen ships were en-route to Cuba from the Soviet Union. Sixteen of these were clearly identified as reversing course, and only the tanker ''Bucharest'' continued towards the U.S. lines. The other two, the ''Gagarin'' and ''Komiles'' were later discovered only a few miles from the U.S. lines, and that they were being escorted by a Soviet submarine positioned between the two ships. The [[USS Essex (CV-9)|USS ''Essex'']] was instructed to block the progress of the submarine, including the use of "small explosives" if need be. At 10:25 a.m. [[John McCone]] received an intelligence message and announced that the ships had gone dead in the water. [[Dean Rusk]] leaned over to [[McGeorge Bundy]] and noted "We're eyeball to eyeball, and I think the other fellow just blinked." After secret negotiations and after much deliberation between the Soviet Union and Kennedy's cabinet, Kennedy agreed to remove all missiles set in place on the border of the Soviet Union because of NATO in exchange for Khrushchev removing all missiles on Cuba. =====Gulf of Tonkin Incident===== {{Main|Gulf of Tonkin Incident|Vietnam War}} [[Image:Tonkingunboats.jpg|thumb|222px|Photograph taken from the USS ''Maddox'' [[August 2]], [[1964]] and showing North Vietnamese patrol boats.]] The [[Gulf of Tonkin Incident]] was an alleged pair of attacks by naval forces of the [[Democratic Republic of Vietnam]] (commonly referred to as North Vietnam) against two American [[destroyer]]s, the [[USS Maddox (DD-731)|USS ''Maddox'']] and the [[USS Turner Joy (DD-951)|USS ''Turner Joy'']]. The attacks were alleged to have occurred on [[2 August]] and [[4 August]], [[1964]] in the [[Gulf of Tonkin]]. Later research, including a report released in 2005 by the [[National Security Agency]], indicated that the second attack most likely did not occur, but also attempted to dispel the long-standing assumption that members of the administration of President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] had knowingly lied about the nature of the incident.<ref>[http://www.nsa.gov/vietnam/ Gulf of Tonkin - 11/30/2005 and 05/30/2006<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The outcome of the incident was the passage by [[United States Congress|Congress]] of the Southeast Asia Resolution (better known as the [[Gulf of Tonkin Resolution]]), which granted Johnson the authority to assist any [[Southeast Asia]]n country whose government was considered to be jeopardized by "[[communism|communist]] aggression". The resolution served as Johnson's legal justification for escalating American involvement in the [[Vietnam War|Vietnam Conflict]]. =====Falklands War===== {{Main|Falklands War}} The [[Falklands War]] was fought in 1982 between [[Argentina]] and the [[United Kingdom]] over the disputed [[Falkland Islands]], [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]]. Britain was initially taken by surprise by the Argentine attack on the South Atlantic islands, but launched a naval [[task force]] to engage the [[Argentine Navy]] and [[Argentine Air Force|Air Force]], and retake the islands by [[amphibious assault]]. The British eventually prevailed and the islands remained under British control. =====Panama canal handover===== {{Main|Panama canal}} Though controversial within the United States, a process of handing the [[Panama canal]] lead to [[Panama]]nian control of the [[Panama Canal Zone]] by the [[Panama Canal Authority|Panama Canal Authority (ACP)]]. It was effective at noon on [[December 31]], [[1999]]. Before this handover, the government of Panama held an international bid to negotiate a 25-year contract for operation of the Canal's container shipping ports (chiefly two facilities at the Atlantic and Pacific outlets), which was won by the [[People's Republic of China|Chinese]] firm [[Hutchison Whampoa]], a [[Hong Kong]]-based shipping concern whose owner [[Li Ka Shing]] is the wealthiest man in Asia. Conditions on of the handover to the Panama Canal Authority by the United States was the permanent neutrality of the Canal and the explicit statements that allowed the United States to come back at any time. ===21st century=== [[Image:HMS Helsingborg 2.jpg|thumb|222px|[[HMS Helsingborg]], one of the [[Swedish Navy|Swedish Navy's]] [[Visby class corvette]]s.]] Since the turn of the millennium, the construction of [[stealth ship]]s have occurred. These are ships which employs [[stealth technology]] construction techniques in an effort to ensure that it is harder to detect by one or more of [[radar]], visual, [[sonar]], and infrared methods. These techniques borrow from [[stealth aircraft]] technology, although some aspects such as wake reduction are unique to stealth ships' design. ==See also== ===General=== ====Lists and categories==== :[[:Category:Patrol vessels|Armed vessel]]s, [[:Category:British squadrons|British squadrons]], [[List of British frigates]], [[List of fleets]], [[List of naval battles]], [[:Category:Maritime historians|Maritime historians list]], [[Navy Yard]], [[:Category:Spanish Navy ships of the line|Spanish ships]] ====Naval==== :[[British frigate]], [[Caravel]], [[Carronades]], [[Casemate]], [[Close action]], [[Columbaria]], [[Fifty Guns]], [[Flag ship]], [[Fleet Admiral]], [[Frigate]]s, [[Galley]], [[Gun frigate]], [[Gunship]], [[Gunboat]], [[Home Fleet]], [[Long ship]]s, [[Mast (sailing)|Mast]], [[Men-of-war]], [[Committee on Naval Affairs|Naval committee]], [[Naval artillery in the Age of Sail]], [[Naval warfare]], [[planisphere]], [[Naval artillery|Pounder]], [[Privateers]], [[Ragut]], [[Raking fire]], [[Rating system of the Royal Navy]], [[Shallop]]s, [[Tack (sailing)]], [[transatlantic|Transatlantic voyage]], [[Union Navy]], [[United States Navy operating forces organization]], [[Viking ship]] ====People==== :[[Hamilcar]], [[Sir Hyde Parker, 5th Baronet|Hyde Parker]], [[George Byng, 1st Viscount Torrington]], [[Henry Keppel]], [[John Jervis, 1st Earl of St Vincent]], [[John Porter (captain)|John Porter]], [[Marseil Pitheas]], [[Ramusio]], [[William Clark Russell]], [[Sir Thomas Troubridge, 1st Baronet]] ====Publications==== :[[Sea History (magazine)]] ====Saints==== :''Various saints who were sailors and fishermen'' :[[Benno]], [[Nicholas of Myra]], [[Nicholas of Tolentino]], [[Our Lady of Salambao]], [[Peter the Apostle]], [[Saint Christopher]], [[Zeno of Verona]] ====Vessels==== :''Notable vessels and ships'' : [[CSS Chicora]], [[Farragut]], [[H. L. Hunley (submarine)]], [[HMS Ambuscade]], [[HMS Bellerophon]], [[HMS Somerset (1731)]] and [[Richard Lestock|Admiral Lestock]], [[Ironclad warship]] and [[Tinclad warship]], [[Ironsides]], [[Le Vengeur]], [[Minerve (S647)|Minerve]], [[Six original United States frigates]], [[SS St. Louis|SS ''St. Louis'']], [[USS Andrew Doria (1775)]], [[USS Bonhomme Richard]], [[USS Cabot]], [[USS Cyane]], [[USS Deane]], [[USS Kearsarge]] (and the [[Kearsarge class battleship]]), [[USS Mahan]], [[USS Merrimack]], [[USS Porter]], [[USS St. Louis|USS ''St. Louis'']], [[HMS Acasta]], [[USS Andrew Doria (1775)]], [[Torpedo boat]],[[USS Hornet (1898)]] and Wompatuck, [[Armada Española|Spanish Navy]], [[Torpedo boats]],[[Submarine boat]],[[HNLMS Tromp|HNLMS ''Tromp'']],CSS Virginia [ironclad] USS Moniter [ironclad] ====[[French Navy]]==== :[[:Category:French Navy ships of the line|French ships]], [[French ship Le Redoutable]], [[French ship Tourville]], [[French ship Téméraire]], [[:Category:French Navy admirals|French Navy admirals]], ===Miscellaneous=== : [[Baton Rouge]], [[Battle of Quiberon Bay]], [[Cervera]], [[Casa de Contratación]], [[Channel Fleet]], [[Close action]], [[Continental Navy]], [[Fort Pickens]], [[Hampton Roads]], [[History of Maine]], [[History of Nova Scotia]], [[History of Puerto Rico]], [[Ionian Islands]], [[Kasos]], [[Machias (town), Maine|Machias]], [[Marine committee]], [[Mobile Bay]], [[North Atlantic Squadron]], [[Porto Farina]], [[Preble Hall]] ([[United States Naval Academy]]), [[South Atlantic Squadron]], [[Submarine torpedo]], [[Gun frigate]], [[Frigates]], [[Naval artillery|Pounders]], [[Basque Roads]], [[Hampton Roads]], [[Carronade]], [[Boston Navy Yard]], [[Barbary pirate|Barbary powers]], [[Privateer]], [[Torpedo]], [[Coast defence]], [[Nordenfelt gun]], [[Torpedo craft]], [[Guncotton]], [[Rudder]], [[Coordinate system|Degrees minutes]], [[Flag officer]] ==References== ===Citations and notes=== {{reflist|2}} ===General resources=== ;Listed by date <div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;"> * Hattendorf, John B. (2007) [http://www.oxford-maritimehistory.com | Oxford Encyclopedia of Maritime History] * Shiflett, T. D. (2005). [http://books.google.com/books?id=LcxwDRWs_zgC America's Line of Battle: Its Construction & History]. Tiger Lily Publications LLC. ISBN 0977607216 * Callo, J. F. (2004). Who's Who in Naval History. ISBN 0415308283 *Chen, Yan (2002). ''Maritime Silk Route and Chinese-Foreign Cultural Exchanges''. Beijing: Peking University Press. ISBN 7-301-03029-0. *Graff, David Andrew and Robin Higham (2002). ''A Military History of China''. Boulder: Westview Press. *Sun, Guangqi (1989). ''History of Navigation in Ancient China''. Beijing: Ocean Press. ISBN 7-5027-0532-5. *Needham, Joseph (1986). ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 3''. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd. * Harrisse, H. (1980). [http://books.google.com/books?id=Tpg0xOtFMCQC John Cabot, the discoverer of North America and Sebastian, his son a chapter of the maritime history of England under the Tudors, 1496-1557]. London: Stevens. * Scharf, J. T. (1977). [http://books.google.com/books?id=ADMOAAAAIAAJ History of the Confederate States navy from its organization to the surrender of its last vessel] : Its stupendous struggle with the great navy of the United States; the engagements fought in the rivers and harbors of the South, and upon the high seas; blockade-running, first use of iron-clads and torpedoes, and privateer history. [New York]: Fairfax Press. * Mahan, A. T. (1969). [http://books.google.com/books?id=i7YBAAAAMAAJ Types of naval officers drawn from the history of the British Navy]; with some account of the conditions of naval warfare at the beginning of the eighteenth century, and of its subsequent development during the sail period. Freeport, N.Y.: Books for Libraries Press. * Corbett, S. J. S. (1965). [http://books.google.com/books?id=qs0gAAAAMAAJ Drake and the Tudor navy, with a history of the rise of England as a maritime power]. New York: B. Franklin. * Morison, S. E. (1961). [http://books.google.com/books?id=XnQ53JwFa6wC The maritime history of Massachusetts, 1783-1860]. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. * Stevens, W. O., & Westcott, A. F. (1942). [http://books.google.com/books?id=clx5FhtEAocC A history of sea power]. New York: Doubleday, Doran & Company, inc. * Clark, G. R., Stevens, W. O., Alden, C. S., & Krafft, H. F. (1927). [http://books.google.com/books?id=_sMEwwkl-NcC A short history of the United States navy]. Philadelphia &: J.B. Lippincott company. * Krafft, H. F., & Norris, W. B. (1920). [http://books.google.com/books?id=LGSh6KtvN-sC Sea power in American history; the influence of the navy and the merchant marine upon American development]. New York: Century Co. * Davenport, C. B., & Scudder, M. T. (1919). [http://books.google.com/books?id=84iJ59R4CMwC Naval officers, their heredity and development]. Washington: Carnegie Institution of Washington. * Law, F. H. (1918). [http://books.google.com/books?id=2iktiNHUihQC Robert Southey's life of Nelson]. New York: Macmillan. * Stevens, W. O. (1916). [http://books.google.com/books?id=QMDg6gOl2ZQC The boy's book of famous warships]. New York: R.M. McBride & Co. * Allen, G. W. (1913). [http://books.google.com/books?id=fuPb5uhDxUwC A naval history of the American Revolution]. * Snider, C. H. J. (1913). [http://books.google.com/books?id=zzi6myLbAIkC In the wake of the eighteentwelvers]; fights & flights of frigates & fore-'n'-afters in the war of 1812-1815 on the Great Lakes. London: John Lane. * Paullin, C. O. (1912). [http://books.google.com/books?id=HrZwPAPEQmIC Diplomatic negotiations of American naval officers, 1778-1883]. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press. * Hill, F. S. (1905). [http://books.google.com/books?id=aAMKAAAAIAAJ Twenty-six historic ships]. Putnam. * Mahan, A. T. (1905). [http://books.google.com/books?id=dtIz3W7PEVoC Sea power in its relations to the War of 1812]. Boston: Little, Brown, and Company. * Burgoyne, A. H. (1903). [http://books.google.com/books?id=cm7iK1nZv28C Submarine navigation past and present]. London: G. Richards. * Hollis, I. N. (1900). [http://books.google.com/books?id=5cSZnYakpxwC The frigate Constitution; the central figure of the Navy under sail]. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin and Co. * Wilson, H. W. (1900). [http://books.google.com/books?id=N7Xvrxki3lMC The downfall of Spain; naval history of the Sapnish-American war]. London: Low, Marston and Co. * Colomb, P. H. (1899). [http://books.google.com/books?id=YJbAC0WK7K8C Naval warfare, its ruling principles and practice historically treated]. London: W.H. Allen and Co. * Maclay, E. S. (1899). [http://books.google.com/books?id=ZOMiAAAAMAAJ A history of American privateers]. New York: D. Appleton and Co. * Rawson, E. K. (1899). [http://books.google.com/books?id=PEWVf4uHdwMC Twenty famous naval battles; Salamis to Santiago]. New York: T.Y. Crowell & Co. * Mahan, A. T. (1898). [http://books.google.com/books?id=t7WGNf6uURYC The influence of seapower upon the French revolution and empire, 1793-1812]. Boston: Little, Brown & Co. * Abbot, W. J. (1896). [http://books.google.com/books?id=eSwiwhlyGEcC The naval history of the United States]. New York: P.F. Collier. * James, B., Laughton, J. K., & Sulivan, J. Y. F. (1896). [http://books.google.com/books?id=NTQJAAAAIAAJ Journal of Rear-Admiral Bartholomew James, 1752-1828]. [London]: Printed for the Navy Records Society. * Wilson, H. W. (1896). [http://books.google.com/books?id=M3DgGKmaHDEC Ironclads in action; a sketch of naval warfare from 1855 to 1895]. London: S. Low, Marston and Co. * Toogood, C. G., Brassey, T. A., & James, W. (1895). [http://books.google.com/books?id=SEEJAAAAIAAJ Index to James' Naval history, edition 1886]. [London]: Printed for the Navy Records Society. * Shippen, E. (1883). [http://books.google.com/books?id=qT5MGeLzr3cC Naval battles, ancient and modern]. Philadelphia [etc.]: J.C. McCurdy & co. * Hale, E. E. (1880). [http://books.google.com/books?id=9KhOfsy-smwC Stories of the sea told by sailors]. Boston: Roberts Brothers. * Finlay, G., & Tozer, H. F. (1877). [http://books.google.com/books?id=UzMNAAAAIAAJ A history of Greece, from its conquest by the Romans to the present time, B.C. 146 to A.D. 1864]. Oxford: Clarendon Press. * Norie, J. W. (1842). [http://books.google.com/books?id=ooJ3i7aLwFsC The naval gazetteer, biographer and chronologist; containing a history of the late wars from 1793 to 1801; and from 1803 to 1815, and continued, as to the biographical part to the present time]. London: C. Wilson. * Brenton, E. P. (1837). [http://books.google.com/books?id=LCRy8AHxwrYC The naval history of Great Britain, from the year MDCCLXXXIII. to MDCCCXXXVI].. London: H. Colburn. * Campbell, J. (1841). [http://books.google.com/books?id=SD3M-bWc6a8C Lives of the British admirals, and naval history of Great Britain]. * Cooper, J. F. (1839). [http://books.google.com/books?id=WK3mWOlYYNsC The history of the Navy of the United States of America]. Philadelphia: Lea & Blanchard. * James, W., & Chamier, F. (1837). [http://books.google.com/books?id=P1wBAAAAQAAJ The naval history of Great Britain: from the declaration of war by France in 1793 to the accession of George IV]. London: R. Bentley. * Kimball, H. (1831). [http://books.google.com/books?id=v4-hfXFnPCUC American naval battles: being a complete history of the battles fought by the navy of the United States from its establishment in 1794 to the present time, including the wars with France, and with Tripoli, the late war with Great Britain and with Algiers, with an account of the attack on Baltimore, and of the battle of New Orleans]. Boston: J.J. Smith, jr. * Brannan, J. (1823). [http://books.google.com/books?id=ceceAAAAMAAJ Official letters of the military and naval officers of the United States during the war with Great Britain in the years 1812, 13, 14, & 15] : with some additional letters and documents elucidating the history of that period. [Washington?: s.n.]. * Schomberg, I. (1802). [http://books.google.com/books?id=xF0BAAAAQAAJ Naval chronolgy; or, an historical summary of naval & maritime events]. * Hervey, F. (1779). [http://books.google.com/books?id=pbUBAAAAMAAJ The naval history of Great Britain; from the earliest times to the rising of the Parliament in 1779. Describing, particularly, the glorious atchievements in the last war. Also the lives and actions of illustrious commanders and navigators]. London: Printed by W. Adlard, for J. Bew. </div> ==External links== ;Scholarly organisations for the study of maritime history * [http://www.icmh.org.uk/ International Commission for Maritime History] * [http://www.snr.org.uk/ Society for Nautical Research] * [http://www.cnrs-scrn.org/cnrse000.htm Canadian Society for Nautical Research] * [http://www.nasoh.org/ North American Society for Oceanic History] * [http://www.sfhm.asso.fr/ Sociéte française d'histoire maritime] * [http://www.zeegeschiedenis.nl/ Nederlandse Vereniging voor Zeegeschiedenis] * [http://www.aamh.asn.au/ The Australian Association for Maritime History] ;Other *[http://www.maritimehistory.org '' The Institute of Maritime History ''], a non-profit institute focused on research, preservation and education in maritime history. *[http://www.pem.org/roux/ '' The Sketchbooks of Antoine Roux ''], Peabody Essex Museum’s interactive feature, showcases sketches and watercolor paintings which depict the maritime culture of Marseille France during the 19th century. *[http://www.maritimeheritage.net Maritime Heritage Network], a non-profit collaboration among organizations focused on the maritime history of [[Puget Sound]] and the Pacific Northwest. *[http://www.thesextant.org/ '' The Sextant''], an online community of maritime history and nautical archaeology. *[http://www.naval-history.net/ Naval-History.Net], Naval History of the 20th Century, World Wars 1, 2, post-war and Falklands War - navies, ships, ship losses, casualties *[http://www.shipwrecks.uk.com/scrnshts.htm Shipwrecks UK], context for ship losses in the seas surrounding Britain and Ireland. *[http://www.seahistory.org/html/home.htm National Maritime Historical Society], an American non-profit focusing on education and historic vessel preservation. [[Category:Maritime history| ]] [[de:Geschichte der Seefahrt]] [[fr:Histoire des bateaux]] [[nl:Maritieme geschiedenis]] [[sv:Sjöfartens historia]]