Mask 247083 226019613 2008-07-16T13:48:46Z 63.215.28.16 /* Masks in performance */ {{otheruses}} [[Image:Ravensburg Fasnet Papierkrattler 2005.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Papierkrattler masks at the Narrensprung 2005 Carnival parade, Ravensburg Germany]] A '''mask''' is an artefact normally worn on the face, typically for protection, concealment, performance, or amusement. Masks have been used since antiquity for both ceremonial and practical purposes. They are usually worn on the face, although they may also be positioned for effect elsewhere on the wearer's body, so in parts of Australasia giant totem masks cover the body, whilst Inuit women use finger masks during storytelling and dancing.<ref> The Living Tradition of Yup'ik Masks; Anne Feinup-Riordan; University of Washington Press, Seattle, 1996; ISBN 10-0295975016</ref> ==Etymology== The word "mask" came via [[French language|French]] ''masque'' and either [[Italian language|Italian]] ''maschera'' or [[Spanish language|Spanish]] ''máscara''. Possible ancestors are [[Latin]] (not classical) ''mascus'', ''masca'' = "ghost"; [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''masecha''= "mask"; [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''maskharah'' مَسْخَرَۃٌ = "jester", "man in [[masquerade ball|masquerade]]", ''maskhara'' مَسْخَرَ = "he ridiculed, he mocked", ''masakha'' مَسَخَ = "he transfomed" ([[transitive]]). ==Masks in performance== [[Image:Punchj.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Masked performers as [[Punch and Judy]] by [[Horse and Bamboo Theatre]]]] Throughout the world '''[[mask]]s''' are used for their expressive power as a feature of masked performance - both ritually and in various theatre traditions. The [[ritual]] and [[theatre|theatrical]] definitions of mask usage frequently overlap and merge but still provide a useful basis for categorisation. In ancient [[Rome]] the word ''[[persona]]'' meant 'a mask'; it also referred to an individual who had full [[Roman citizenship]]. A citizen could demonstrate his or her lineage through ''[[imagines]]'', death masks of the ancestors. These were wax casts kept in a ''[[lararium]]'', the family shrine. Rites of passage, such as initiation of young members of the family, or funerals, were carried out at the shrine under the watch of the ancestral masks. At funerals professional actors would wear these masks to perform deeds of the lives of the ancestor, <ref>Ritual, Masks, and Sacrifice; [[Subhash Kak]], Studies in Humanities and Social Services vol.11, Indian Institute of Advance Study, Shimla 2004.</ref> thus linking the role of mask as a ritual object and in theatre. Masks are a familiar and vivid element in many [[folk]] and traditional [[pageants]], [[ceremonies]], [[rituals]] and [[festivals]], and are often of an ancient origin. The mask is normally a part of a costume that adorns the whole body and embodies a tradition important to the religious and/or social life of the [[community]] as whole or a particular group within the community. Masks are used almost universally and maintain their power and mystery both for their wearers and their audience.The continued popularity of wearing masks at [[carnival]], and for children at parties and for festivals such as [[Halloween]] are good examples. Nowadays these are usually mass-produced [[plastic]] masks, often associated with popular [[films]], [[TV]] programmes or [[cartoon]] characters - they are, however, reminders of the enduring power of pretence and play and the power and appeal of masks. == Ritual masks == Ritual masks occur throughout the world, and although they tend to share many characteristics, highly distinctive forms have developed. The function of the masks may be magical or religious; they may appear in rites of passage or as a make-up for a form of theatre. Equally masks may disguise a penitent or preside over important ceremonies; they may help mediate with spirits, or offer a protective role to the society who utilise their powers.<ref> Masques du Monde M.Revelard/G. Kostadonova pub. La Renaissance du Livre 2000 Tournai Belgium ISBN 2-8046-0413-6</ref> ====Africa==== {{seealso|African tribal masks}} There are an enormous variety of masks used in [[Africa]]. In [[West Africa]], masks are used in masquerades that form part of religious ceremonies enacted to communicate with spirits and ancestors. Examples are the masquerades of the [[Yoruba]], [[Igbo]] and [[Edo]] cultures, including [[Egungun| Egungun Masquerades]] and [[Northern Edo Masquerades]]. The masks are usually carved with an extraordinary skill and variety by artists who will usually have received their training as an apprentice to a master carver - frequently it is a tradition that has been passed down within a family through many generations. Such an artist holds a respected position in tribal society because of the work that he or she creates, embodying not only complex craft techniques but also spiritual/social and symbolic knowledge.<ref> Masks:Their Meaning and Function: Andreas Lommel pub. Ferndale Editions London orig. Atlantis Verlag Zurich 1970 - introduction, after Himmelheber ''Afrikanische Masken'' ISBN 0-905746-11-2</ref> African masks are also used in the Mas or Masquerade of the [[Caribbean Carnival]]. [[Image:Fang mask Louvre MH65-104-1.jpg|thumb|left|170px|[[Beti-Pahuin|Fang]] mask used for the ''ngil'' ceremony, an inquisitorial search for sorcerers. Wood, [[Gabon]], 19th century.]] Many African masks represent animals. Some African tribes believe that the animal masks can help them communicate with the spirits who live in forests or open savannas. People of [[Burkina Faso]] known as the [[Bwa]] and [[Nuna]] call to the spirit to stop destruction. The [[Dogon]] of [[Mali]] have complex religions that also have animal masks. Their beliefs are in three main cults - the [[Awa]], cult of the dead, [[Bini]], cult of communication with spirits and [[Lebe]], cult of earth and nature. These three main cults nevertheless use seventy-eight different types of masks. Most of the ceremonies of the Dogon culture are secret, although the antelope dance is shown to non-Dogons. The antelope masks are rough rectangular boxes with several horns coming out of the top. The Dogons are expert agriculturists and the antelope symbolizes a hard working farmer. <ref>[http://cti.itc.virginia.edu/~bcr/African_Mask_Faces.html Faces of the Spirits<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Another culture that has a very rich agricultural tradition is the [[Bamana]] people of Mali. The antelope (called [[Chiwara]]) is believed to have taught man the secrets of agriculture. Although the Dogons and Bamana people both believe the [[antelope]] symbolises agriculture, they interpret elements the masks differently. To the Bamana people, swords represent the sprouting of grain. Masks may also indicate a culture’s ideal of feminine beauty. The masks of [[Punu]] of [[Gabon]] have highly arched eyebrows, almost almond-shaped eyes and a narrow chin. The raised strip running from both sides of the nose to the ears represent jewellery. Dark black hairstyle, tops the mask off. The whiteness of the face represent the whiteness and beauty of the spirit world. Only men wear the masks and perform the dances with high stilts despite it being a “female” masks. One of the most beautiful representations of female beauty is the [[Idia]]’s Mask of [[Benin]]. It is believed to have been commissioned by a king of Benin in memory of his mother. To honor his dead mother, the king wore the mask on his hip during special ceremonies.<ref>Bortolot, Alexander Ives. [http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/pwmn_3/hd_pwmn_3.htm "Idia: The First Queen Mother of Benin"]. In ''Timeline of Art History''. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, October 2003. Retrieved 25 March 2007.</ref> The [[Senoufo]] people of the [[Ivory Coast]] represent tranquility by making masks with eyes half-shut and lines drawn near the mouth. The [[Temne]] of [[Sierra Leone]] use masks with small eyes and mouths to represent humility and humbleness. They represent wisdom by making bulging forehead. Other masks that have exaggerated long faces and broad foreheads symbolize the soberness of one’s duty that comes with power. War masks are also popular. The [[Grebo]] of the Ivory Coast carve masks with round eyes to represent alertness and anger, with the straight nose to represent unwillingness to retreat.<ref>[http://www.ohoh.essortment.com/africamasks_rnqe.htm African mask symbolism<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Today, the qualities of [[African art]] are beginning to be more understood and appreciated. However most African masks are now being produced for the tourist trade. Although they often show skilled craftsmanship and they will nearly always lack the spiritual character of the traditional tribal masks. ====Oceania==== The variety and beauty of the masks of [[Melanesia]] are almost as highly developed as in Africa. It is a culture where [[ancestor worship]] is dominant and religious ceremonies are devoted to ancestors. Inevitably many of the mask types relate to use in these ceremonies and are linked with the activities of secret societies. The mask is regarded as an instrument of revelation, giving form to the sacred. This is often accomplished by linking the mask to an ancestral presence, and thus bringing the past into the present. As a culture of scattered islands and peninsulars Melanesian mask forms have developed in a highly diversified fashion, with a great deal of variety in their construction and aesthetic.<ref> Masks:Their Meaning and Function/Andreas Lommel pub. Ferndale Editions London 1970/Oceania:Melanesia, Polynesia, Australia</ref> In Papua New Guinea six metre-high totem masks are placed to protect the living from spirits; whereas the ''[[duk-duk]]'' and ''tubuan'' masks of New Guinea are used to enforce social codes by intimidation. They are conical masks, made from cane and leaves.<ref>Where the Masks Still Dance: New Guinea; Chris Rainier and Meg Taylor; Bulfinch Press/Little, Brown & Co., 1996 ISBN 0821222619</ref> ===North America=== [[Arctic]] Coastal groups have tended towards rudimentary religious practice but a highly evolved and rich mythology, especially concerning hunting. In some areas annual [[shamanic]] ceremonies involved masked dances and these strongly abstracted masks are arguably the most striking artifacts produced in this region. [[Pacific]] Northwest Coastal indigenous groups were generally highly skilled [[woodworkers]]. Their masks were often master-pieces of carving, sometimes with moveable jaws, or a mask within a mask, and parts moved by pulling cords. The carving of masks were an important feature of wood craft, along with many other features that often combined the utilitarian with the symbolic, such as [[shields]], [[canoes]], poles and houses. Woodland tribes, especially in the North-East and around the [[Great Lakes]], cross-fertilized culturally with one another. The [[Iroquois]] made spectacular wooden ‘false face’ masks, used in healing ceremonies and carved from living trees. These masks appear in a great variety of shapes, depending on their precise function. [[Pueblo]] craftsmen produced impressive work for masked religious ritual, especially the [[Hopi]] and [[Zuni]]. The ''kachinas'', god/spirits, frequently take the form of highly distinctive and elaborate masks that are used in ritual dances. These are usually made of leather with appendages of fur, feathers or leaves. Some cover the face, some the whole head and are often highly abstracted forms. [[Navajo people|Navajo]] masks appear to be inspired by the Pueblo prototypes. <ref> American Indian Art/Norman Feder pub. Harry N. Abrams New York 1973 Lib. of Congress Cat. Card 73-4857 </ref> ===South and Central America=== [[Image:Aztec mask 050910 170205.jpg|thumb|right|100px|Aztec mask of Xiuhtecuhtli, c. 1500, of Mixtec-Aztec provenance]] Distinctive styles of masks began to emerge in pre-Hispanic America about 1200BC, although there is evidence of far older mask forms. In the [[Andes]] masks were used to dress the faces of the dead. These were originally made of fabric but later burial masks were sometimes made of beaten [[copper]] or [[gold]], and occasionally of [[clay]]. For the [[Aztecs]] human skulls were prized as war [[trophies]] and skull masks were not uncommon. Masks were also used as part of court entertainments, possibly combining political with religious significance. In post-colonial [[Latin America]] [[pre-Columbian]] traditions merged with Christian rituals, and syncretic masquerades and ceremonies, such as [[All Souls]]/[[Day of the Dead]] developed, despite efforts of the Church to stamp out the indigenous traditions. Masks remain an important feature of popular carnivals and religious dances, such as The Dance of the [[Moors]] and [[Christians]]. [[Mexico]], in particular, retains a great deal of creativity in the production of masks, encouraged by collectors. [[lucha libre|Wrestling]] matches, where it is common for the participants to [[Wrestling_mask#Masks|wear masks]], are very popular and many of the wrestlers can be considered folk heroes. For instance, the popular wrestler [[El Santo]] continued wearing his mask after retirement, revealed his face briefly only in old age, and was buried wearing his silver mask.<ref>http://www.wrestlingmuseum.com/pages/wrestlers/elsanto2.html</ref><ref> Masks:Their Meaning and Function Andreas Lommel pub. Ferndale Editions London 1970/South America/Central America </ref> ===Asia=== ====India/Sri Lanka/Indo-China/Indonesia==== Masked characters, usually divinities, are a central feature of Indian dramatic forms, many based on depicting the epics [[Mahabharata]] and [[Ramayana]]. Countries that have had strong Indian cultural influences – [[Cambodia]], [[Burma]], [[Java]], [[Thailand]], [[Vietnam]] – have developed the Indian forms, combined with local myths, and developed their own characteristic styles. The masks* are usually highly exaggerated and formalised, and share an aesthetic with the carved images of monstrous heads that dominate the facades of [[Hindu]] and [[Buddhist]] temples. These faces or ''Kirtimukhas'', 'Visages of Glory', are intended to ward off evil and are associated with the animal world as well as the divine. During ceremonies these visages are given active form in the great mask dramas of the South and South-eastern Asian region. <ref> Masked Performance: John Emigh pub. Univ. of Pennsylvania Press 1996 ISBN 0-8122-1366-X</ref> ====China==== In [[China]] masks are thought to have originated in ancient religious ceremonies. Images of people wearing masks have been found in rock paintings along the [[Yangtze River]]. Later mask forms brings together myths and symbols from [[Shamanism]] and [[Buddhism]].<ref>Masked Performance: John Emigh pub. Univ. of Pennsylvania Press 1996 ISBN 0-8122-1366-X</ref> ''Shigong'' dance masks were used in shamanic rituals to thank the gods, while ''Nuo'' dance masks protected from bad spirits. Wedding masks were used to pray for good luck and a lasting marriage, and “Swallowing Animal” masks were associated with protecting the home and symbolised the “swallowing” of disaster. Opera masks were used in a basic 'Common' form of opera performed without a stage or backdrops. These led to colourful facial patterns that we see in today's [[Jingju]] (Beijing Opera). ====Korea==== {{seealso|Korean mask}} ====Japan==== Japanese masks are part of a very old and highly sophisticated and stylized theatrical tradition. Although the roots are in prehistoric myths and cults they have developed into refined art forms. The oldest masks are the ''gigaku''. The form no longer exists, and was probably a type of dance presentation. The ''bugaku'' developed from this – a complex dance-drama that used masks with moveable jaws. The ''nō'' or [[noh]] mask evolved from the gigaku and bugaku and are acted entirely by men. The masks are worn throughout very long performances and are consequently very light. ''[[Kyōgen]]'' are short farces with their own masks. ===Eskimo cultures=== {{seealso|Masks among Eskimo peoples}} ===Middle East=== [[Image:Masks iran ancient.jpg|thumb|right|Golden masks excavated in ''Kalmakareh'', [[Lorestan]], [[Iran]]. First half of first Millennium BC. [[National Museum of Iran]].]] Theatre in the [[Middle East]], as elsewhere, was initially of a ritual nature, dramatising man’s relationship with nature, the gods, and other human beings. It grew out of sacred rites of myths and legends performed by priests and lay actors at fixed times and often in fixed locations. Folk theatre — mime, mask, puppetry, farce, juggling - had a ritual context in that it was performed at religious or rites of passage such as days of naming, circumcisions, and marriages. Over time some of these contextual ritual enactments became divorced from their religious meaning and they were performed throughout the year. Some 2500 years ago, kings and commoners alike were entertained by dance and mime accompanied by music where the dancers often wore masks, a vestige of an earlier era when such dances were enacted as religious rites. According to [[George Goyan]], this practice evoked that of Roman funeral rites where masked actor-dancers represented the deceased with motions and gestures mimicking those of the deceased while singing the praise of his life (see '' Masks in Performance'' above).<ref> The History of Theater in Iran/Willem Floor: MAGE 2005/ISBN 0-934211-29-9</ref> ===Europe=== [[Image:Trommgesellenzunft Munderkingen Wusele Narrentreffen Meßkirch 2006.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Fools Meeting or Parade, Messkirch, Germany]] Masks are used throughout Europe, and are frequently integrated into regional folk celebrations and customs. Old masks are preserved and can be seen in [[museum]]s and other collections, and much research has been undertaken into the historical origins of masks. Most probably represent [[Animism|nature spirits]], and as a result many of the associated customs are seasonal. The original significance would have survived only until the introduction of [[Christianity]] which then incorporated many of the customs into its own traditions. In the process their meanings were also changed so, for example, old [[god]]s and goddesses were, literally, demonised and became [[devils]]. Many of the masks and characters used in European festivals belong to the contrasting categories of the 'good', or 'idealised beauty', set against the 'ugly' or 'beastly' and grotesque. This is particularly true of the Germanic and Central European festivals. Another common type is the [[Fool]], sometimes considered to be the synthesis of the two contrasting type of Handsome and Ugly. <ref> Masks: the Art of Expression edit. John Mack/pub. British Museum 1994 ISBN 0-7141-2507-5/'The Other Within: Masks and masquerades in Europe' Cesayo dogre Poppi </ref> The oldest representations of masks are [[animal]] masks, such as the [[cave paintings]] of [[Lascaux]] in the [[Dordogne]] in southern [[France]]. Such masks survive in the alpine regions of [[Austria]] and [[Switzerland]], and may be connected with hunting or [[shamanism]], and tend to be particularly associated with the New Year and Carnival festivals. The debate about the meaning of these and other mask forms continues in Europe, where [[monsters]], [[bears]], [[wildman|wild men]], [[harlequins]], [[hobby horses]] and other fanciful characters appear in carnivals throughout the continent. It is generally accepted that the masks, noise, colour and clamour are meant to drive away the forces of darkness and winter, and open the way for the spirits of light and the coming of spring. <ref> Masks:Their Meaning and Function Andreas Lommel pub. Ferndale Editions London 1970/Europe/Conclusion </ref> In the beginning of the new century, in 19th August 2004, the [[Bulgarians|Bulgarian]] archeologist [[Georgi Kitov]] discovered a 673g golden mask of a [[Thracians|Thracian]] king in the burial mound "Svetitsata" near [[Shipka]], Central [[Bulgaria]]. It is a very fine piece of workmanship made out of massive 23к gold. Unlike other masks discovered in the [[Balkans]] (of which 3 are in [[Republic of Macedonia]] and two in [[Greece]]), it is now kept in the [[National Archaeological Museum (Bulgaria)|National Archaeological Museum]] in [[Sofia]]. It is considered to be the mask of the [[Thracians|Thracian]] king [[Teres]]. == Masks in theatre == Masks play a key part within world theatre traditions, particularly non-western [[theatre]] forms. They also continue to be a vital force within contemporary theatre, and their usage takes a variety of forms. In many cultural traditions the masked performer is a central concept and is highly valued. In the western tradition it is sometimes considered a stylistic device which can be traced back to the [[ancient Greece|Greeks]] and [[Ancient Rome|Romans]]. In some Greek masks the wide and open mouth of the mask contained a [[brass]] megaphone enabling the voice of the wearer to be projected into the large auditoria. In medieval Europe masks were used in mystery and [[miracle plays]] to portray allegorical creatures, and the performer representing God frequently wore a [[gold]] or gilt mask. During the [[Renaissance]] [[masques]] and [[ballet de cour]] developed - courtly masked entertainments that continued as part of [[ballet]] conventions until the late eighteenth century. The masked characters of the [[Commedia dell'Arte]] included the ancestors of the modern clown. In contemporary western [[theatre]] the mask is often used alongside [[puppetry]] to create a theatre which is essentially visual rather than verbal, and many of its practitioners have been visual artists. Masks are an important part of many theatre forms throughout world cultures, and their usage in theatre has often developed from, or continues to be part of old, highly sophisticated, stylized theatrical traditions. See also [[Masks in ritual]]. In [[Japan]] the ''nō'' or [[noh]] mask is the supreme achievement of Japanese mask-making. ''Nō'' masks represent gods, men, women, madmen and devils, and each category has many sub-divisions. ''[[Kyōgen]]'' are short farces with their own masks, and accompany the tragic nō plays. [[Kabuki]] is the theatre of modern Japan, rooted in the older forms, but in this form masks are replaced by painted faces. <ref> Masks:Their Meaning and Function Andreas Lommel pub. Ferndale Editions London 1970/Japan </ref> === Contemporary theatre === [[Image:Bread and puppet puppets glover vermont.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Puppets found in the Bread & Puppet Museum in Glover, Vermont]] Masks and [[puppet]]s, were often incorporated into the theatre work of European [[avant-garde]] artists from the turn of the nineteenth century. [[Alfred Jarry]], [[Pablo Picasso]], [[Oskar Schlemmer]] and other artists of the [[Bauhaus]] School, as well as [[surrealists]] and [[Dadaists]], experimented with theatre forms and masks in their work. The modern effort to restore the mask to the stage derives from [[Edward Gordon Craig]] (1872-1966) who in ''A Note on Masks'' (1910) proposed the virtues of using masks over the naturalism of the actor. <ref> The Theatre of Edward Gordon Craig: Bablet, pub. Eyre Methuen, London 1981 ISBN 10:0413-4788-07</ref> Craig was highly influential, and his ideas were taken up by [[Brecht]], [[Cocteau]], [[Genet]], [[Eugene O'Neill]] - and later by [[John Arden|Arden]], [[Grotowski]] and [[Peter Brook|Brook]] and others who "attempted to restore a ritualistic if not actually religious significance to theatre". <ref> Masks in Modern Drama: Susan Harris Smith, Univ. of California Press 1984 ISBN 0-520-05095-9</ref>. The first real sustained and developed use of masks in contemporary theatre can be traced back to the work of the [[San Francisco Mime Troupe]], founded in 1959, and to [[Peter Schumann]] and his [[Bread and Puppet Theatre]], which was established in [[New York]] in the early 1960’s. Schumann, born in [[Silesia]] in 1934, combined aspects of European festival masks with a highly distinctive American sensibility, and his strongly humanitarian and anti-war polemic has continued to exert an influence on the use of masks in theatre, especially on street-theatre.<ref>American Alternative Theatre : Theodore Shank pub. Macmillan Modern Dramatists London 1982 ISBN 0-333-28883-1</ref> Other US and Canadian companies, inspired by Bread and Puppet, developed including [[In the Heart of the Beast Puppet and Mask Theater]] of [[Minneapolis]]; Arm-of-the Sea Theatre from [[New York State]]; Snake Theater from [[California]]; and Shadowland Theatre of [[Toronto]]. These companies, and others, have a strong social agenda, and combine masks, music and puppetry to create a visual theatrical form. In Europe Schumann’s influence combined with the early avant-garde artists to encourage groups like Moving Picture Mime Show and Welfare State (both in the UK). Later groups, notably [[Horse and Bamboo Theatre]] (founded 1978) and Trestle Theatre (1981) developed the use of full-head masks to a sophisticated narrative level. Horse + Bamboo continue this work and remain influential. The practice of performing with masks is also studied by many performers, often derived from the [[Commedia dell'Arte]] traditions. The work of [[Jacques Lecoq]] has been particularly important in the revival of interest in this discipline. == Functional masks == Masks are also familiar as pieces of kit associated with practical functions, usually protective. There has been a proliferation of such masks recently but there is a long history of protective armour and even medical masks to ward off plague. The contrast with performance masks is not always clear-cut. Ritual and theatrical masks themselves can be considered to be practical, and protective masks in a sports context in particular are often designed to enhance the appearance of the wearer. === Medical === Some masks are used for medical purposes: * [[Oxygen mask]], a piece of medical equipment that assists breathing * [[Surgical mask]], a piece of medical equipment that helps to protect both the surgeon and patient from acquiring diseases from each other * [[Face shield]], to protect a medical professional from bodily fluids * [[CPR mask]] or [[pocket mask]], used to safely deliver rescue breaths during a cardiac arrest or respiratory arrest === Protective === [[Image:Swanson0528.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Protective filter mask worn by [[NYPD]] officer]] Protective masks are pieces of kit or equipment worn on the head and face to afford protection to the wearer, and today usually have these functions: * Providing a supply of air or filtering the outside air. * Protecting the face against flying objects or dangerous environments, while allowing vision. In Roman [[gladiator]]ial tournaments masks were sometimes used. From archaeological evidence it is clear that these were not only protective but also helped make the wearer appear more intimidating. In [[medieval]] [[Europe]] and in [[Japan]] soldiers and [[samurai]] wore similarly ferocious-looking protective [[armour]], extending to face-masks. In sport the protective mask will often have a secondary function to make the wearer appear more impressive as a competitor. === Occupational === * [[Filter mask]], a piece of safety equipment * [[Gas mask]], a mask worn on the face to protect the body from airborne pollutants and toxic materials * Beaked masks containing herbs in the beak were worn in the [[Middle Ages]] by [http://www.exn.ca/news/images/1998/06/17/19980617-plaguedoctor.jpg plague doctors] to try to ward off the [[Black Death]]. * [[Fullface mask]] as part of [[self-contained breathing apparatus]] for divers and others; some let the wearer talk to others through a built-in communication device * [[Oxygen mask]] worn by high-altitude pilots, or used in medicine to deliver oxygen, anesthetic, or other gases to patients * [[Welding mask]] to protect the welder's face and eyes from the brightness and sparks created during welding === Sports === [[Image:Softball Catcher.jpg|right|thumb|150px|A softball catcher wearing a mask for protection]] * [[Fencing]] mask * [[Ice hockey]] goalkeeper's mask * [[Baseball]] catcher's mask * [[Balaclava]], also known as a "ski mask", to protect the face against cold air * [[Diving mask]], an item of diving equipment that allows scuba divers, free-divers, and snorkelers to see clearly underwater * [[Goalie mask]], a mask worn by an ice or field hockey goaltender to protect the head from injury * [[Visor (ice hockey)]] * [[Paintball mask]] An interesting example of a sports mask that confounds the protective function is the [[Wrestling mask]], a mask most widely used in the Mexican/Latin [[lucha libre]] style of wrestling. In modern lucha libre, masks are colourfully designed to evoke the images of [[animal]]s, [[deity|gods]], ancient [[hero]]es, and other [[archetypes]]. The mask is considered "sacred" to some degree, placing its role closer to the ritual and performance function.<ref>[http://media.www.thedailyaztec.com/media/storage/paper741/news/2002/12/05/Tempo/Who-Was.That.Masked.Man-758787-page2.shtml Who Was That Masked Man? - Tempo<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> {{otheruses}} == Disguise == [[Image:Doctor-0001.jpg|thumb|right|150px|A person wearing a mask to avoid recognition]] Masks are sometimes used to avoid [[Recognition of human individuals|recognition]]. * Occasionally a [[witness]] for the [[prosecution]] appears in [[court]] in a mask to avoid being recognized by associates of the [[accused]]. * Participants in a [[black bloc]] at [[protest]]s usually wear masks, often [[kerchief|bandannas]], to avoid recognition, and to try to protect against any [[riot control agent]]s used. Masks are also used to prevent recognition whilst showing membership of a group: * Use by penitents of masks in ceremonies to disguise their identity in order to make the act of penitence more selfless. The [[Semana Santa]] parades throughout [[Spain]] and in [[Hispanic]]/[[Catholic]] countries throughout the world are examples of this, with their cone shaped masks. * Use by [[vigilante]] groups * The cone-shaped mask in particular is identified with the [[Ku Klux Klan]] in a self-conscious effort to combine the hiding of personal identity with the promotion of a powerful and intimidating image. * Members of the group [[Anonymous (group)|Anonymous]] frequently wear masks (usually masks from [[V for Vendetta]]) when they attend protests. ==Punitive== Masks are sometimes used to punish the wearer either by signalling their humiliation or causing direct suffering: * A "shameful" mask (''Schandmaske'' in [[German language|German]]) is devised for public humiliation; a popular reduced form are donkey ears for a bad ('dumb') pupil or student * Particularly uncomfortable types, such as an iron mask, are fit as devices for [[torture]] or [[corporal punishment]] * Masks were used to alienate and ''silence'' prisoners in [[Australia]]n jails in the late 19th century. They were made of white cloth and covered the face, leaving only the eyes visible. ==Fashion== Decorative masks may be worn as part of a costume outside of ritual or ceremonial functions. This is often described as a [[masque]], and relates closely to [[carnival]] styles. For example, attendants of a costume party will sometimes wear masks as part of their costumes. * [[Wrestling mask]]s are used most widely in [[lucha libre|Mexican]] and Japanese wrestling. A wrestler's mask is usually related to a wrestler's [[persona]] (for example, a wrestler known as 'The Panda' might wear a mask with a panda's facial markings). Often, wrestlers will put their masks on the line against other wrestlers' masks, titles or an opponent's hair. While in Mexico and Japan, masks are a sign of tradition, they are generally considered by many in the United States to be a deathblow to a wrestler's character. Very few masked wrestlers have succeeded in becoming popular and generally are considered as [[job (professional wrestling)|jobbers]]. The belief is that fans want to see a face to empathize with and will only get behind a wrestler that shows it. ==Other types== [[Image:Abraham Lincoln life mask.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Life mask of [[Abraham Lincoln]].]] * A [[Death mask]] is a mask either cast from or applied to the face of a recently deceased person. * A "life mask" is a [[plaster]] cast of a face, used as a model for making a painting or sculpture. * A "[[buccal mask]]" is a mask that covers only the cheeks (hence the adjective "[[buccal]]") and mouth. * A "[[facial]]" (short for facial mask) is a temporary mask, not solid, used in cosmetics or therapy for skin treatment. ==References== {{reflist}} == Further reading == * {{cite book |last=Burch |first=Ernest S. (junior) |coauthors=Forman, Werner |title=The Eskimos |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |location=Norman, Oklahoma 73018, USA |year=1988 |isbn=0-8061-2126-2}} * {{cite book |last=Hessel |first=Ingo |coauthors=Hessel, Dieter |others=foreword by George Swinton |title=Inuit Art. An introduction |publisher=British Museum Press |location=46 Bloomsbury Street, London WCIB 3QQ |year=1998 |isbn=0-7141-2545-8}} * {{cite book |last=Kleivan |first=Inge |coauthors=B. Sonne |title=Eskimos: Greenland and Canada |year=1985 |publisher=Institute of Religious Iconography • State University Groningen. E.J. Brill |location=Leiden, The Netherlands |series=Iconography of religions, section VIII, "Arctic Peoples", fascicle 2 |isbn=90-04-07160-1}} * {{cite book |last=Mauss |first=Marcel |authorlink=Marcel Mauss |others=in collab. with Henri Beuchat; translated, with a foreword, by James J. Fox |title=Seasonal variations of the Eskimo: a study in social morphology |origyear=c1950 |year=1979 |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul |location=London|isbn=0415330351}} * {{cite book |last=Oosten |first=Jarich G. |chapter=Cosmological Cycles and the Constituents of the Person |pages=85–101 |editor=S. A. Mousalimas |title=Arctic Ecology and Identity |series=ISTOR Books 8 |publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó • International Society for Trans-Oceanic Research |location=Budapest • Los Angeles |year=1997 |isbn=963 05 6629 X}} * {{cite book |last=Rasmussen |first=Knud |authorlink=Knud Johan Victor Rasmussen |title=Thulefahrt |year=1926 |publisher=Frankurter Societăts-Druckerei |location=Frankfurt am Main}} * {{cite book |last=Rasmussen |first=Knud |title=Thulei utazás |language=Hungarian |publisher=Gondolat |series=Világjárók |location=Budapest |year=1965 |others=translated by Detre, Zsuzsa}} Hungarian translation of Rasmussen 1926. * [http://www.english.pitt.edu/people/faculty/smith-susan.html Smith, Susan Valeria Harris], [http://www.jstor.org/view/01922882/sp050154/05x1329c/0 "Masks in Modern Drama"], Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984. * Huteson, Pamela Rae, "Transformation Masks", Blaine 2007 www.hancockhouse.com ISBN 088839635X * Wilsher, Toby, "The Mask Handbook - A Practical Guide", Routledge 2007, www.routledge.com ==External links== {{commonscat|Masks}} *[http://www.merufoundation.org/Kak-Ritual-Masks-Sacrifice.pdf Ritual, Masks, and Sacrifice] *[http://www.boheme-magazine.net/php/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=28 The Secret of Masks] *[http://www.endicott-studio.com/gal/galmasks/masks1.html The Mythic Mask: mask history and contemporary mask art] *[http://www.kasrl.org/noh_mask.html The Noh Mask Effect: A Facial Expression Illusion] *[http://www.artandpainting.net/artstyle.aspx?Id=2&styleId=71&keyword=African Read about more than 40 types of "Masks" created by African tribes.] *[http://ohoh.essortment.com/africamasks_rnqe.htm Essortment] *[http://www.bolivia.at.tf Bolivian indigenous and mestizo masks] *[http://africa.si.edu/pubaccess/pages/classifs/divqry1.asp?ClassificationID=13&ObjectTypeID=-1 Smithsonian Institute African Mask Links] *[http://www.deathmask.kiev.ua Virtual Museum of Death Mask] *[http://www.perfnova.com/blog Chinese Opera Mask] *[http://www.artyfactory.com Artyfactory] *[http://www.broccoliworks.com Contemporary Mask Art by TJ Brockelman] [[Category:Masks| ]] [[Category:African clothing]] [[da:Maske]] [[de:Maske]] [[es:Máscara]] [[eo:Masko]] [[fr:Masque]] [[gl:Careta]] [[ko:탈]] [[io:Maskilo]] [[id:Topeng]] [[it:Maschera]] [[he:מסכה]] [[lt:Kaukė]] [[li:Maske]] [[ms:Topeng]] [[nl:Masker]] [[nds-nl:Gebelskop]] [[ja:マスク]] [[pl:Maska]] [[pt:Máscara]] [[qu:Saynata]] [[ru:Маска]] [[scn:Mascarazza]] [[simple:Mask]] [[sk:Maska]] [[fi:Naamari]] [[sv:Ansiktsmask]] [[ta:முகமூடி]] [[tr:Maske]] [[uk:Маска]] [[zh:面具]]