Martin Heidegger
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{{Infobox_Philosopher |
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region = Western Philosophy |
era = [[20th-century philosophy]] |
color = #B0C4DE |
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name = Martin Heidegger |
birth = [[September 26]], [[1889]]<br/>[[Messkirch|Meßkirch]], [[Germany]] |
death = {{death date and age|1976|05|26|1889|09|26}}<br/>[[Freiburg im Breisgau]], [[Germany]] |
school_tradition = [[Phenomenology]]{{·}} [[Hermeneutics]]{{·}} [[Existentialism]]{{·}} [[Deconstruction]] |
main_interests = [[Ontology]]{{·}} [[Metaphysics]]{{·}} [[Art]]{{·}} [[Greek philosophy]]{{·}} [[Technology]]{{·}} [[Language]]{{·}} [[Poetry]]{{·}} [[Thinking]] |
influences = [[Anaximander]]{{·}} [[Parmenides]]{{·}} [[Heraclitus]]{{·}} [[Plato]]{{·}} [[Aristotle]]{{·}} [[Duns Scotus]]{{·}} [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]]{{·}} [[Friedrich Hölderlin|Hölderlin]]{{·}} [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling|Schelling]]{{·}} [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]]{{·}} [[Søren Kierkegaard|Kierkegaard]]{{·}} [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]]{{·}} [[Wilhelm Dilthey|Dilthey]]{{·}} [[Franz Brentano|Brentano]]{{·}} [[Edmund Husserl|Husserl]]{{·}} [[Rainer Maria Rilke|Rilke]]{{·}} [[Georg Trakl|Trakl]] {{·}} [[Ernst Jünger|Jünger]] |
influenced = [[Leo Strauss|Strauss]]{{·}}[[Jean-Paul Sartre|Sartre]]{{·}} [[Kuki Shūzō|Kuki]]{{·}} [[Maurice Merleau-Ponty|Merleau-Ponty]]{{·}} [[Hans-Georg Gadamer|Gadamer]]{{·}} [[Hannah Arendt|Arendt]]{{·}} [[Herbert Marcuse|Marcuse]]{{·}} [[Emmanuel Lévinas|Lévinas]]{{·}} [[Michel Foucault|Foucault]]{{·}} [[Jean-Luc Nancy|Nancy]]{{·}} [[Paul Ricoeur|Ricoeur]]{{·}}[[Jacques Derrida|Derrida]]{{·}}[[Giorgio Agamben|Agamben]]{{·}} [[Gianni Vattimo|Vattimo]]{{·}} [[Albert Borgmann|Borgmann]]{{·}} [[Bernard Stiegler|Stiegler]]{{·}} [[Jacques Lacan|Lacan]] |
notable_ideas = [[Dasein]]{{·}} [[Gestell]]{{·}} [[Heideggerian terminology]]|
}}
'''Martin Heidegger''' ([[September 26]], [[1889]] – [[May 26]], [[1976]]) ({{pronounced|ˈmaɐ̯tiːn ˈhaɪ̯dɛgɐ}}) was an influential [[Germany|German]] [[Philosophy|philosopher]]. His best known book, ''[[Being and Time]]'', is generally considered to be one of the most important philosophical works of the 20th century.
== Introduction ==
Heidegger claimed that [[Western philosophy]] has, since [[Plato]], misunderstood what it means for something to be, tending to approach this question in terms of ''a'' being, rather than asking about being itself. In other words, Heidegger believed all investigations of being have historically focused on particular entities and their properties, or have treated being itself as an entity, or [[Substance theory|substance]], with properties. A more authentic analysis of being would, for Heidegger, investigate "that on the basis of which beings are already understood," or that which underlies all particular entities and allows them to show up ''as'' entities in the first place.<ref> Martin Heidegger, ''Being and Time'', pp. 25–26.</ref> But since philosophers and scientists have overlooked the more basic, pre-theoretical ways of being from which their theories derive, and since they have incorrectly applied those theories universally, they have confused our understanding of being and human existence. To avoid these deep-rooted misconceptions, Heidegger believed philosophical inquiry must be conducted in a new way, through a process of retracing the steps of the history of philosophy.
Heidegger argued that this misunderstanding, commencing from Plato, has left its traces in every stage of Western thought. All that we understand, from the way we speak to our notions of "[[common sense]]," is susceptible to error, to fundamental mistakes about the nature of being. These mistakes filter into the terms through which being is articulated in the history of philosophy—reality, logic, God, consciousness, presence, et cetera. In his later philosophy, Heidegger argues that this profoundly affects the way in which human beings relate to modern technology.
His work has exercised a deep influence on philosophy, theology and the humanities, being key to the development of [[existentialism]], [[hermeneutics]], [[deconstruction]], [[postmodernism]], and [[continental philosophy]] in general. Heidegger's thought directly informs the works of major philosophers such as [[Karl Jaspers]], [[Leo Strauss]], [[Hans-Georg Gadamer]], [[Jean-Paul Sartre]], [[Emmanuel Lévinas]], [[Hannah Arendt]], [[Maurice Merleau-Ponty]], [[Michel Foucault]], [[Richard Rorty]], and [[Jacques Derrida]].
Heidegger infamously supported [[Nazism|National Socialism]]. This has provoked fierce debate among and between supporters and detractors: some see it as a personal folly largely irrelevant to his philosophy, while others think it reveals flaws inherent in his thought.
==Biography==
===Early years===
[[Image:Geburtshaus Heidegger Sonne.JPG|thumb|right|The Mesmerhaus in [[Meßkirch]], where Heidegger grew up.]]
Heidegger was born in rural [[Meßkirch]], Germany. Raised a [[Roman Catholic]], he was the son of the [[Sexton (office)|sexton]] of the village church. His family could not afford to send him to university, so he entered a Jesuit seminary. After studying theology at the [[Albert-Ludwigs-Universität|University of Freiburg]] from 1909 to 1911, he switched to philosophy. Heidegger completed his doctoral thesis on [[psychologism]] in 1914, and in 1916 finished his ''[[venia legendi]]'' with a thesis on [[Duns Scotus]].<ref>Note, however, that it was discovered later that one of the two main sources used by Heidegger was not by Scotus, but by [[Thomas of Erfurt]]. Thus Heidegger's 1916 doctoral thesis, ''Die Kategorien- und Bedeutungslehre des Duns Scotus'', should have been entitled, ''Die Kategorienlehre des Duns Scotus und die Bedeutungslehre des Thomas von Erfurt''. Source: [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/erfurt Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy].</ref> In the two years following, he worked first as an unsalaried [[Privatdozent]], then served as a soldier during the final year of [[World War I]], working behind a desk and never leaving Germany. After the war, he served as a salaried senior assistant to [[Edmund Husserl]] at the [[University of Freiburg]] until 1923.
===Marburg years===
In 1923, Heidegger was elected to an [[Professor#Main positions 2|extraordinary Professorship]] in Philosophy at the [[University of Marburg]]. His colleagues there included [[Rudolf Bultmann]], Ernst Friedländer, [[Nicolai Hartmann]], and [[Paul Natorp]]. Heidegger's students at Marburg included [[Hans-Georg Gadamer]], [[Hannah Arendt]], [[Karl Löwith]], [[:De:Gerhard Krüger (Philosoph)|Gerhard Krüger]], [[Leo Strauss]], [[Günther Anders]], and [[Hans Jonas]].
===Freiburg years===
When Husserl retired in 1928, Heidegger accepted Freiburg's election to be his successor, in spite of a counter-offer by Marburg. Heidegger remained at Freiburg for the rest of his life, declining a number of later offers including one from [[Humboldt University of Berlin|Berlin]], the most prestigious German university of the day. Among his students at Freiburg were [[Herbert Marcuse]] and [[Ernst Nolte]]. [[Emmanuel Levinas]] attended his lecture courses during his stay in Freiburg in 1928.
===National Socialism and aftermath===
In 1933, after Hitler's rise to power, Heidegger was elected [[Rector#The European continent|Rector]] of the [[University of Freiburg]] and he subsequently joined the [[National Socialist German Workers' Party|Nazi party]]. Heidegger's inaugural address, the [http://www.eco.utexas.edu/~hmcleave/350kPEEHeideggerSelf-Assertion.pdf#search=%22%22The%20Self-Assertion%20of%20the%20German%20University%22%22 Rektoratsrede], has become notorious. His tenure was, however, unsuccessful, and he resigned his position in 1934 (though he retained his party membership until the end of the war).
[[Image:Grab Heidegger.JPG|thumb|right|Heidegger's grave in Meßkirch]]
After the war, Heidegger was forbidden by the [[Allied occupation zones in Germany|French Occupation Authority]] from teaching in Germany, but this decision was rescinded in 1951, when he became Professor [[emeritus]] with all privileges. He then taught regularly from 1951 until 1958, and by invitation until 1967.
A more detailed account of the personal and philosophical relations between Heidegger and National Socialism is given [[Martin Heidegger#Heidegger and Nazism|below]].
===Personal life===
[[Image:Heideggerrundweg0009.JPG|thumb|left|Heidegger's mountain hut at Todtnauberg.]]
Heidegger married Elfriede Petri on March 21, 1917, in a Catholic ceremony officiated by his friend Engelbert Krebs, and a week later in a Protestant ceremony in the presence of her parents. Their first son Jörg was born in 1919. According to the recently published correspondence between the spouses<ref>{{citation
|last1=Heidegger
|first1=Martin
|last2=Heidegger
|first2=Gertrud
|title=Mein liebes Seelchen! Briefe von Martin Heidegger an seine Frau Elfride: 1915-1970
|publisher=DVA
|place=Munich
|isbn=978-3421058492
|date=September 2005
}}</ref>, Hermann (born 1920) is the son of Elfriede and Friedel Caesar. Martin Heidegger had extramarital affairs with [[Hannah Arendt]] and [[Elisabeth Blochmann]], both students of Heidegger and both [[Jewish]]. He helped the latter emigrate from Germany prior to World War II and resumed contact with both of them after the war.<ref>''Martin Heidegger / Elisabeth Blochmann. Briefwechsel 1918–1969''. Joachim W. Storck, ed. Marbach am Neckar: Deutsches Literatur-Archiv, 1989, 2nd edn. 1990.</ref>
Heidegger spent much time at a somewhat isolated mountain hut at [[Todtnauberg]], on the edge of the [[Black Forest]]. He considered the seclusion provided by the forest to be the best environment in which to engage in philosophical thought.<ref>[http://cabinetmagazine.org/issues/25/durantaye.php Being There], a Spring 2007 article on Heidegger's hut for ''[[Cabinet (magazine)|Cabinet]]'' magazine.</ref>
Heidegger died on May 26, 1976 and was buried in the Meßkirch cemetery.
==Philosophy==
===Being, time, and ''Dasein''===
Heidegger attempts to marry two insights.
*The ''first'' of these is Heidegger’s insight that, in the course of over two thousand years of history, philosophy has attended to all the beings that can be found in the world (including the “world” itself), but has forgotten to ask what “being” itself is. This is Heidegger’s “question of being,” and it is Heidegger’s fundamental concern throughout his work from the beginning of his career until its end. One crucial source of this insight was Heidegger’s reading of [[Franz Brentano|Franz Brentano’s]] treatise on [[Aristotle|Aristotle’s]] manifold uses of the word “being,” a work which provoked Heidegger to ask what kind of unity underlies this multiplicity of uses. Heidegger opens his ''magnum opus'', ''[[Being and Time]]'', with a citation from [[Plato|Plato’s]] [[Sophist (dialogue)|''Sophist'']] <ref> For a recent study on Heidegger's reading of the ''Sophist'' and his less central interest in Plato's ''Timaeus'' and its conception of ''space'' qua ''khôra'': see: Nader El-Bizri, "''On Kai khôra'': Situating Heidegger between the ''Sophist'' and the ''Timaeus''," ''Studia Phaenomenologica'', Vol. IV, Issue 1-2 (2004), pp. 73-98</ref> indicating that Western philosophy has neglected “being” because it was considered obvious, rather than as worthy of question. Heidegger’s intuition about the question of being is thus a historical argument, which in his later work becomes his concern with the “history of being,” that is, the history of the forgetting of being, which according to Heidegger requires that philosophy retrace its footsteps through a productive “[[Heideggerian terminology|destruction]]” of the history of philosophy.
*The ''second'' intuition animating Heidegger’s philosophy derives from the influence of [[Edmund Husserl]], a philosopher largely uninterested in questions of philosophical history. Rather, Husserl argued that all that philosophy could and should be is a description of experience (hence the phenomenological slogan, “to the things themselves”). But for Heidegger, this meant understanding that experience is always already situated in a world and in ways of being. Thus Husserl's understanding that all consciousness is "intentional" (in the sense that it is always intended ''toward'' something, and is always "about" something; intentionality has been called the "aboutness" of things) is transformed in Heidegger's philosophy, becoming the thought that all experience is grounded in "care." This is the basis of Heidegger’s “existential analytic,” as he develops it in ''Being and Time''. Heidegger argues that to be able to describe experience properly means finding the being for whom such a description might matter. Heidegger thus conducts his description of experience with reference to “''[[Dasein]]''," the being for whom being is a question.<ref>In everyday German, "''Dasein''" means "existence." It is composed of "''Da''" (here/there) and "''Sein''" (being). ''Dasein'' is transformed in Heidegger's usage from its everyday meaning to refer, rather, to that being that is ''there'' in its world, that is, the being for whom being matters. In later publications Heidegger writes the term in hyphenated form as ''Da-sein'', thus emphasizing the distance from the word's ordinary usage.</ref> In ''Being and Time'', Heidegger criticized the abstract and metaphysical character of traditional ways of grasping human existence as rational animal, person, man, soul, spirit, or subject. ''Dasein'', then, is not intended as a way of conducting a "[[philosophical anthropology]]," but is rather understood by Heidegger to be the condition of possibility for anything like a "philosophical anthropology."<ref>Jacques Derrida describes this in the following terms: "We can see then that Dasein, though ''not'' man, is nevertheless ''nothing other'' than man." Jacques Derrida, "The Ends of Man," ''Margins of Philosophy'' (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), p. 127.</ref> ''Dasein'', according to Heidegger, ''is'' care. In the course of his existential analytic, Heidegger argues that ''Dasein'', who finds itself thrown into the world amidst things and with others, is thrown into its possibilities, including the possibility and inevitability of one’s own mortality. The need for ''Dasein'' to assume these possibilities, that is, the need to be responsible for one’s own existence, is the basis of Heidegger’s notions of authenticity and resoluteness—that is, of those specific possibilities for ''Dasein'' which depend on escaping the “vulgar” temporality of calculation and of public life.
The marriage of these two insights depends on the fact that each of them is essentially concerned with time. That ''Dasein'' is thrown into an already existing world and thus into its mortal possibilities does not only mean that ''Dasein'' is an essentially temporal being; it also implies that the description of ''Dasein'' can only be carried out in terms inherited from the Western tradition itself. For Heidegger, unlike for Husserl, philosophical terminology could not be divorced from the history of the use of that terminology, and thus genuine philosophy could not avoid confronting questions of language and meaning. The existential analytic of ''Being and Time'' was thus always only a first step in Heidegger’s philosophy, to be followed by the “destruction” of the history of philosophy, that is, a transformation of its language and meaning, that would have made of the existential analytic only a kind of “limit case” (in the sense in which special relativity is a limit case of general relativity).
That Heidegger did not write this second part of ''Being and Time'', and that the existential analytic was left behind in the course of Heidegger’s subsequent writings on the history of being, might be interpreted as a failure to conjugate his account of ''individual'' experience with his account of the vicissitudes of the ''collective'' human adventure that he understands the Western philosophical tradition to be. And this would in turn raise the question of whether this failure is due to a flaw in Heidegger’s account of temporality, that is, of whether Heidegger was correct to oppose vulgar and authentic time.<ref>Cf. [[Bernard Stiegler]], "Technics of Decision: An Interview," ''Angelaki'' 8 (2003), pp. 154–67, and cf. the discussion of Stiegler's reading of Heidegger in the sub-section "Bernard Stiegler" below. </ref>
===''Being and Time''===
[[Image:Heideggerrundweg0013.JPG|thumb|left|View from Heidegger's mountain hut over Todtnauberg. Heidegger wrote most of ''Being and Time'' at the hut.]]
{{main|Being and Time}}
''Being and Time'' ([[German language|German]] title: ''Sein und Zeit''), published in 1927, is considered by many to be Heidegger's most important work. This epochal book was his first significant academic work, and earned him a professorship at [[Freiburg University]]. It investigates the question of [[being]] by asking about the being for whom being is a question. Heidegger names this being ''Dasein'' (see above), and the book pursues its investigation through themes such as mortality, anxiety, temporality, and historicity. It was Heidegger's original intention to write a second half of the book, consisting in a "''Destruktion''" of the history of philosophy—that is, the transformation of philosophy by re-tracing its history—but he never completed this project.
''Being and Time'' influenced many thinkers, including existentialist thinkers like [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] (although Heidegger distanced himself from [[existentialism]]—see below).
===''Die Kehre''===
Some have argued that Heidegger's thought after ''Being and Time'' exhibits a "turn" in his thinking (''die Kehre''). Heidegger denied this in a letter—published by [[William J. Richardson]] in ''Heidegger: Through Phenomenology to Thought'' (1963)—which stated that, if there had been a turn at all, it was simply a matter of going deeper into the same matters. In his later work, Heidegger largely abandons the account of ''Dasein'' as a pragmatic, engaged, worldly agent, and instead discusses other elements necessary to an understanding of being, notably language, the earth (as the almost ineffable foundation of world) and the presence of the gods. Nevertheless, ''Dasein'' (or "mortals," as he later prefers to say) remains a crucial part of the coming-about or event (''Ereignis'') of being.
===Later works===
[[Image:Heideggers Feldweg.JPG|thumb|"Am Feldweg" in Meßkirch. Heidegger often went for a walk on the path in this field. See the text "Der Feldweg" [[Gesamtausgabe (Heidegger)|GA]] Nr. 13]]
Heidegger's later works, following the so-called "turn" and after the Second World War, seem to many commentators to at least reflect a shift of focus<ref>* [http://journal.telospress.com/"Letter to the Boss' Daughter"]. [[TELOS (journal)|''TELOS'']] 77 (Fall 1988). New York: [http://www.telospress.com Telos Press]</ref>, if not indeed a major change in his philosophical outlook. One way this has been understood is as a shift from "doing" to "dwelling," although others feel that this is to overstate the difference. Heidegger focuses less on the way in which the structures of being are revealed in everyday behavior, and more on the way in which behavior itself depends on a prior "openness to being." The essence of being human is the maintenance of this openness. Heidegger contrasts this openness to the "will to power" of the modern human subject, which is one way of forgetting this originary openness.
Heidegger understands the commencement of the history of Western philosophy as a brief period of authentic openness to being, during the time of the [[pre-Socratic philosophy|pre-Socratics]], especially [[Parmenides]], [[Heraclitus]], and [[Anaximander]]. This was followed, according to Heidegger, by a long period increasingly dominated by the forgetting of this initial openness, a period which commences with [[Plato]], but a forgetting or abandonment which occurs in different ways throughout Western history.
Two recurring themes of Heidegger's later writings are poetry and technology. Heidegger sees poetry and technology as two contrasting ways of "revealing." Poetry reveals being in the way in which, if it is genuine poetry, it commences something new. Technology, on the other hand, when it gets going, inaugurates the world of the dichotomous subject and object, which modern philosophy commencing with Descartes also reveals. But with ''modern'' technology a new stage of revealing is reached, in which the subject-object distinction is overcome even in the "material" world of technology. The essence of modern technology is the conversion of the whole universe of beings into an undifferentiated "standing reserve" (''Bestand'') of energy available for any use to which humans choose to put it. Heidegger described the essence of modern technology as ''[[Gestell]]'', or "enframing." Heidegger does not unequivocally condemn technology: while he acknowledges that modern technology contains grave dangers, Heidegger nevertheless also argues that it may constitute a chance for human beings to enter a new epoch in their relation to being. Despite this, some commentators have concluded that an agrarian nostalgia permeates his later work.
Heidegger's important later works include ''Vom Wesen der Wahrheit'' ("On the Essence of Truth," 1930), ''Der Ursprung des Kunstwerkes'' ("[[The Origin of the Work of Art]]," 1935), ''Bauen Wohnen Denken'' ("Building Dwelling Thinking," 1951), and ''Die Frage nach der Technik'' ("[[The Question Concerning Technology]]," 1954) and ''Was heisst Denken?'' ("What Is Called Thinking?" 1954). Also important is ''Beiträge zur Philosophie (Vom Ereignis)'' ([[Contributions to Philosophy (From Enowning)|''Contributions to Philosophy [From Enowning]'']]), composed in the years 1936–38 but not published until 1989, on the centennial of Heidegger's birth.
===Influences===
'''Aristotle and the Greeks'''
Heidegger was influenced at an early age by [[Aristotle]], mediated through Catholic [[theology]], [[Medieval philosophy]], and [[Franz Brentano]]. Aristotle's ethical, logical, and metaphysical works were crucial to the development of his thought in the crucial period of the 1920s. Although he later worked less on Aristotle, Heidegger recommended postponing reading Nietzsche, and to "first study Aristotle for ten to fifteen years."<ref>Heidegger, ''What is Called Thinking?'' (New York: Harper & Row, 1968), p. 73.</ref> In reading Aristotle, Heidegger increasingly contested the traditional Latin translation and scholastic interpretation of his thought. Particularly important (not least for its influence upon others, both in their interpretation of Aristotle and in rehabilitating a neo-Aristotelian "practical philosophy"<ref>Kelvin Knight, ''Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre'' (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2007).</ref>) was his radical reinterpretation of Book Six of Aristotle's ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'' and several books of the ''[[Metaphysics (Aristotle)|Metaphysics]]''. Both informed the argument of ''Being and Time''.
The idea of asking about [[being]] may be traced back via [[Aristotle]] to [[Parmenides]]. Heidegger claimed to have revived the question of being, the question having been largely forgotten by the [[Metaphysics|metaphysical]] tradition extending from [[Plato]] to [[Descartes]], a forgetfulness extending to the [[Age of Enlightenment]] and then to modern science and technology. In pursuit of the retrieval of this question, Heidegger spent considerable time reflecting on [[Greek philosophy|ancient Greek thought]], in particular on [[Plato]], [[Parmenides]], [[Heraclitus]], and [[Anaximander]], as well as on the tragic playwright [[Sophocles]].
'''Dilthey'''
Heidegger's very early project of developing a "hermeneutics of [[Facticity|factical]] life" and his hermeneutical transformation of phenomenology was influenced in part by his reading of the works of [[Wilhelm Dilthey]]. Heidegger's portrayal of history, historicity, and generation need to be interpreted in this context and, in particular, the correspondence between [[Dilthey]] and [[Paul Yorck von Wartenburg]].
Of the influence of Dilthey, [[Hans-Georg Gadamer]] writes the following: "As far as Dilthey is concerned, we all know today what I have known for a long time: namely that it is a mistake to conclude on the basis of the citation in ''Being and Time'' that Dilthey was especially influential in the development of Heidegger's thinking in the mid-1920s. This dating of the influence is much too late." He adds that by the fall of 1923 it was plain that Heidegger felt "the clear superiority of Count Yorck over the famous scholar, Dilthey." Gadamer nevertheless makes clear that Dilthey's influence was important in helping the youthful Heidegger "in distancing himself from the systematic ideal of Neo-Kantianism, as Heidegger acknowledges in ''Being and Time''."<ref>Hans-Georg Gadamer, "Martin Heidegger's One Path," in Theodore Kisiel & John van Buren (eds.), ''Reading Heidegger from the Start: Essays in His Earliest Thought'' (Albany: SUNY Press, 1994), pp. 22–4. </ref> Based on Heidegger's earliest lecture courses, in which Heidegger already engages Dilthey's thought prior to the period Gadamer mentions as "too late," recent scholars as diverse as [[Theodore Kisiel]] and [[David Farrell Krell]] have argued for the importance of Diltheyan concepts and strategies in the formation of Heidegger's thought.<ref>In ''The Genesis of Heidegger’s Being and Time'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), Theodor Kisiel designates the first version of the project that culminates in ''Being and Time'', "the Dilthey draft" (p. 313). David Farrell Krell comments in ''Daimon Life: Heidegger and Life-Philosophy'' (Bloomington & Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1992) that “Heidegger’s project sprouts (in part, but in ''good'' part) from the soil of Dilthey’s philosophy of factical-historical life” (p. 35).</ref>
Gadamer's views on Heidegger are criticized in many quarters, but there can be no doubt that Heidegger seized upon Dilthey's concept of hermeneutics in much the same way that Husserl had seized on Brentano's idea that all of reality could be explained in terms of a descriptive psychology. Heidegger's novel ideas about ontology required a ''gestalt'' formation, not merely a series of logical arguments, in order to demonstrate his fundamentally new paradigm of thinking, and the hermeneutic circle offered a new and powerful tool for the articulation and realization of these ideas.
'''Husserl'''
There is disagreement over the degree of influence that Husserl had on Heidegger's philosophical development, just as there is disagreement about the degree to which Heidegger's philosophy is grounded in phenomenology. These disagreements centre around how much of Husserlian phenomenology is contested by Heidegger, and how much this phenomenology in fact informs Heidegger's own understanding.
On the relation between the two figures, Gadamer wrote the following: "When asked about phenomenology, Husserl was quite right to answer as he used to in the period directly after World War I: 'Phenomenology, that is me and Heidegger'." Nevertheless, Gadamer noted that Heidegger was no patient collaborator with Husserl, and that Heidegger's "rash ascent to the top, the incomparable fascination he aroused, and his stormy temperament surely must have made Husserl, the patient one, as suspicious of Heidegger as he always had been of [[Max Scheler|Max Scheler's]] volcanic fire."<ref>Hans-Georg Gadamer, "Martin Heidegger—75 Years," ''Heidegger's Ways'' (Albany: SUNY Press, 1994), p. 18. </ref>
Robert J. Dostal understands the importance of Husserl to be profound:
<blockquote>Heidegger himself, who is supposed to have broken with Husserl, bases his hermeneutics on an account of time that not only parallels Husserl's account in many ways but seems to have been arrived at through the same phenomenological method as was used by Husserl. [...] The differences between Husserl and Heidegger are significant, but if we do not see how much it is the case that Husserlian phenomenology provides the framework for Heidegger's approach, we will not be able to appreciate the exact nature of Heidegger's project in ''Being and Time'' or why he let it unfinished.<ref>Robert J. Dostal, "Time and Phenomenology in Husserl and Heidegger," in Charles Guignon (ed.), ''The Cambridge Companion to Heidegger'' (Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993), p. 142. </ref></blockquote>
Daniel O. Dahlstrom sees Heidegger's presentation of his work as a departure from Husserl as unfairly misrepresenting Husserl's own work. Dahlstrom concludes his consideration of the relation between Heidegger and Husserl as follows:
<blockquote>Heidegger's silence about the stark similarities between his account of temporality and Husserl's investigation of internal time-consciousness contributes to a ''misrepresentation'' of Husserl's account of intentionality. Contrary to the criticisms Heidegger advances in his lectures, intentionality (and, by implication, the meaning of 'to be') in the final analysis is not construed by Husserl as sheer presence (be it the presence of a fact or object, act or event). Yet for all its "dangerous closeness" to what Heidegger understands by temporality, Husserl's account of internal time-consciousness does differ fundamentally. In Husserl's account the structure of protentions is accorded neither the finitude nor the primacy that Heidegger claims are central to the original future of ecstatic-horizonal temporality.<ref>Daniel O. Dahlstrom, "Heidegger's Critique of Husserl," in Theodore Kisiel & John van Buren (eds.), ''Reading Heidegger from the Start: Essays in His Earliest Thought'' (Albany: SUNY Press, 1994), p. 244. </ref></blockquote>
'''Kierkegaard'''
Heidegger was also influenced by [[Søren Kierkegaard]]. Heidegger's concepts of anxiety (''[[Angst]]'') and mortality draw on Kierkegaard and are indebted to the way in which the latter lays out the importance of our subjective relation to truth, our existence in the face of death, the temporality of existence, and the importance of passionate affirmation of one's individual being-in-the-world. Nonetheless, it is important to notice the difference between the Danish philosopher, whose thought was both individualistic and Christian, and Heidegger, who conceived of human existence as thoroughly social and sharply distinguished philosophy itself from all personal, scientific, and religious commitments.
Contemporary Heideggerians regard Kierkegaard as by far the greatest philosophical contributor to Heidegger's own existentialist concepts. And although Heidegger was careful to point out the highly technical differences between his own philosophy and the traditional definition of existentialism, he is nonetheless regarded by existentialists as one of the most important existential philosophers, on a par with Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, and Jaspers.
'''Hölderlin and Nietzsche'''
[[Friedrich Hölderlin]] and [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] were both important influences on Heidegger, and many of his lecture courses were devoted to one or other of these figures, especially in the 1930s and 1940s. The lectures on Nietzsche focused on fragments posthumously published under the title ''[[The Will to Power]]'', rather than on Nietzsche's published works. Heidegger read ''The Will to Power'' as the culminating expression of Western metaphysics, and the lectures are a kind of dialogue between the two thinkers.
This is also the case for the lecture courses devoted to the poetry of Friedrich Hölderlin, which became an increasingly central focus of Heidegger's work and thought. Heidegger grants to Hölderlin a singular place within the history of being and the history of Germany, as a herald whose thought is yet to be "heard" in Germany or the West. Many of Heidegger's works from the 1930s onwards include meditations on lines from Hölderlin's poetry, and several of the lecture courses are devoted to the reading of a single poem (see, for example, ''[[Hölderlin's Hymn "The Ister"]]'').
===Heidegger and Eastern thought===
Some writers on Heidegger's work see possibilities within it for dialogue with traditions of thought outside of Western philosophy, particularly East Asian thinking. Despite perceived differences between Eastern and Western philosophy, some of Heidegger's later work, particularly "A Dialogue on Language between a Japanese and an Inquirer," does show an interest in initiating such a dialogue.<ref>Heidegger, "A Dialogue on Language between a Japanese and an Inquirer," in ''On the Way to Language'' (New York: Harper & Row, 1971).</ref> Heidegger himself had contact with a number of leading Japanese intellectuals, including members of the [[Kyoto School]], notably [[Hajime Tanabe]], [[Kuki Shūzō]] and Kyoshi Miki.
Furthermore, it has also been claimed that a number of elements within Heidegger's thought bear a close parallel to Eastern philosophical ideas, particularly with [[Zen Buddhism]] and [[Taoism]]. An account given by Paul Hsao (in ''Heidegger and Asian Thought'') records a remark by Chang Chung-Yuan claiming that "Heidegger is the only Western Philosopher who not only intellectually understands but has intuitively grasped Taoist thought."
According to [[Tomonubu Imamichi]], the concept of ''Dasein'' was inspired — although Heidegger remains silent on this — by [[Okakura Kakuzo|Okakura Kakuzo's]] concept of ''das-in-der-Welt-sein'' (being in the world) expressed in ''[[The Book of Tea]]'' to describe [[Zhuangzi|Zhuangzi's]] philosophy, which Imamichi's teacher had offered to Heidegger in 1919, after having studied with him the year before.<ref name=Imamichi> Tomonubu Imamichi, ''In Search of Wisdom. One Philosopher's Journey'', Tokyo, International House of Japan, 2004 (quoted by Anne Fagot-Largeau during her [http://www.college-de-france.fr/default/EN/all/phi_sci/p1184676830986.htm lesson] at the [[Collège de France]] on December 7, 2006).</ref>
Some scholars interested in the relationships between Western philosophy and the history of ideas in [[Islam]] and Arabic philosophical medieval sources may also have been influenced by Heidegger's work.<ref> See for instance: Nader El-Bizri, ''The Phenomenological Quest between [[Avicenna]] and Heidegger'' (Binghamton, N.Y.: Global Publications SUNY, 2000)</ref>
==Heidegger and Nazism==
{{main|Heidegger and Nazism}}
===The rectorate===
[[Image:Universität Freiburg Kollegiengebäude I (Altbau).jpg|thumb|right|The university of Freiburg, where Heidegger was Rector from 1933-34]]
[[Adolf Hitler]] was named [[Chancellor of Germany]] on January 30, 1933. Heidegger was elected [[Rector#The European continent|Rector]] of the [[University of Freiburg]] on April 21, 1933, assuming the position the following day, and on May 1 he joined the [[Nazi Party]]. Heidegger delivered his inaugural address, the [http://www.eco.utexas.edu/~hmcleave/350kPEEHeideggerSelf-Assertion.pdf#search=%22%22The%20Self-Assertion%20of%20the%20German%20University%22%22 Rektoratsrede], on May 27. It was entitled "The Self-Assertion of the German University," and became notorious. His tenure as Rector was, however, fraught with difficulties from the outset. He offered his resignation on April 23, 1934, and it was accepted on April 27. Heidegger remained a member of the academic faculty, and he also remained a member of the Nazi party until the end of the war.
Philosophical historian [[Hans Sluga]] places Heidegger's embrace of National Socialism during this period within the context of a similar and often even more enthusiastic acceptance of Nazism from many other German philosophers. He characterises Heidegger's stance while Rector in the following way:
<blockquote>Though as rector he prevented students from displaying an anti-Semitic poster at the entrance to the university and from holding a book burning, he kept in close contact with the Nazi student leaders and clearly signaled to them his sympathy with their activism.<ref>Hans Sluga, ''Heidegger's Crisis: Philosophy and Politics in Nazi Germany'' (Cambridge, Massachusetts, & London: Harvard University Press, 1993), p. 149. </ref></blockquote>
In 1945 Heidegger wrote a defence of his term as rector, which he gave to his son Hermann, and which was published in 1983. In it Heidegger referred to his 1933–34 involvement in the following terms:
<blockquote>The rectorate was an attempt to see something in the movement that had come to power, beyond all its failings and crudeness, that was much more far-reaching and that could perhaps one day bring a concentration on the Germans' Western historical essence. It will in no way be denied that at the time I believed in such possibilities and for that reason renounced the actual vocation of thinking in favor of being effective in an official capacity. In no way will what was caused by my own inadequacy in office be played down. But these points of view do not capture what is essential and what moved me to accept the rectorate.<ref>Heidegger, "The Rectorate 1933/34: Facts and Thoughts," in Günther Neske & Emil Kettering (eds.), ''Martin Heidegger and National Socialism: Questions and Answers'' (New York: Paragon House, 1990), p. 29. </ref></blockquote>
===Treatment of Husserl===
On April 14, 1933 (thus prior to Heidegger's rectorship), his former mentor [[Edmund Husserl]] was given an enforced leave of absence because he was Jewish. It is not true, as is sometimes claimed, that during the rectorate Heidegger denied Husserl access to the university library. He did, however, break off contact with Husserl, other than via a "go-between" (though Heidegger claimed that the relationship with Husserl had already become strained after Husserl publicly "settled accounts" with Heidegger and [[Max Scheler]] in the early 1930s.<ref>Martin Heidegger, "Der Spiegel Interview," in Günther Neske & Emil Kettering (eds.), ''Martin Heidegger and National Socialism: Questions and Answers'' (New York: Paragon House, 1990), p. 48.</ref>) Heidegger did not attend his mentor's cremation in 1938, and in 1941, under pressure from publisher Max Niemeyer, agreed to remove the dedication to Husserl from ''Being and Time'' (restored in post-war editions).<ref>Rüdiger Safranski, ''Martin Heidegger: Between Good and Evil'' (Cambridge, Mass., & London: Harvard University Press, 1998), pp. 253-8. </ref>
===Post-rectorate National Socialist period===
After the spectacular failure of Heidegger's rectorship, he withdrew from political activity, without canceling his membership of the NSDAP. Nevertheless, references to National Socialism continued to appear in his work, usually in ambiguous ways.
In the course of his 1935 lectures, Heidegger referred to the "inner truth and greatness of this movement" (''die innere Wahrheit und Größe dieser Bewegung''), that is, of [[Nazism|National Socialism]]. This phrase remained when the lectures were published in 1953 under the title, ''An Introduction to Metaphysics''; however, Heidegger added a parenthetical qualification, without mentioning this change at the time of publication: "(namely, the confrontation of planetary technology and modern humanity) (''nämlich die Begegnung der planetarisch bestimmten Technik und des neuzeitlichen Menschen'')."<ref>Rainer Marten, letter to Jürgen Habermas, January 28, 1988, cited by Habermas in "Work and ''Weltanschauung'': the Heidegger Controversy from a German Perspective," ''Critical Inquiry'' 15 (1989), pp. 452–54.</ref>
In the lectures of 1942, published posthumously as ''[[Hölderlin's Hymn "The Ister"]]'', Heidegger makes the following remark:
<blockquote>Today—if one still reads such books at all—one can scarcely read a treatise or book on the Greeks without everywhere being assured that here, with the Greeks, "everything" is "politically" determined. In the majority of "research results," the Greeks appear as the pure National Socialists. This overenthusiasm on the part of academics seems not even to notice that with such "results" it does National Socialism and its historical uniqueness no service at all, not that it needs this anyhow.<ref>Heidegger, ''[[Hölderlin's Hymn "The Ister"]]'' (Bloomington & Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1996), pp. 79-80. </ref></blockquote>
[[Karl Löwith]] met Heidegger in 1936 while the latter was visiting Rome to lecture on Hölderlin. In an account set down in 1940 and not intended for publication, Löwith recounted an exchange with Heidegger over editorials published in the ''[[Neue Zürcher Zeitung]]'':
<blockquote>[I] told him that I did not agree either with the way in which [[Karl Barth]] was attacking him or in the way [[:De:Emil Staiger|[Emil] Staiger]] was defending him, because my opinion was that his taking the side of National Socialism was in agreement with the essence of his philosophy. Heidegger told me unreservedly that I was right and developed his idea by saying that his idea of historicity [''Geschichtlichkeit''] was the foundation for his political involvement.<ref>Karl Löwith, ''Mein Leben in Deutschland vor und nach 1933: ein Bericht'' (Stuttgart: Metzler, 1986), p. 57, translated by Paula Wissing as cited by Maurice Blanchot in "Thinking the Apocalypse: a Letter from Maurice Blanchot to Catherine David," in ''Critical Inquiry'' 15:2, pp. 476-477. </ref></blockquote>
Löwith went on to say:
<blockquote>In response to my remark that I could understand many things about his attitude, with one exception, which was that he would permit himself to be seated at the same table with a figure such as [[Julius Streicher]] (at the German Academy of Law), he was silent at first. At last he uttered this well-known rationalisation (which Karl Barth saw so clearly), which amounted to saying that "it all would have been much worse if some men of knowledge had not been involved." And with a bitter resentment towards people of culture, he concluded his statement: "If these gentlemen had not considered themselves too refined to become involved, things would have been different, but I had to stay in there alone." To my reply that one did not have to be very refined to refuse to work with a Streicher, he answered that it was useless to discuss Streicher; the ''Stürmer'' was nothing more than "pornography." Why didn't Hitler get rid of this sinister individual? He didn't understand it.<ref>ibid, p. 477</ref></blockquote>
For commentators such as Habermas who credit Löwith's account, there are a number of generally shared implications: one is that Heidegger did not turn away from National Socialism ''per se'' but became deeply disaffected with the official philosophy and ideology of the party, as embodied by [[Alfred Bäumler]] or [[Alfred Rosenberg]], whose biologistic racist doctrines he never accepted.
===Post-war period===
Heidegger's affair with [[Hannah Arendt]], who was Jewish, occurred some time before Heidegger's involvement in National Socialism, but her friendship with Heidegger did not end when she moved to [[Heidelberg]] to continue her studies under [[Karl Jaspers]]. Arendt later spoke on his behalf at his [[denazification]] hearings. Jaspers spoke against him at the same hearings, suggesting he would have a detrimental influence on German students because of his powerful teaching presence. Arendt cautiously resumed their friendship after the war, despite or even because of the widespread contempt for Heidegger and his political sympathies. The denazification hearings resulted in Heidegger being forbidden to teach between 1945 and 1951. One consequence of his disfavour in Germany was that Heidegger began to engage far more in the French philosophical scene.
In a lecture on technology delivered at Bremen in 1949, Heidegger made the following controversial remark:
<blockquote>Agriculture is now a motorized food industry, the same thing in its essence as the production of corpses in the gas chambers and the extermination camps, the same thing as blockades and the reduction of countries to famine, the same thing as the manufacture of hydrogen bombs.<ref>Cited in Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe, ''Heidegger, Art and Politics: The Fiction of the Political'' (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990), p. 34. </ref></blockquote>
This quotation has been the subject of widespread criticism and interpretation. [[Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe]], for example, described it as "scandalously inadequate."<ref>Lacoue-Labarthe, ''Heidegger, Art and Politics'', p. 34. </ref>
In 1967 Heidegger had an encounter with the Jewish poet, [[Paul Celan]], who had been interned during the war. On July 24 Celan gave a reading at the University of Freiburg, attended by Heidegger. Heidegger there presented Celan with a copy of ''What is Called Thinking?'', and invited him to visit him at his hut at ''[[Todtnauberg]]'', an invitation which Celan accepted. On July 25 Celan visited Heidegger at his retreat, signing the guestbook and spending some time walking and talking with Heidegger. The details of their conversation are not known, but the meeting was the subject of a subsequent poem by Celan, entitled "Todtnauberg" (dated August 1, 1967). The enigmatic poem and the encounter have been discussed by numerous writers on Heidegger and Celan, notably Lacoue-Labarthe.
===''Der Spiegel'' interview===
On September 23, 1966, Heidegger gave an interview to ''[[Der Spiegel]]'' magazine, in which he agreed to discuss his political past provided that the interview be published posthumously (it was published on May 31, 1976). In the interview, Heidegger defended his entanglement with National Socialism in two ways: first, he argued that there was no alternative, saying that he was trying to save the university (and science in general) from being politicized and thus had to compromise with the Nazi administration. Second, he admitted that he saw an "awakening" ("''Aufbruch''") which might help to find a "new national and social approach" but stated that he changed his mind about this in 1934, largely prompted by the violence of the [[Night of the Long Knives]].
The Löwith account from 1936 has been cited to contradict the account given in the ''Spiegel'' interview in two ways: that there was no decisive break with National Socialism in 1934 and that Heidegger was willing to entertain more profound relations between his philosophy and political involvement. The ''Der Spiegel'' interviewers did not bring up Heidegger's 1949 quotation comparing the industrialization of agriculture to the extermination camps. In fact, the ''Der Spiegel'' interviewers were not in possession of much of the evidence now known for Heidegger's Nazi sympathies.<ref>For critical readings of the interview (published in 1966 as "Only a God Can Save Us," ''Der Spiegel''), see the "Special Feature on Heidegger and Nazism" in ''Critical Inquiry'' 15:2 (Winter 1989), particularly the contributions by [[Jürgen Habermas]] and [[Maurice Blanchot|Blanchot]]. The issue includes partial translations of Derrida's ''Of Spirit'' and Lacoue-Labarthe's ''Of Spirit'' and ''Heidegger, Art, and Politics: the Fiction of the Political''.</ref>
However, in that interview Heidegger qualifies the expression "inner truth and greatness of this movement" as being nothing else than double-speak. He affirms there that the Nazi (or: Gestapo) informants who were observing his lectures would understand that by "movement" he means National Socialism, while his dedicated students would know this is no elogy for the NSDAP, but he means it like in the later edit, "(namely, the confrontation of planetary technology and modern humanity)."
==Influence and reception in France==
Heidegger was one of the most influential philosophers of the 20th century, and his ideas have penetrated into many areas, but in France there is a very long and particular history of reading and interpreting his work.
===Existentialism and pre-war influence===
Heidegger's influence on French philosophy began in the 1930s, when ''Being and Time'', "What is Metaphysics?" and other Heideggerian texts were read by [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] and other existentialists, as well as by thinkers such as [[Emmanuel Lévinas]], [[Alexandre Kojève]] and [[Georges Bataille]].<ref>On the history of the French translation of Heidegger's "What is Metaphysics?," and on its importance to the French intellectual scene, cf. Denis Hollier, "Plenty of Nothing," in Hollier (ed.), ''A New History of French Literature'' (Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1989), pp. 894–900. </ref> Because Heidegger's discussion of ontology (the study of being) is rooted in an analysis of the mode of existence of individual human beings (''Dasein'', or being-there), his work has often been associated with existentialism. The influence of Heidegger on Sartre's ''[[Being and Nothingness]]'' is marked, but Heidegger felt this influence took the form of a misreading, as he argued in later texts such as the "Letter on 'Humanism'." In that text, intended for a French audience, Heidegger explained this misreading in the following terms:
<blockquote>Sartre's key proposition about the priority of ''existentia'' over ''essentia'' [that is, Sartre's statement that "existence precedes essence"] does, however, justify using the name "existentialism" as an appropriate title for a philosophy of this sort. But the basic tenet of "existentialism" has nothing at all in common with the statement from ''Being and Time'' [that "the 'essence' of Dasein lies in its existence"]—apart from the fact that in ''Being and Time'' no statement about the relation of ''essentia'' and ''existentia'' can yet be expressed, since there it is still a question of preparing something precursory.<ref>Heidegger, "Letter on 'Humanism'," ''Pathmarks'' (Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 250–1. </ref></blockquote>
===Post-war forays into France===
After the war, Heidegger was banned from university teaching for a period on account of his activities as Rector of Freiburg University. He developed a number of contacts in France, where his work continued to be taught, and a number of French students visited him at [[Todtnauberg]] (see, for example, [[Jean-François Lyotard|Jean-François Lyotard's]] brief account in ''Heidegger and "the jews"'', which discusses a Franco-German conference held in Freiburg in 1947, one step toward bringing together French and German students). Heidegger subsequently made several visits to France, and made efforts to keep abreast of developments in French philosophy by way of correspondence with [[Jean Beaufret]], an early French translator of Heidegger, and with Lucien Braun.
===Derrida and deconstruction===
[[Deconstruction]] came to Heidegger's attention in 1967 by way of Lucien Braun's recommendation of [[Jacques Derrida|Jacques Derrida's]] work ([[Hans-Georg Gadamer]] was present at an initial discussion and indicated to Heidegger that Derrida's work came to his attention by way of an assistant). Heidegger expressed interest in meeting Derrida personally after the latter sent him some of his work. There was discussion of a meeting in 1972, but this failed to take place. Heidegger's interest in Derrida is said by Braun to have been considerable (as is evident in two letters, of September 29, 1967 and May 16, 1972, from Heidegger to Braun). Braun also brought to Heidegger's attention the work of [[Michel Foucault]]. Foucault's relation to Heidegger is a matter of considerable difficulty; Foucault acknowledged Heidegger as a philosopher whom he read but never wrote about. (For more on this see ''Penser à Strasbourg,'' Jacques Derrida, et al, which includes reproductions of both letters and an account by Braun, "À mi-chemin entre Heidegger et Derrida").
Jacques Derrida made emphatic efforts to displace the understanding of Heidegger's work that had been prevalent in France from the period of the ban against Heidegger teaching in German universities, which amounted to an almost wholesale rejection of the influence of [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] and existentialist terms. In Derrida's view, deconstruction is a tradition inherited via Heidegger (the French term "déconstruction" is a term coined to translate Heidegger's use of the words "Destruktion" - literally "destruction" - and "Abbau" - more literally "de-building"). According to Derrida, Sartre's interpretation of Dasein and other key Heideggerian concerns is overly psychologistic, anthropocentric, and misses the historicality central to ''Dasein'' in ''Being and Time''. Sartre's reading of Heidegger, which formed the basis of the former's major work ''[[Being and Nothingness]]'', was based on the limited number of Heidegger's texts commonly studied in France up to that point (namely ''Being and Time,'' ''What is Metaphysics?'' and ''Kant and the Problem of Metaphysics''). Because of his vehement attempts to "rescue" Heidegger from his existentialist interpreters, Derrida has at times been represented as an ultra-orthodox "French Heidegger," to the extent that he, his colleagues, and his former students are made to go proxy for Heidegger's worst (political) mistakes, despite ample evidence that the reception of Heidegger's work by later practitioners of deconstruction is anything but doctrinaire. The work of [[Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe]] may be taken as exemplary in this regard and was often commended as such by Derrida, who further contrasted Lacoue-Labarthe's extended work on Heidegger with Foucault's silence.
===The Farías debate===
Derrida, Lacoue-Labarthe, and [[Jean-François Lyotard]], among others, all engaged in debate and disagreement about the relation between Heidegger's philosophy and his politics. These debates included the question of whether it was possible to do without Heidegger's philosophy, a position which Derrida in particular rejected. Forums where these debates took place include the proceedings of the first conference dedicated to Derrida's work, published as "Les Fins de l'homme à partir du travail de Jacques Derrida: colloque de Cerisy, 23 juillet-2 août 1980", Derrida's "Feu la cendre/cio' che resta del fuoco", and the studies on [[Paul Celan]] by Lacoue-Labarthe and Derrida which shortly preceded the detailed studies of Heidegger's politics published in and after 1987.
When in 1987 [[Victor Farias|Víctor Farías]] published his book ''Heidegger et le nazisme'', this debate was taken up by many others, some of whom were inclined to disparage so-called "deconstructionists" for their association with Heidegger's philosophy. Derrida and others not only continued to defend the importance of reading Heidegger, but attacked Farías's scholarship and sensationalism.
===Bernard Stiegler===
More recently, Heidegger's thought has considerably influenced the work of the French philosopher [[Bernard Stiegler]]. This is evident even from the title of Stiegler's multi-volume ''magnum opus'', ''La technique et le temps'' (volume one translated into English as ''[[Technics and Time, 1: The Fault of Epimetheus]]'').<ref>Bernard Stiegler,'' Technics and Time, 1: The Fault of Epimetheus'' (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1998), part 2.</ref> Stiegler offers an original reading of Heidegger, arguing that there can be no access to "originary temporality" other than via material, that is, technical, supports, and that Heidegger recognised this in the form of his account of world historicality, yet in the end suppressed that fact. Stiegler understands the existential analytic of ''[[Being and Time]]'' as an account of psychic [[individuation]], and his later "history of being" as an account of collective individuation. He understands many of the problems of Heidegger's philosophy and politics as the consequence of Heidegger's inability to integrate the two.
==Criticism==
Heidegger's influence upon 20th century [[continental philosophy]] is unquestioned and has produced a variety of critical responses.
=== Early criticisms ===
The content of ''Being and Time'', according to Husserl, claimed to deal with ontology, but from Husserl's perspective only did so in the first few pages of the book. Having nothing further to contribute to an ontology independent of human existence, Heidegger changed the topic to ''Dasein''. Whereas Heidegger argued that the question of human existence is central to the pursuit of question of being, Husserl criticized this as reducing phenomenology to "philosophical anthropology" and offering an abstract and incorrect portrait of the human being.<ref>See Edmund Husserl, ''Psychological and transcendental phenomenology and the confrontation with Heidegger (1927-1931)'' (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1997).</ref>
The [[Neo-Kantian]] [[Ernst Cassirer]] and Heidegger engaged in an influential debate located in [[Davos]] in 1929, concerning the significance of Kantian notions of freedom and rationality. Whereas Cassirer defended the role of rationality in Kant, Heidegger argued for the priority of the imagination. Dilthey's student [[Georg Misch]] wrote the first extended critical appropriation of Heidegger in ''Lebensphilosophie und Phänomenologie. Eine Auseinandersetzung der Diltheyschen Richtung mit Heidegger und Husserl'', Leipzig 1930 (3. ed. Stuttgart 1964).
=== Left-Hegelianism and critical theory ===
Marxist influenced thinkers, especially [[György Lukács]] and the [[Frankfurt School]], associated the style and content of Heidegger's thought with German irrationalism and criticized its political implications.
Initially members of the Frankfurt School were positively disposed to Heidegger, becoming more critical at the beginning of the 1930s. Heidegger's student [[Herbert Marcuse]] became associated with the Frankfurt School. Initially striving for a synthesis between Hegelian-Marxism and Heidegger's phenomenology, Marcuse later rejected Heidegger's thought for its "false concreteness" and "revolutionary conservativism." [[Theodor Adorno]] wrote an extended critique of the ideological character of Heidegger's early and later use of language in the ''Jargon of Authenticity''. Contemporary social theorists associated with the Frankfurt School have remained critical of Heidegger's works and influence. In particular, [[Jürgen Habermas]] admonishes the influence of Heidegger on recent French philosophy in his polemic against "postmodernism" in ''The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity'' (1985).
Heidegger's politics and style has been criticized by Richard Wolin and Tom Rockmore, the latter arguing that ''Being and Time'' does not follow the norms of scholarly writing, i.e. defining new terms as they are introduced. Rockmore and other critics say this was due to an authoritarian style.{{Fact|date=August 2007}}
=== Reception by analytic and Anglo-American philosophy ===
Criticism of Heidegger's philosophy has also come from [[analytic philosophy]], beginning with [[logical positivism]]. Accusing Heidegger of offering an "illusory" ontology, [[Rudolf Carnap]] criticized him, in "The Elimination of Metaphysics Through Logical Analysis of Language" (1932), of committing the fallacy of [[reification]] and of wrongly dismissing the logical treatment of language, which, according to Carnap, can only lead to writing "nonsensical pseudo-propositions."
A ferocious critic of Heidegger's philosophy was the British logical positivist [[A. J. Ayer]], who categorizes philosophers into laymen, pontiffs, and journeymen in ''The Meaning of Life''. The pontiffs (whom Ayer considered to be the worst of the three categories) were philosophers who, according to Ayer, proposed vast, overarching theories regarding existence, which are completely unverifiable through empirical demonstration and logical analysis. For Ayer, this sort of philosophy was a poisonous strain in modern thought and he considered Heidegger to be the "arch-pontiff" of the classification, because of Heidegger's repudiation of the importance of reason and his invention of theories that seem empirically unverifiable. Ayer believed that pontification was entirely useless.
[[Bertrand Russell]] commented, expressing the sentiments of many mid-20th-century English-speaking philosophers, that: "his philosophy is extremely obscure. One cannot help suspecting that language is here running riot. An interesting point in his speculations is the insistence that nothingness is something positive. As with much else in Existentialism, this is a psychological observation made to pass for logic."<ref>Bertrand Russell, ''Wisdom of the West'' (New York: Crescent Books, 1989), p. 303.</ref>
The analytic tradition values clarity of expression. However, for the later Heidegger, in particular, intelligibility was 'suicide for philosophy'. He stated, in opposition to positivism, that "those in the crossing must in the end know what is mistaken by all urging for intelligibility: that every thinking of being, all philosophy, can ''never'' be confirmed by 'facts,' i.e., by beings. Making itself intelligible is suicide for philosophy. Those who idolize 'facts' never notice that their idols only shine in a borrowed light. They are also meant not to notice this; for thereupon they would have to be at a loss and therefore useless. But idolizers and idols are used wherever gods are in flight and so announce ''their'' nearness."<ref>Martin Heidegger, ''Contributions to Philosophy (From Enowning)'' (Bloomington & Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1999), p. 307.</ref> Apart from the charge of [[obscurantism]], other analytic philosophers considered the actual content of Heidegger's work to be either faulty and frivolous, subjective or uninteresting.
However, not all analytic philosophers have been as hostile. [[Gilbert Ryle]] wrote a critical yet positive review of ''Being and Time'' and [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] made some positive remarks in passing that only recently have seen the light of day. These positive and negative analytic evaluations have been collected in Michael Murray (ed.), ''Heidegger and Modern Philosophy: Critical Essays'' (Yale University Press, 1978). Heidegger's reputation within English-language philosophy has improved in philosophical terms in some part through the efforts of [[Hubert Dreyfus]], [[Richard Rorty]], and a recent generation of analytically-oriented phenomenology scholars. Pragmatist Rorty claimed that Heidegger's approach to philosophy in the first half of his career has much in common with that of the latter-day Ludwig Wittgenstein, a significant figure in analytic philosophy.
=== Contemporary European reception ===
Although Heidegger is often thought to be the most influential philosopher of the 20th century in continental philosophy, the significance of his work has been debated even by philosophers sympathetic to some aspects of his work, such as [[Hans-Georg Gadamer]] and [[Jacques Derrida]]. However, rather than universal denouncements of his style, these criticisms tend to engage Heidegger's thought more substantively on the basis of content, including issues such as the priority of ontology, the status of animals, the nature of the religious, Heidegger's apparent neglect of ethics ([[Emmanuel Lévinas]]), the body ([[Maurice Merleau-Ponty]]), or air ([[Luce Irigaray]]).
Emmanuel Lévinas was deeply influenced by Heidegger yet became one of his fiercest critics, contrasting the infinity of the good beyond being with the immanence and totality of ontology. Continental philosophy of religion is critical of Heidegger's perceived "atheism" (because of the early Heidegger's description of philosophy as "methodologically atheist") and/or "paganism" (because of his use of expressions such as earth and sky, mortals and immortals).
The new materialism from [[Gilles Deleuze]] to [[Antonio Negri]] and [[Alain Badiou]] has contested what they perceive to be the idealistic residue at work in Heidegger's account of human existence as understanding (''verstehen'').
==Cinema==
* ''[[The Ister (film)|The Ister]]'' (2004) is a film based on Heidegger's [[Hölderlin's Hymn "The Ister"|1942 lecture course]] on [[Friedrich Hölderlin]], and features [[Jean-Luc Nancy]], [[Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe]], [[Bernard Stiegler]], and [[Hans-Jürgen Syberberg]]. The official site is located [http://www.theister.com/ here].
* The film director [[Terrence Malick]] translated Heidegger's 1929 essay "''Vom Wesen des Grundes''" into English. It was published under the title ''The Essence of Reasons'' (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1969, bilingual edition).
==Bibliography==
===''Gesamtausgabe''===
Heidegger's collected works are published by [http://www.klostermann.de/philo/phi_hei.htm Vittorio Klostermann.] The ''Gesamtausgabe'' was begun during Heidegger's lifetime. He defined the order of publication and controversially dictated that the principle of editing should be "ways not works." Publication has not yet been completed.
The contents are listed here: [[Gesamtausgabe (Heidegger)|''Gesamtausgabe'']].
===Selected works===
A complete list of English translations of Heidegger's work is available [http://think.hyperjeff.net/Heidegger here.]
{| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="center"
! style="background:silver" | Year
! style="background:silver" | Original German
! style="background:silver" | English Translation
|-
| 1927
| ''Sein und Zeit'', Gesamtausgabe Volume 2
| ''[[Being and Time]]'', trans. by [[John Macquarrie]] and Edward Robinson (London: SCM Press, 1962); re-translated by Joan Stambaugh (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1996)
|-
| 1929
| ''Kant und das Problem der Metaphysik'', Gesamtausgabe Volume 3
| ''Kant and the Problem of Metaphysics'', trans. by Richard Taft (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990)
|-
| 1935
| ''Einführung in die Metaphysik'' (1935, published 1953), Gesamtausgabe Volume 40
| ''An Introduction to Metaphysics'', trans. by Gregory Fried and Richard Polt (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000)
|-
| 1936–8
| ''Beiträge zur Philosophie (Vom Ereignis)'' (1936–1938, published 1989), Gesamtausgabe Volume 65
| ''[[Contributions to Philosophy (From Enowning)]]'', trans. by Parvis Emad and Kenneth Maly (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999)
|-
| 1942
| ''Hölderlins Hymne »Der Ister«'' (1942, published 1984), Gesamtausgabe Volume 53
| ''[[Hölderlin's Hymn "The Ister"]]'', trans. by [[William McNeill (philosopher)|William McNeill]] and Julia Davis (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996)
|-
| 1949
| "Die Frage nach der Technik," in Gesamtausgabe Volume 7
| "[[The Question Concerning Technology]]" [http://www.culturaleconomics.atfreeweb.com/Anno/Heidegger%20The%20Question%201954.htm], in Heidegger, Martin, ''Basic Writings'': Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, ed. David Farrell Krell (New York: Harper Collins, 1993)
|-
| 1950
| ''Holzwege'', Gesamtausgabe Volume 5. This collection includes "Der Ursprung der Kunstwerkes" (1935–1936)
| ''Off the Beaten Track''. This collection includes "[[The Origin of the Work of Art]]"
|-
| 1955–56
| ''Der Satz vom Grund'', Gesamtausgabe Volume 10
| ''The Principle of Reason'', trans. Reginald Lilly (Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 1991)
|-
| 1955–57
| ''Identität und Differenz'', Gesamtausgabe Volume 11
| ''Identity and Difference'', trans. by Joan Stambaugh (New York: Harper & Row, 1969)
|-
| 1959
| ''Gelassenheit'', in Gesamtausgabe Volume 16
| ''Discourse On Thinking''
|-
| 1959
| ''Unterwegs zur Sprache'', Gesamtausgabe Volume 12
| ''On the Way To Language'', published without the essay "''Die Sprache''" ("Language") by arrangement with Heidegger
|-
|}
{{academia
| | students=[[Hannah Arendt]]</br>[[Hans-Georg Gadamer]]</br>[[Hans Jonas]]</br>[[Karl Löwith]]</br>[[Herbert Marcuse]]</br>[[Leo Strauss]]</br>[[Jan Patočka]]</br>[[Xavier Zubiri]]</br>
| | teachers=[[Edmund Husserl]]</br>[[Nicolai Hartmann]]</br>[[Heinrich Rickert]]
}}
==Further reading==
===On ''Being and Time''===
* William Blattner, ''Heidegger's Temporal Idealism''
* [[Hubert Dreyfus]], ''Being-in-the-World: A Commentary on Heidegger's Being and Time, Division I''
* Magda King, ''A Guide to Heidegger's Being and Time''
* [[Theodore Kisiel]], ''The Genesis of Heidegger's Being and Time''
* [[Stephen Mulhall]], ''Heidegger and Being and Time''
===Biographies===
* [[Victor Farias]], ''Heidegger and Nazism'' (a disputed and controversial biography; see, for instance, [[Pierre Joris]] [http://www.anti-rev.org/textes/Joris89a/index.html here])
* [[:De:Hugo Ott|Hugo Ott]], ''Martin Heidegger: A Political Life''
* [[:De:Rüdiger Safranski|Rüdiger Safranski]], ''Martin Heidegger: Between Good and Evil''
* John van Buren, ''The Young Heidegger: Rumor of the Hidden King''
===Politics and Nazism===
* [[Pierre Bourdieu]], ''The Political Ontology of Martin Heidegger''
* Miguel de Beistegui, ''Heidegger and the Political: Dystopias''
* [[Jacques Derrida]], ''Of Spirit: Heidegger and the Question''
* [[:Fr:Dominique Janicaud|Dominique Janicaud]], ''The Shadow of That Thought''
* [[Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe]], "Transcendence Ends in Politics," in ''Typography: Mimesis, Philosophy, Politics''
* Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe, ''Heidegger, Art, and Politics: The Fiction of the Political''
* [[Karl Löwith]], ''Martin Heidegger and European Nihilism''
* [[Jean-François Lyotard]], ''Heidegger and "the jews"''
* Günther Neske & Emil Kettering (eds.), ''Martin Heidegger and National Socialism: Questions and Answers''
* [[Daniel Ross (Australian philosopher and filmmaker)|Daniel Ross]], [http://arrow.monash.edu.au/vital/access/manager/Repository/monash:6201?start=61&expert=title%3a%22Heidegger+and+the+question+of+the+political%22 ''Heidegger and the Question of the Political'']
* [[Hans Sluga]], ''Heidegger's Crisis: Philosophy and Politics in Nazi Germany''
* [[Richard Wolin]] (ed.), ''The Heidegger Controversy'' ISBN 0-262-23166-2.
===Other secondary literature===
* [[Robert Bernasconi]], ''Heidegger in Question: The Art of Existing''
* Walter A. Brogan, ''Heidegger and Aristotle: The Twofoldness of Being''
* Steven Galt Crowell, ''Husserl, Heidegger, and the Space of Meaning: Paths toward Transcendental Phenomenology''
* Jacques Derrida, "''Ousia'' and ''Gramme'': Note on a Note from ''Being and Time''," in ''Margins of Philosophy''
* [[Paul Edwards]], ''Heidegger's Confusions''
* [[Christopher Fynsk]], ''Heidegger: Thought and Historicity''
* Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe, ''Poetry as Experience''
* Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe, ''Heidegger and the Politics of Poetry''
* [[William McNeill (philosopher)|William McNeill]], ''The Glance of the Eye: Heidegger, Aristotle, and the Ends of Theory''
* William McNeill, ''The Time of Life: Heidegger and Ethos''
* [[Jean-Luc Nancy]], "The Decision of Existence," in ''The Birth to Presence''
* [[Herman Philipse]], ''Heidegger's Philosophy of Being: A Critical Interpretation''
* [[Richard Polt]], ''Heidegger: An Introduction''
* [[François Raffoul]], ''Heidegger and the Subject''
* François Raffoul & David Pettigrew (ed), ''Heidegger and Practical Philosophy''
* [[John Sallis]], ''Echoes: After Heidegger''
* John Sallis (ed), ''Reading Heidegger: Commemorations'', including articles by Robert Bernasconi, Jacques Derrida, [[Rodolphe Gasché]], and John Sallis, among others.
* [[Reiner Schürmann]], ''Heidegger on Being and Acting: From Principles to Anarchy''
* Adam Sharr, ''Heidegger's Hut''
* [[Bernard Stiegler]], ''[[Technics and Time, 1: The Fault of Epimetheus]]''
* Andrzej Warminski, ''Readings in Interpretation: Hölderlin, Hegel, Heidegger''
===Reception in France===
* [[Jean Beaufret]], ''Dialogue avec Heidegger'', 4 vols.
* [[:Fr:Dominique Janicaud|Dominique Janicaud]], ''Heidegger en France'', 2 vols.
* [[Ethan Kleinberg]], ''Generation Existential: Heidegger's Philosophy in France, 1927-1961''
==See also==
* ''[[Aletheia]]''
* [[Heideggerian terminology]]
* ''[[Hölderlin's Hymn "The Ister"]]''
* [[Ontotheology]]
* [[Ontology]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Commonscat|Martin Heidegger}}
=== General information ===
* [http://www.heidegger-gesellschaft.de/ German Heidegger Society]. {{de icon}}
* [http://www.beyng.com/ereignis.html Heidegger information in English: Ereignis].
* [http://www.phainomena.de/ Phainomena] – Heidegger-blog: literature, activities and news about Heidegger and his philosophy. {{de icon}}
=== Works by Heidegger ===
* [http://think.hyperjeff.net/Heidegger/ English translations of Heidegger's works].
* [http://www.beyng.com/hb/gesamt.html Complete contents of the ''Gesamtausgabe''].
=== Works on Heidegger ===
* [http://www.iep.utm.edu/h/heidegge.htm "Martin Heidegger" <nowiki>[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]</nowiki>] – informative article, summarizing Heidegger's philosophy, including his theories on ''Angst'', and criticisms from other philosophers such as Husserl.
* [http://www.webcom.com/~paf/hb/hbintro.html Books introducing Heidegger].
* {{cite journal | last = Dutton | first = Denis | year = 1988 | title = Kaufmann, Heidegger, and Nazism | journal = Philosophy and Literature | issue = 12 | pages = 325–326 | url = http://www.denisdutton.com/heidegger.htm | accessdate = 2006-07-12}} – a positive review of [[Walter Kaufmann (philosopher)|Walter Kaufmann's]] and [[George Steiner|George Steiner's]] negative treatments of Heidegger.
* [http://www.egwald.ca/ubcstudent/theory/heidegger.php Hearing Heidegger and Saussure] by Elmer G. Wiens.
* [http://www.waste.org/~roadrunner/writing/thesis.htm "Viewing Power in Heidegger and Levinas"] by Mitchell Cowen Verter.
* [http://parolesdesjours.free.fr/scandale.htm "Serious response to Emmanuel Faye on Heidegger and nazism"]. {{fr icon}}
* [http://www.appep.net/heidegger.html "Nazi foundations of Heidegger's Work"] by Emmanuel Faye, with a discussion. {{fr icon}}
* [http://aps.sulb.uni-saarland.de/theologie.geschichte/inhalt/2006/07.html "For the opening of Heidegger's Archives"] by Emmanuel Faye. {{fr icon}}
* [http://parolesdesjours.free.fr/loups.pdf Réponses de Gérard Guest (1) (au dossier publié dans "Magazine Littéraire")]. {{fr icon}}
* [http://parolesdesjours.free.fr/loups2.pdf Réponses de Gérard Guest (2) (au dossier publié dans "Le Point")]. {{fr icon}}
* [http://www.ub.uni-freiburg.de/referate/02/heidegger/heidegger_20.html Heidegger: Universitätsbibliothek Freiburg im Breisgau (Multilingual)].
* [http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~hdreyfus/html/paper_being.html Being and Power: Heidegger and Foucault] by [[Hubert Dreyfus]].
* http://ist-socrates.berkeley.edu/~hdreyfus/html/papers.html Recent Papers by Hubert Dreyfus.
* [http://www.formalontology.it/heidegger-aletheia.htm Heidegger on Truth as Alethéia]
* [http://www.formalontology.it/heidegger-ontotheology.htm Heidegger and the History of Metaphysics as Ontotheology]
* [http://parolesdesjours.free.fr/fedieravantpropos.pdf François Fédier: Avant-Propos: Heidegger à plus forte raison, Fayard, Paris, 2007]. {{fr icon}}
* [http://parolesdesjours.free.fr/scandale.htm François Fédier: Mécanique de la diffamation]. {{fr icon}}
* [http://www.paris4philo.org/article-10504198.html Heidegger contre le nazisme (blog Sorbonne-Paris4)]. {{fr icon}}
*[http://www.stanford.edu/dept/relstud/faculty/sheehan/pdf/NormalNa.pdf A Normal Nazi Thomas Sheehan on Heidegger]
*[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/2618 Heidegger and Nazism: An Exchange]
=== Media ===
* [http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-858369328131624007 Human all too human : Martin Heidegger] - [[BBC]] documentary.
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9_vYz4nQUcs Heidegger Speaks. Part 1. English subtitled. (YouTube)].
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6BHvdTZomK8 Martin Heidegger. Teil 2. German. 1975 (YouTube)].
* [http://www.dailymotion.com/ESTETTE/video/x1asyb_heidegger-14 François Fédier, Pascal David et Faye.Multimedia]. {{fr icon}}
* [http://parolesdesjours.free.fr/chemin.htm#audio Heidegger speaking].
* [http://webcast.berkeley.edu/course_details.php?seriesid=1906978475 Podcast] of Prof. Hubert Dreyfus' undergraduate lectures on Heidegger.
{{Persondata
|NAME=Heidegger, Martin
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=German [[philosopher]]
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[26 September]] [[1889]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Meßkirch]], Germany
|DATE OF DEATH=[[26 May]] [[1976]]
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Meßkirch]], Germany
}}
{{BD|1889|1976|Heidegger, Martin}}
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