Meaning of life 20347 226070242 2008-07-16T18:18:50Z Raymondwinn 3445323 [[WP:UNDO|Undid]] revision 226069951 by [[Special:Contributions/89.102.250.246|89.102.250.246]] ([[User talk:89.102.250.246|talk]]) <!-- When adding or editing entries on this page, please summarize the major points of the view in 2 to 4 well linked paragraphs --> {{otheruses4|the concept of the meaning of life}} The '''meaning of life''' is a [[concept]] that concerns the possible [[purpose]] and [[Intrinsic value (ethics)|significance]] that may be attributed to [[human]] [[existence]] and/or one's [[personal life]]. It has been the subject of much [[philosophy|philosophical]], [[science|scientific]] and [[theology|theological]] speculation, and there is a huge variety of views concerning this [[Unsolved problems in philosophy|philosophical problem]].<ref name="Baggini">{{cite book |author=[[Julian Baggini]] |title=What's It All About? Philosophy and the Meaning of Life |publisher=Granta Books |date=September 2004 |location=USA |isbn=1862076618}}</ref><ref name="Reginster">{{cite book |author=Bernard Reginster |title=The Affirmation of Life: Nietzsche on Overcoming Nihilism |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2006 |isbn=0674021991}}</ref><ref name="Young">{{cite book |author=Julian Young |title=The Death of God and the Meaning of Life |publisher=Routledge |year=2003 |isbn=0415307902}}</ref><ref name="Westphal">{{cite book |author=Jonathan Westphal |title=Philosophical Propositions: An Introduction to Philosophy |publisher=Routledge |year=1998 |isbn=0415170532}}</ref>[[Image:Woher kommen wir Wer sind wir Wohin gehen wir.jpg|thumb|right|245px|[[Paul Gauguin]]'s painting ''[[Where Do We Come From? What Are We? Where Are We Going?]]'' illustrates his interpretation of the meaning of life.]] It is often expressed in various related [[question]]s:<ref name="Kelly">{{cite book |author=Matthew Kelly |title=The Rhythm of Life: Living Every Day with Passion and Purpose |publisher=Simon & Schuster |year=2005 |isbn=0743265106}}</ref> * ''What is the [[meaning]] of [[life]]?'' <ref name="Westphal" /><ref name="Nozick">{{cite book |author=[[Robert Nozick]] |title=[[Philosophical Explanations]] |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1981 |isbn=0674664795}}</ref><ref name="Jewell">{{cite book |author=Albert Jewell |title=Ageing, Spirituality and Well-Being |publisher=Jessica Kingsley Publishers |year=2003 |isbn=184310167X}}</ref><ref name="WITMOL">{{cite web |title=Question of the Month: What Is The Meaning Of Life? |work=[[Philosophy Now]] |publisher=Issue 59 |url=http://www.philosophynow.org/issue59/59question.htm |accessdate=2007-07-26}}</ref><ref name="Yeffeth">{{cite book |author=Glenn Yeffeth |title=The Anthology at the End of the Universe: Leading Science Fiction Authors on Douglas Adams' The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy |publisher=BenBella Books, Inc |year=2005 |isbn=1932100563}}</ref><ref name="Seaman" /> * ''Why are we here?'' <ref name="Baggini" /><ref name="Thiemann & Placher">{{cite book |author=[[Ronald F. Thiemann]]; William Carl Placher |title=Why Are We Here?: Everyday Questions and the Christian Life |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |year=1998 |isbn=1563382369}}</ref><ref name="Marcellino">{{cite book |author=Dennis Marcellino |title=Why Are We Here?: The Scientific Answer to this Age-old Question (that you don't need to be a scientist to understand) |publisher=Lighthouse Pub |year=1996 |isbn=0945272103}}</ref><ref name="Curtiss">{{cite book |author=F. Homer Curtiss |title=Why Are We Here |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |year=2003 |isbn=0766138992}}</ref><ref name="Badke">{{cite book |author= William B. Badke |title=The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Meaning of Everything |publisher=Kregel Publications |year=2005 |isbn=0825420695}}</ref> ''What are we here for?'' <ref name="Hua">{{cite book |author=Hsuan Hua |title=Words of Wisdom: Beginning Buddhism |publisher=Dharma Realm Buddhist Association |year=2003 |isbn=0881393029}}</ref> * ''What is the [[origin of life]]?'' <ref name="Davies">{{cite book |author=[[Paul Davies]] |title=The Fifth Miracle: The Search for the Origin and Meaning of Life |publisher=Simon & Schuster |date=March 2000 |url=http://www.simonsays.com/content/book.cfm?tab=1&pid=410133 |accessdate=2007-07-26 |isbn=0-684-86309-X}}</ref> * ''What is the [[nature]] of life (and of [[reality]] itself)?'' <ref name="Davies" /><ref name="Christiansen & Baum & Bass-Haugen">{{cite book |author=Charles Christiansen; Carolyn Manville Baum; Julie Bass-Haugen |title=Occupational Therapy: Performance, Participation, and Well-Being |publisher=SLACK Incorporated |year=2005 |isbn=1556425309}}</ref> * ''What is the [[purpose]] of, or in, (one's) life?'' <ref name="Baggini" /><ref name="WITMOL" /><ref name="Christiansen & Baum & Bass-Haugen" /><ref name="warren">{{cite book |author=[[Rick Warren]] |title=[[The Purpose Driven Life|The Purpose Driven Life: What on Earth Am I Here For?]] |publisher=Zondervan |year=2002 |isbn=0310255252}}</ref><ref name="Krishnamurti">{{cite book |author=[[Jiddu Krishnamurti]] |title=What Are You Doing With Your Life? |publisher=Krishnamurti Foundation of America |year=2001 |isbn=188800424X}}</ref> * ''What is the [[significance]] of life?'' <ref name="Krishnamurti" /> * ''What is meaningful or [[intrinsic value (ethics)|valuable in life]]?'' <ref name="UIUC">{{cite web |last=Puolimatka |first=Tapio | coauthors=Airaksinen, Timo |title=Education and the Meaning of Life |work=Philosophy of Education |publisher=[[University of Helsinki]] |date=2002 |url=http://www.ed.uiuc.edu/EPS/PES-Yearbook/2001/tapio%2001.pdf |format=PDF | accessdate=2007-07-26}}</ref> * ''What is the [[value of life]]?'' <ref name="Van Hooft">{{cite book |author=Stan Van Hooft |title=Life, Death, and Subjectivity: Moral Sources in Bioethics |publisher=Rodopi |year=2004 |isbn=9042019123}}</ref> * ''What is the [[reason]] to live?'' <ref name="Shafer-Landau & Cuneo">{{cite book |author=Russ Shafer-Landau; Terence Cuneo |title=Foundations of Ethics: An Anthology |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |year=2007 |isbn=1405129514}}</ref> ''What are we living for?'' <ref name="Hua" /> Some individuals, [[#Logical positivist view|including logical positivists]], have asked questions like "What does the question 'What is the meaning of life?' mean?"<ref>{{cite book |author=[[Richard Taylor (philosopher)|Richard Taylor]] |title=Good and Evil |pages="The Meaning of Life" (Chapter 5) |publisher=Macmillan Publishing Company |date=January 1970 |isbn=0026166909}}</ref> and also questioned whether it is a meaningful question.<ref>Wohlgennant, Rudolph. (1981). "Has the Question about the Meaning of Life any Meaning?" (Chapter 4). In E. Morscher, ed., ''Philosophie als Wissenschaft''.</ref> Others have considered the question "If there are no objective values, then is life meaningless?"<ref>{{cite book |last=McNaughton |first=David |date=August 1988 |title=Moral Vision: An Introduction to Ethics |pages="Moral Freedom and the Meaning of Life" (Section 1.5) |publisher=Oxford: Blackwell Publishing |isbn=0631159452}}</ref> [[#Existentialist views|Existentialists hold that meaning can be created by oneself]], rejecting [[#Nihilist view|the nihilist view]]. Some, [[#Humanist views|notably Humanists]], have aimed to develop an understanding of life that explains, regardless of how we came to be here, what we should do now that we are here. In addition to the [[Naturalism (philosophy)|naturalistic]] hypotheses concerning the origin of life, consciousness and the universe offered by science, some philosophers and theologians posit a "[[watchmaker analogy|watchmaker]]" or "[[intelligent designer]]" as the creator of the [[physical universe]], mainly based on [[teleological argument|teleological]] and/or [[cosmological argument|cosmological]] arguments. And others have considered the human need for some higher or [[supernatural]] ideal, for instance, in reference to [[Friedrich Nietzsche]]'s postulation of [[God is dead|the "death" of God]], [[Martin Heidegger]] puts the problem as "If [[God]] as the suprasensory ground and goal of all reality is dead, if the suprasensory world of the Ideas has suffered the loss of its obligatory and above it its vitalizing and upbuilding power, then nothing more remains to which man can cling and by which he can orient himself."<ref>Heidegger, "The Word of Nietzsche," 61.</ref> [[Religious]] answers to the question "What is the meaning of (my) life?" tend to include a certain moral demand<ref name="Tolstoy">{{cite book |author=[[Leo Tolstoy]] |title=On Life and Essays on Religion |publisher=READ BOOKS |year=2007 |isbn=1406742090}}</ref> and to soothe the grief associated with death.<ref name="Mason" /> [[Mysticism|Mystical]] and [[spirituality|spiritual]] traditions focus more on direct experience than religions generally do, the overall view is that life is an unfolding, an inner-awakening or a discovery and transforming of one's understanding and insight, and the ultimate goal of life is living a life in accordance with this spiritual insight, which can be summarized as understanding the meaning of life, all of life and reality itself.<ref name="Jones">{{cite book |author=Richard H. Jones |title=Mysticism and Morality: A New Look at Old Questions |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2004 |isbn=0739107844}}</ref><ref name="Jewell" /><ref name="King">{{cite book |author=Theresa King |title=The Spiral Path: Explorations in Women's Spirituality |publisher=Yes International Publishers |year=1992 |isbn=0936663138}}</ref> == Western philosophy == {{see|Western philosophy}} === Ancient philosophy === {{see|Ancient philosophy}} [[Image:Sanzio 01 Plato Aristotle.jpg|thumb|160px|right|Plato and Aristotle, as represented in [[Raphael]]'s ''[[The School of Athens]]'' fresco.]] ==== Platonic view ==== {{main|Platonism}} [[Plato]] was one of the earliest and most influential thinkers of Western philosophy, most famous for his [[Philosophical realism|realist]] stance regarding the existence of [[universals (metaphysics)|universals]]. In the [[Theory of Forms]] he asserts that universals do not exist in the way that ordinary physical objects exist, but rather with a sort of ghostly or heavenly mode of existence. He describes the [[Form of the Good]] in his [[dialogue]], ''[[Plato's Republic|The Republic]]'', speaking through the character of [[Socrates]]. The Idea of the Good is the child or offspring ''(ekgonos)'' of the Good, the ideal or perfect nature of goodness, and so an absolute measure of [[justice]]. For Plato the meaning of life is to attain the highest form of knowledge, which is the [[Platonic idealism|Idea]] (or [[Platonic realism|Form]]) of the Good. It is from the Idea which all things that are good and just gain their usefulness and value. Humans have a duty to pursue the good, but no one can hope to do this successfully without [[reasoning|philosophical reasoning]], which allows for true knowledge. ==== Aristotelian view ==== {{main|Aristotelian ethics}} [[Aristotle]], an apprentice of [[Plato]], was another of the earliest and most influential philosophers. He argued that ethical knowledge is not ''certain'' knowledge (like [[metaphysics]] and [[epistemology]]) but is ''general knowledge''. Because it is not a [[theory|theoretical]] discipline, he thought a person had to study and practice in order to become 'good'. Thus if a person were to become [[virtue|virtuous]], he could not simply study what virtue ''is'', he had to actually do virtuous activities. In order to do this, Aristotle had to first establish what was virtuous. "Every skill and every inquiry, and similarly, every action and choice of action, is thought to have some good as its object. This is why the good has rightly been defined as the object of all endeavor." ''([[Nicomachean Ethics|NE]] 1.1)'' Everything was done with some goal in mind, and that goal is 'good'. But if action A is done with the goal B, the goal B would also have a goal, goal C. Goal C would also have a goal and this pattern would continue until something stopped the [[infinite regress]]. Aristotle's solution is the ''[[Summum bonum|Highest Good]]'', which is desirable for its own sake. It is not desirable for the sake of some other good, and all other ‘goods’ desirable for its sake. This involves achieving [[eudaemonia]], which is usually translated as "happiness" or alternatively "well-being,""flourishing," or "excellence." "What is the highest good in all matters of action? To the name, there is almost complete agreement; for uneducated and educated alike call it happiness, and make happiness identical with the good life and successful living. They disagree, however, about the meaning of happiness." ''([[Nicomachean Ethics|NE]] 1.4)'' ==== Cynic view ==== The [[Cynic]]s were a [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic]] school of philosophy that argued that the purpose of [[Personal life|life]] was to live a life of [[Virtue]] in agreement with [[Nature]]. Happiness depends on being self-sufficient and a master of mental attitude, and suffering is caused by false judgments of value, which cause negative [[emotions]] and a vicious character. This meant rejecting all conventional desires for [[wealth]], [[Power (sociology)|power]], [[health]], and [[Celebrity|fame]], and by living a life free from all possessions.<ref>Kidd, I., "''Cynicism''," in ''The Concise Encyclopedia of Western Philosophy.'' (ed. Urmson and Rée), Routledge. (2005)</ref><ref>Long, A. A., "''The Socratic Tradition: Diogenes, Crates, and Hellenistic Ethics,''" in ''The Cynics: The Cynic Movement in Antiquity and Its Legacy.'' (ed. Branham and Goulet-Cazé), University of California Press, (1996).</ref> The Cynics believed that as reasoning creatures, people could gain happiness by rigorous training and by living in a way which was natural for [[humans]]. They believed that the [[world]] belonged equally to everyone, and that [[suffering]] was caused by false judgments of what was valuable and by the worthless [[Tradition|customs]] and [[Convention (norm)|conventions]] which surrounded [[society]]. ==== Cyrenaic view ==== [[Cyrenaicism]] was one of the earliest Socratic schools, founded by [[Aristippus of Cyrene]]. Emphasizing one side only of the Socratic teaching, Aristippus asserted that happiness is one of the ends of moral action, and maintained that pleasure was the supreme good, creating a [[hedonism|hedonistic]] view. He found bodily gratifications to be more intense and preferable to mental pleasures. Cyrenaics also deny that we should defer immediate gratification for the sake of long-term gain. In these respects they differ from the Epicureans.<ref>"Cyrenaics." Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. The University of Tennessee At Martin. 4 Nov. 2007 <http://www.iep.utm.edu/>.</ref><ref>"The Cyrenaics and the Origin of Hedonism." Hedonism.org. BLTC. 4 Nov. 2007 <http://www.hedonism.org>.</ref> ==== Epicurean view ==== [[Image:Epicurus Louvre.jpg|right|thumb|132px|Bust of [[Epicurus]] leaning against his disciple [[Metrodorus of Lampsacus (the younger)|Metrodorus]] in the [[Louvre|Louvre Museum]].]] {{main|Epicurianism}} [[Epicurus]] believed that the greatest good was to seek modest pleasures in order to attain a state of tranquility and freedom from fear ([[ataraxia]]) through knowledge, friendship, and living a virtuous and temperate life. It also involves the absence of bodily pain ([[aponia]]) through knowledge of the workings of the world and the limits of our desires. The combination of these states is supposed to constitute happiness in its highest form. He lauded the enjoyment of simple pleasures, by which he meant abstaining from bodily desires, such as sex and appetites, verging on [[asceticism]]. <blockquote>When we say...that pleasure is the end and aim, we do not mean the pleasures of the prodigal or the pleasures of sensuality, as we are understood to do by some through ignorance, prejudice or wilful misrepresentation. By pleasure we mean the absence of pain in the body and of trouble in the soul. It is not by an unbroken succession of drinking bouts and of revelry, not by sexual lust, nor the enjoyment of fish and other delicacies of a luxurious table, which produce a pleasant life; it is sober reasoning, searching out the grounds of every choice and avoidance, and banishing those beliefs through which the greatest tumults take possession of the soul.<ref>[[Epicurus]], "Letter to Menoeceus", contained in Diogenes Laertius, <em>Lives of Eminent Philosophers</em>, Book X</ref></blockquote> Epicureanism rejects immortality and mysticism; it believes in the soul, but suggests that the soul is as mortal as the body. Epicurus rejected any possibility of an [[afterlife]], while still contending that one need not fear death, because "Death is nothing to us; for that which is dissolved, is without sensation, and that which lacks sensation is nothing to us."<ref name="Russel">[[Bertrand Russell]] (1946). ''[[History of Western Philosophy (Russell)|A History of Western Philosophy]]'', New York: Simon and Schuster; London: George Allen and Unwin</ref> ==== Stoic view ==== [[Stoicism]] teaches that to live according to reason and virtue is to live in harmony with the divine order of the universe, which entails the recognition of the universal reason (''[[logos]]'') and essential value of all people. For Stoics, the meaning of life is to be free of [[suffering]] through ''apatheia'' (απαθεια) (Greek) understood as being [[objectivity|objective]] or having "clear judgment", rather than simple indifference. Stoicism's prime directives are [[virtue]], [[reason]], and [[natural law]], and they seek the development of self-control and fortitude as a means of overcoming destructive [[emotion]]s. The Stoics do not seek to extinguish emotions, only to avoid emotional troubles by developing clear judgment and inner calm through diligent practice of logic, reflection, and concentration. The foundation of Stoic ethics is that good lies in the state of the soul itself, and it is exemplified by [[wisdom]] and self-control. Stoicism involves improving the individual’s spiritual well-being: "''Virtue'' consists in a ''will'' which is in agreement with Nature."<ref name="Russel" /> This principle also applies to the realm of interpersonal relationships; "to be free from anger, envy, and jealousy".<ref name="Russel" /> === 19th century philosophy === {{see|19th century philosophy}} ==== Utilitarian view ==== [[Image:Bentham.jpg|left|thumb|120px|Jeremy Bentham]] The origins of [[Utilitarianism]] are often traced back as far as [[Epicurus]], but as a specific school of thought it is generally credited to [[Jeremy Bentham]].<ref>Rosen, Frederick (2003). ''Classical Utilitarianism from Hume to Mill''. Routledge, pg. 28. ISBN 0415220947 "It was Hume and Bentham who then reasserted most strongly the Epicurean doctrine concerning utility as the basis of justice."</ref> Bentham found that "nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure." From this he derived the rule of utility, that the good is whatever brings the greatest happiness to the greatest number of people. Later, after realizing that the formulation recognized two different and potentially conflicting principles, he dropped the second part and talked simply about "the greatest happiness principle." [[Jeremy Bentham]]'s foremost proponent was [[James Mill]], a significant philosopher in his day and the father of [[John Stuart Mill]]. The younger Mill was educated according to Bentham's principles, including transcribing and summarising much of his father's work whilst still in his teens."<ref name="Mill">Mill, John Stuart. 'On Liberty', ed. Himmelfarb. Penguin Classics, 1974, Ed.'s introduction, p.11.</ref> In his famous short work, ''[[Utilitarianism (book)|Utilitarianism]]'', John Stuart Mill argued that cultural, intellectual, and spiritual pleasures are of greater value than mere physical pleasure, because the former would be valued more highly by competent judges than the latter. A competent judge, according to Mill, is anyone who has experienced both the lower pleasures and the higher.<ref>John Stuart Mill (1863). ''[[Utilitarianism (book)|Utilitarianism]]''.</ref> ==== Nihilist view ==== [[Image:MARTIN John Great Day of His Wrath.jpg|thumb|right|[[John Martin (painter)|John Martin]]'s ''[[The End of the World (painting)|The End of the World]]'', which depicts "destruction of [[Babylon]] and the material world by natural [[cataclysm]]"]] [[Nihilism]] rejects claims to knowledge and truth, and explores the meaning of an [[existence]] without knowable truth. Rather than merely insisting that values are subjective or even warrantless, nihilism declares that nothing is of value. From a nihilist point of view, morals are valueless and only hold a place in society as false ideals created by various forces. Though nihilism tends toward [[defeatism]], one can find strength and reason for celebration in the varied and unique human relationships it explores. [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] characterized nihilism as emptying the world and especially human existence of meaning, purpose, comprehensible truth, or essential value. He summed up the process of nihilism as "the devaluing of the highest values".<ref name="Bindé">{{cite book|author=Jérôme Bindé|title=The Future Of Values: 21st-Century Talks|publisher=Berghahn Books|year=2004|isbn=1571814426}}</ref> He also saw nihilism as a natural result of the idea that [[God is dead]], and insisted that it was something to be overcome, by calling the nihilist's life-negating values in question and return meaning to the Earth.<ref name="Reginster" /> [[Martin Heidegger]] described nihilism as the movement whereby [[Being]] is forgotten and is wholly transformed into value, or in other words, the reduction of being to exchange value.<ref name="Bindé" /> ==== Pragmatist view ==== [[Pragmatism]] is a school of philosophy which originated in the [[United States]] in the late 1800s, concerned largely by the issue of [[truth]]. Pragmatists believe that it is only through struggling with the surrounding environment that theories and data acquired by intelligent organisms have significance. Consequences like utility and practicality as vital components of truth, but pragmatism does not hold that just anything that is useful or practical should be regarded as true, or just anything that helps us to survive in the short-term; pragmatists argue that what should be taken as true is that which most contributes to the most human good over the longest course. In practice this means that theoretical claims should be tied to verification practices — i.e., that one should be able to make predictions and test them − and that ultimately the needs of humankind should guide the path of human inquiry. Pragmatic philosophers suggest that rather than a truth about life, we should seek a useful understanding of life. [[William James]] argued that truth could be made but not sought.<ref name="James">{{cite book|author=[[William James]]|title=The Meaning of Truth|publisher=Prometheus Books|year=1909|isbn=1-57392-138-6}}</ref><ref name="Corti">{{cite book|author=Walter Robert Corti|title=The Philosophy of William James|publisher=Meiner Verlag|year=1976|isbn=3787303529}}</ref> To a pragmatist, the meaning of an individual's life can be discovered only through experience and the purposes which cause you to value it. === 20th century philosophy === {{see|20th century philosophy}} ==== Existentialist views ==== {{main|Meaning (existential)}} [[Image:The Scream.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Edvard Munch]]'s ''[[The Scream]]'', which is said to represent existential [[angst]]]] [[Existentialism]] is a [[philosophical movement]] that posits that individuals create the meaning and essence of their lives, as opposed to deities or authorities creating it for them. Although there are some common tendencies amongst "existentialist" thinkers, there are major differences and disagreements among them.<ref>Walter Kaufmann. Existentialism: From Dostoevsky to Sartre. (Cleveland: The World Publishing Company, 1956) 11</ref> Emphasizing action, freedom, and decision as fundamental, existentialists oppose themselves to [[rationalism]] and [[positivism (philosophy)|positivism]] and instead look at where people find meaning. The rejection of reason as the source of meaning is a common theme of existentialist thought, as is the focus on the feelings of [[anxiety]] and [[angst|dread]] that are felt in the face of radical [[Freedom (philosophy)|freedom]] and the awareness of death. Some other themes are that humans define their own meaning in life and that [[existence precedes essence]], which means that the [[essence]] or meaning of one's life can only arise after one has come into [[existence]]. [[Søren Kierkegaard]] invented the term "[[leap of faith]]" and argued that [[Absurdism|life is full of absurdity]] and the individual must make his or her own values in an indifferent world. For Kierkegaard, an individual can have a meaningful life (or at least one free of despair and [[Existential crisis|existential anxiety]]) if the individual relates the self in an unconditional commitment to something finite, and devotes his or her life to the commitment despite the inherent vulnerability of doing so.<ref name="Hall">{{cite book|author=Amy Laura Hall|title=Kierkegaard and the Treachery of Love|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2002|isbn=0521893119}}</ref> [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] offered a bleak answer to "What is the meaning of life?" by determining one's life as a reflection of one's will and the will (and thus life) as being an aimless, irrational, and painful drive. He saw salvation, deliverance, or escape from suffering in aesthetic contemplation, sympathy for others, and [[asceticism]].<ref name="Jacquette">{{cite book|author=Dale Jacquette|title=Schopenhauer, Philosophy, and the Arts|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1996|isbn=0521473888}}</ref><ref name="Murray">{{cite book|author=Durno Murray|title=Nietzsche's Affirmative Morality|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|year=1999|isbn=3110166011}}</ref> [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] declared that life is worth living only if there are goals that inspire to live. Accordingly, nihilism —the claim that "all that happens is meaningless"— may be defined as goallessness. Nietzsche discredited asceticism, as it derived from the negation of our life in this world. He denied that values are objective facts and proclaimed that there are not rationally necessary, universally binding commitments: Our evaluations are interpretations, and not reflections of the world as it is in itself, and therefore [[perspectivism|all ideations take place from a particular perspective]].<ref name="Reginster" /> Nietzsche has also stated that the essential thing in life is the tremendous shaping, form-creating force, the [[will to power]].<ref name="Young" /> Other influential existentialist thinkers include [[Fyodor Dostoevsky]], [[Jean-Paul Sartre]], [[Albert Camus]], and [[Simone de Beauvoir]]. ==== Humanist views ==== {{See|Humanism (life stance)}} [[Image:HumanismSymbol.PNG|120px|left|thumb|The "[[Happy Human]]" symbol representing [[Humanism]].]] According to [[Humanism]], the [[human race]] came to be by reproducing in a progression of unguided [[evolution]] as an integral part of [[nature]], which is self-existing.<ref name=humanifesto1>{{cite web |title=[[Humanist Manifesto I]]] [http://www.americanhumanist.org/about/manifesto1.html | url=http://www.americanhumanist.org/about/manifesto1.html |work=American Humanist Association |date=1933 |accessdate=2007-07-26}}</ref><ref name=humanifesto2>{{cite web |title=[[Humanist Manifesto II]]] [http://www.americanhumanist.org/about/manifesto2.html |work=American Humanist Association |date=1973 |url=http://www.americanhumanist.org/about/manifesto2.html |accessdate=2007-08-01}}</ref> Knowledge does not come from supernatural sources, rather it flows from human observation, experimentation, and rational analysis preferably utilizing the [[scientific method]]: the nature of the [[universe]] is what we discern it to be.<ref name=humanifesto1 /> As are "[[Intrinsic value (ethics)|values]] and realities", which are determined "by means of intelligent inquiry"<ref name=humanifesto1 /> and "are derived from human need and interest as tested by experience", that is, by [[Critical thinking|critical intelligence]].<ref name=humanifesto3>{{cite web |title=[[Humanist Manifesto III]]] [http://www.americanhumanist.org/3/HumandItsAspirations.php |work=American Humanist Association |date=2003 |url=http://www.americanhumanist.org/3/HumandItsAspirations.php |accessdate=2007-08-01}}</ref><ref name=CDSH>{{cite web |title=[[A Secular Humanist Declaration]]] [http://www.secularhumanism.org/index.php?section=main&page=declaration |work=Council for Democratic and Secular Humanism (now the Council for Secular Humanism) |date=1980 |url=http://www.secularhumanism.org/index.php?section=main&page=declaration |accessdate=2007-08-01}}</ref> "As far as we know, the total personality is [a function] of the biological organism transacting in a social and cultural context."<ref name=humanifesto2 /> Humanists believe that human purpose is determined by humans, completely without [[supernatural]] influence; it is human personality (in the broadest sense) that is the purpose of a human's life, and this humanism seeks to develop and fulfill:<ref name=humanifesto1 /> "Humanism affirms our ability and responsibility to lead ethical lives of personal fulfillment that aspire to the greater good of humanity."<ref name=humanifesto3 /> Humanists seek [[enlightened self-interest]] and the [[common good]] for all people. The [[happiness]] of the individual is inextricably linked to the well-being of humanity as a whole, in part because we are social animals which find meaning in [[interpersonal relationship|relationships]], and because cultural progress benefits everybody who lives in that [[culture]].<ref name=humanifesto2 /><ref name=humanifesto3 /> [[Posthumanism]] and [[transhumanism]] (sometimes used as [[synonyms]]) are extensions of humanistic values. Like humanism, they propose that we should seek the advancement of [[human race|humanity]] and of [[Biocentrism|all life]] to the greatest degree feasible, with an emphasis on reconciling the views of [[Renaissance humanism]] to correspond more closely to the 21st century's concepts of [[technoscientific]] knowledge. These views insist that all living things be granted the basic option to inquire after their own personal or social "meaning(s) of life" (including meanings that human beings are currently incompetent to comprehend) as much as it is physically possible to do so, and no less.<ref>{{Cite web| author=[[Nick Bostrom]] |title=Transhumanist Values |work=[[Oxford University]] |date=2005 |url=http://www.nickbostrom.com/ethics/values.html |accessdate=2007-07-28}}</ref> They insist that the meaning of life is necessarily indefinite and ambiguous, and should be left to the philosophical inclinations of the individual; however there is a moral imperative common to all intelligent agents to improve their lives. ==== Logical positivist view ==== Of the meaning of life, [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] and the [[logical positivism|logical positivists]] said: expressed in language, the question is meaningless. This is because "meaning of x" is a term ''in'' life usually conveying something regarding the consequences of x, or the significance of x, or that which should be noted regarding x, etc. So when "life" is used as "x" in the term "meaning of x", the statement becomes [[recursion|recursive]] and therefore nonsensical, or would simply refer to the obvious fact that the condition of life is essential for having meaning (in life). In other words, things in a person's life can have meaning (importance), but a meaning of life itself, i.e., apart from those things, cannot be discerned. In this context, a person's life is said to have meaning (significance to himself and others) in the form of the events throughout his life and the results of his life in terms of achievements, a legacy, family, etc. But to say that life itself has meaning is a misuse of language, since any note of significance or consequence is relevant only ''in'' life (to those living it), rendering the statement erroneous. [[Bertrand Russell]], for example, wrote that although he found it impossible to believe that his distaste for torture was similar in nature to his distaste for broccoli, he nonetheless could find no satisfactory empirical method of proving this:<ref name="Russel"/> <blockquote>When we try to be definite as to what we mean when we say that this or that is "the Good," we find ourselves involved in very great difficulties. [[Jeremy Bentham|Bentham's]] creed that pleasure is the Good roused furious opposition, and was said to be a pig's philosophy. Neither he nor his opponents could advance any argument. In a scientific question, evidence can be adduced on both sides, and in the end, one side is seen to have the better case — or, if this does not happen, the question is left undecided. But in a question as to whether this or that is the ultimate Good, there is no evidence either way; each disputant can only appeal to his own emotions, and employ such rhetorical devices as shall rouse similar emotions in others...Questions as to "values" — that is to say, as to what is good or bad on its own account, independently of its effects — lie outside the domain of science, as the defenders of religion emphatically assert. I think that in this they are right, but I draw the further conclusion, which they do not draw, that questions as to "values" lie wholly outside the domain of knowledge. That is to say, when we assert that this or that has "value," we are giving expression to our own emotions, not to a fact which would still be true if our personal feelings were different.<ref>[[Bertrand Russell]] (1961). [http://www.solstice.us/russell/science-ethics.html ''Science and Ethics'']</ref></blockquote> == Abrahamic religions == [[Image:ReligionSymbolAbr.PNG|thumb|120px|right|Symbols of the three main Abrahamic religions – Christianity, Judaism and Islam]] {{see|Abrahamic religion}} === Jewish view === [[Judaism]] maintains a number of [[Jewish principles of faith|religious principles]], the most important of which is the belief in a single, [[Omniscience|omniscient]], [[omnipotence|omnipotent]], [[omnibenevolence|omnibenevolent]], [[Transcendence (religion)|transcendent]] [[God in Judaism|God]], who [[Creation according to Genesis|created the universe]] and continues to govern it. Traditional Judaism maintains that God established a [[Covenant (Israel)|covenant]] with the [[Jewish people]] at [[Mount Sinai]], and revealed his laws and [[613 mitzvot|commandments]] to them in the form of the [[Torah]]. In [[Rabbinic Judaism]], the Torah comprises both the written Torah ([[Pentateuch]]) and a tradition of oral law, much of it codified in later sacred writings. [[Judaism|Jews]] believe the purpose of life is to serve God<ref name="Cohn-Sherbok">{{cite book |author=Dan Cohn-Sherbok |title=Judaism: History, Belief, and Practice |publisher=Routledge |year=2003 |isbn=0415236614}}</ref> and to prepare for the world to come<ref name="Heschel">{{cite book |author=Abraham Joshua Heschel |title=Heavenly Torah: As Refracted Through the Generations |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |year=2005 |isbn=0826408028}}</ref> "[[Jewish eschatology#The afterlife and olam haba (the "world to come")|Olam Haba]]".<ref name="Shuchat">{{cite book |author=Wilfred Shuchat |title=The Garden of Eden & the Struggle to Be Human: According to the Midrash Rabbah |publisher=Devora Publishing |year=2006 |isbn=1932687319}}</ref> While Jewish thoughts are about elevating oneself in spirituality and connecting to God and trying to prepare for "Olam Haba", Jewish thought is to use this world, "Olam Hazeh," to help elevate ourself into the next. Judaism regards life as a precious gift from God; precious not only because it is a gift from God, but because, for humans, there is a uniqueness attached to that gift. Of all the creatures on Earth, humans are created in the image of God. Our lives are sacred and precious because we carry within us the Divine Image, and with it, unlimited potential.<ref name="Braham">{{cite book |author=Randolph L. Braham |title=Contemporary Views on the Holocaust |publisher=Springer |year=1983 |isbn=089838141X}}</ref> === Christian view === [[Image:MemlingJudgementOpen.jpg|thumb|right|245px|[[Hans Memling]]'s ''[[The Last Judgment (Memling)|The Last Judgment]]'', which depicts [[Michael (archangel)|St Michael the Archangel]] weighing souls and driving the [[Damned]] towards [[Hell]].]] [[Christianity]] is a [[Monotheism#Christian view|monotheistic]]<ref name="Monotheism"> The [[Catholic Encyclopedia]], Volume IX, [http://www.christianavenue.org ''Monotheism'']; [[William F. Albright]], ''From the Stone Age to Christianity''; [[H. Richard Niebuhr]], ; About.com, [http://ancienthistory.about.com/od/monotheisticreligions/ ''Monotheistic Religion resources'']; Jonathan Kirsch, ''God Against the Gods''; Linda Woodhead, ''An Introduction to Christianity''; [[Columbia Encyclopedia|The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia]] [http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/society/A0833762.html ''Monotheism'']; The New Dictionary of [[Cultural literacy|Cultural Literacy]], [http://www.bartleby.com/59/5/monotheism.html ''monotheism'']; New Dictionary of Theology, [http://www.ntwrightpage.com/Wright_NDCT_Paul.htm ''Paul''] pp. 496-99; David Vincent Meconi, "Pagan Monotheism in Late Antiquity" in ''Journal of Early Christian Studies'' pp. 111–12, 2nd London Baptist Confession 1689, 2:1 </ref> [[religion]] centered on the life and teachings of [[Jesus Christ]] as presented in the [[New Testament]],<ref>[[BBC]], [http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/ ''BBC - Religion & Ethics - Christianity'']</ref> drawing many of their beliefs from the [[Bible|Holy Bible]]. Christians believe they are being tested and purified so that they may have a place of responsibility with [[Jesus]] in the [[afterlife]]. They believe that loving God is the meaning of life, and in order to achieve this one would ask for [[Atonement|forgiveness of sins]] and receive God into their heart. Christians believe in an eternal [[afterlife]], and that one ascends to [[heaven]] only through the [[faith]] and love of [[Jesus Christ]] ({{bibleverse||Ephesians|2:8-9}}; {{bibleverse||Romans|6:23}}; {{bibleverse||John|3:16-21}}; {{bibleverse||John|3:36}}). [[Image:Jérôme Bosch-Les 7 Péchés Capitaux .jpg|thumb|left|160px|The [[seven deadly sins]] as depicted in [[Hieronymus Bosch]]'s ''[[The Seven Deadly Sins and the Four Last Things]]'', the center represents God's eye keeping watch on humankind.]] There is some disagreement on the subject of atonement and forgiveness. [[Catholics]] believe acts of [[penance]], which can include service to others, are required to receive forgiveness of sins, especially for [[mortal sin]]s. [[Protestants]] and [[Evangelicalism|evangelicals]] believe that actions in themselves do not impact [[salvation]] or the entry into heaven, but rather it is acceptance of Christ as saviour and repentance (turning away from) of sin that determines one's fate. This is not to say that one must be sinless, but that one must war against sin. In the ''[[Westminster Shorter Catechism]]'', the first question is "What is the chief end of man?", or in other words, 'What is man's main purpose?'. The answer, according to the Catechism is "Man's chief end is to glorify God and enjoy him forever." It goes on to explain that God requires of us to obey the moral law revealed to us, which proclaims that we must "love the Lord our God with all our heart, with all our soul, with all our strength, and with all our mind; and our neighbour as ourselves."<ref>{{cite web |title=The Westminster Shorter Catechism |url=http://www.creeds.net/reformed/Westminster/shorter_catechism.html |accessdate=2008-03-21}}</ref>The [[Baltimore Catechism]] answers the question "Why did God make you?" by saying "God made me to know Him, to love Him, and to serve Him in this world, and to be happy with Him for ever in heaven."<ref>{{cite web |title=The Baltimore Catechism |url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/chr/balt/balt1.htm |accessdate=2008-06-12}}</ref> Jesus encouraged Christians to be overcomers and said "To him who overcomes, I will give the right to sit with me on my throne, just as I overcame and sat down with my Father on his throne. He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the churches." ({{bibleverse||Rev|3:21-22}}) The Bible states that it is God "in whom we live and move and have our being" ({{bibleverse||Acts|17:28}}), that to [[fear]] God is the beginning of [[wisdom]], and to depart from [[evil]] is the beginning of understanding ({{bibleverse||Job|28:28}}) and that "In Christ Jesus are hidden all the treasures of wisdom and knowledge" ({{bibleverse||Colossians|2:3}}). The Bible also says "Let us hear the conclusion of the whole matter: Fear God, and keep his commandments: for this is the whole duty of man" ({{bibleverse||Ecclesiastes|12:13}}), and "Whether therefore ye eat, or drink, or whatsoever ye do, do all to the glory of God." ({{bibleverse||Corinthians|10:31}}) ===Islamic view === In [[Islam]] the ultimate objective of man is to seek the pleasure of [[Allah]] by living in accordance with the Divine guidelines as stated in the [[Qur'an]] and the Tradition of the [[Muhammad|Prophet]]. The Qur'an states that all Muslims must believe in God, his revelations, his [[Angels in Islam|angels]], his [[Prophets in Islam|messengers]], and in the "[[Qiyamah|Day of Judgment]]".<ref>{{cite quran|2|4|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|2|285|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|4|136|style=ref}}</ref> The Qur'an states that the whole purpose behind the creation of man was for glorifying and worshipping Allah:<ref name="Markham & Özdemir">{{cite book |author=Ian Markham; İbrahim Özdemir |title=Globalization, Ethics and Islam: The Case of Bediuzzaman Said Nursi |publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. |year=2005 |isbn=0754650154}}</ref> "I only created [[jinn]] and man to worship Me" (Qur'an 51:56). Worshiping in Islam means to testify to the [[oneness of God]] in his lordship, names and attributes. Muslims believe life was created as a test, and how one performs determines whether your soul goes to [[Jannah]] (Heaven) or [[Jahannam]] (Hell). The [[Five Pillars of Islam]] are five duties incumbent on every Muslim to perform. It is a concept taken from the [[Hadith]] collections, notably the work of [[Sahih Al-Bukhari]] and [[Sahih Muslim]]. The pillars are [[Shahadah]] (profession of faith), [[Salah]] (ritual prayer), [[Zakah]] (alms tax), [[Sawm]] (fasting during [[Ramadan]]), and [[Hajj]] (pilgrimage to [[Mecca]]). [[Twelvers]] have five [[Principles of the Religion|fundamental beliefs]] which relates to [[Aqidah]].<ref>Momem (1987), p.176</ref> These five practices are essential to [[Sunni Islam]]. [[Shia Islam|Shi'a Muslims]] subscribe to eight ritual practices which substantially overlap with the Five Pillars.<ref>See: * Momem (1987), p.178 * {{cite encyclopedia | title=Pillars of Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> Some beliefs differ between [[Kalam|particular sects]]. The [[Sunni]] concept of predestination is called [[Qadr (doctrine)|divine decree]],<ref>{{Muslim|1|1}}</ref> while the [[Shi'a]] version is called [[Adalah|divine justice]]. The [[esoteric]] [[Muslim]] view, generally held by [[Sufi]]s, the universe exists only for God's pleasure, and creation works as a grand game,<ref name="Yusuf Ali">{{cite book |author=[[Abdullah Yusuf Ali]] |title=[[Qur'an|The Holy Qur'an]] |publisher=Wordsworth Editions |year=2000 |isbn=1853267821}}</ref> with Allah as the greatest prize.<ref name="Yusuf Ali" /> === Bahá'í view === [[Image:Bahaistar.jpg|thumb|120px|A [[Bahá'í symbols#Nine Pointed Star|nine-pointed star]] with the [[calligraphy]] of the [[Bahá'í symbols#The Greatest Name|Greatest Name]] in the centre, both [[Bahá'í symbols]] are connected with the word [[Bahá'í symbols#Bahá’|Bahá’]].]] The [[Bahá'í Faith]], founded by [[Bahá'u'lláh]], emphasizes the spiritual unity of all humankind.<ref>{{Citation | year = 2007 | title = "Bahaism." The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language | volume = Fourth Edition | publisher = Houghton Mifflin Company | url = http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/bahaism}}</ref> According to [[Bahá'í teachings]], religious history has unfolded through a series of [[God]]'s messengers who brought teachings suited for the capacity of the people at their time, and whose fundamental purpose is the same. The purpose of human life, say Bahá'ís, is spiritual growth. This is conceived almost as an organic process, like the development of a fetus, and continues after death. Neither a physical [[Heaven]] or [[Hell]] are present in the Bahá'í Faith. The Bahá'í teachings present "Heaven" and "Hell" to be states of spiritual nearness or remoteness to God, and that life continues in an [[afterlife]] through which the soul may progress infinitely through ever-more-exalted spiritual realms, eventually coming to stand before the Presence of God. The Bahá'í faith teaches that this process continues on in the spiritual [[afterlife]], and not through a series of births and re-births as in [[reincarnation]].<ref>{{cite book |author=[[Bahá'u'lláh]] |year=1873 |title=[[Kitáb-i-Aqdas|The Kitáb-i-Aqdas: The Most Holy Book]] [http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/b/KA/] |publisher=Bahá'í Publishing Trust |location=Wilmette, Illinois, USA |isbn=0853989990}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=[[Bahá'u'lláh]] |year=1862 |title=[[Kitáb-i-Íqán|The Kitáb-i-Íqán: The Book of Certitude]] [http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/b/KI/] |publisher=Bahá'í Publishing Trust |location=Wilmette, Illinois, USA |isbn=1931847088}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=[[Bahá'u'lláh]] |origyear=1856-63 |year=1991 |title=[[Seven Valleys|The Seven Valleys]] and [[Four Valleys (Bahá'í)|the Four Valleys]] [http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/b/SVFV/] |publisher=Bahá'í Publishing Trust |location=Wilmette, Illinois, USA |isbn=0-87743-227-9}}</ref> Bahá'ís believe that while God's essence can never be fully fathomed, he can be understood through his "names and attributes." These are sometimes referred to as gems, and include such qualities as compassion, justice, knowledge, and wisdom. Education (especially of a spiritual nature) reveals the divine gems which God has placed within our souls.<ref>{{cite book |author=[[Bahá'u'lláh]] |year=2002 |title=[[Gems of Divine Mysteries]] [http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/b/GDM/] |publisher=Bahá'í World Centre |location=Haifa, Israel |isbn=0-85398-975-3}}</ref> == Dharmic religions and philosophy == {{see|Dharma|Indian religions|Indian philosophy}} === Hindu views === {{see|Hinduism|Hindu philosophy}} [[Hinduism]] is an extremely diverse religion. Although some tenets of the faith are accepted by most Hindus, scholars have found it difficult to identify any doctrines with universal acceptance among all denominations.<ref name=weightman>{{Harvard reference | author= Simon Weightman | year=1998 | title=The new Penguin handbook of living religions |editor = Hinnells, John (Ed.) | publisher= [[Penguin books]] |chapter= Hinduism | isbn=0-140-51480-5}}</ref> Most Hindus believe that the spirit or soul—the true "self" of every person, called the [[Ātman (Hinduism)|ātman]]—is eternal.<ref name="monierwilliams">{{Harvard reference | author= [[Monier Monier-Williams]] | year=1974 | title=Brahmanism and Hinduism: Or, Religious Thought and Life in India, as Based on the Veda and Other Sacred Books of the Hindus | publisher= Adamant Media Corporation |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=U5IBXA4UpT0C&dq=isbn:1421265311 |accessdate=[[2007-07-08]] |series=Elibron Classics | isbn=1421265311}}</ref> The [[purusharthas]] are the canonical four ends or aims of human life.<ref>For dharma, artha, and kama as "brahmanic householder values" see: Flood (1996), p. 17.</ref><ref>For the ''Dharma Śāstras'' as discussing the "four main goals of life" (dharma, artha, {{IAST|kāma}}, and moksha) see: Hopkins, p. 78.</ref><ref>For definition of the term पुरुष-अर्थ ({{IAST|puruṣa-artha}}) as "any of the four principal objects of human life, i.e. {{lang|sa|धर्म}}, {{lang|sa|अर्थ}}, {{lang|sa|काम}}, and {{lang|sa|मोक्ष}}" see: Apte, p. 626, middle column, compound #1.</ref> These goals are, from lowest to highest importance: ''[[Kāma]]'' (sensual pleasure or love), ''[[Artha]]'' (wealth), ''[[Dharma]]'' (righteousness or morality) and ''[[Moksha]]'' (liberation from the cycle of [[reincarnation]]) According to the [[Monism|monistic]]/[[Pantheism|pantheistic]] theologies of Hinduism (such as the [[Advaita Vedanta]] school), the ātman is ultimately indistinct from [[Brahman]], the supreme spirit. [[Brahman]] is described as "The One Without a Second;" hence these schools are called "[[Dualism#Consciousness/Matter dualism|non-dualist]]."<ref name=bhaskaranandaessential>{{Harvard reference | last=Bhaskarananda | first=Swami | year=1994 | title=The Essentials of Hinduism: a comprehensive overview of the world's oldest religion | place=Seattle, WA | publisher=Viveka Press | isbn=1-884852-02-5}}</ref> The goal of life according to the Advaita school is to realize that one's [[Ātman (Hinduism)|atman]] (soul) is identical to [[Brahman]], the supreme soul.<ref>{{Harvard reference | last= Vivekananda | first=Swami | authorlink=Swami Vivekananda | year=1987 | title=Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda | place=Calcutta | publisher= Advaita Ashrama | isbn=81-85301-75-1}}</ref> The [[Upanishads]] state that whoever becomes fully aware of the ātman as the innermost core of one's own self, realises their identity with Brahman and thereby reaches [[Moksha]] (liberation or freedom)<ref name="monierwilliams"/><ref name="werner">{{Harvard reference | last= Werner | first=Karel | year=1994 | title=A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism | place=Richmond, Surrey | editor = Hinnells, John (Ed.) | publisher= Curzon Press | chapter= Hinduism | isbn=0-7007-0279-2}}</ref><ref>See also the Vedic statement "ayam ātmā brahma" (This [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Atman]] is [[Brahman]]).</ref> The notion of [[lila]] (literally, "play") refers to the idea of the universe as a cosmic game, and meaning as a "play of significance".<ref name=Schechner>{{cite book |author=Richard Schechner |year=2002 |title=Performance Studies: An Introduction |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0415146208}}</ref> This "play", manifested in the million-formed inexhaustible richness of beings and events, is what gives us the key to the meaning of life.<ref name=Merton>{{cite book |author=Thomas Merton |year=1995 |title=Thoughts on the East |publisher=New Directions Publishing |isbn=0811212939}}</ref> Other Hindu schools, such as the [[Dualism#Consciousness/Matter dualism|dualist]] [[Dvaita|Dvaita Vedanta]] and other [[bhakti]] schools, understand [[Brahman]] as a Supreme Being who possesses personality. On these conceptions, the ātman is dependent on Brahman, and the meaning of life is to achieve Moksha through love towards God and on God's grace.<ref name="werner" /> [[Image:Jain hand.svg|right|thumb|120px|The Jain symbol of the Vow of [[Ahimsa in Jainism|Ahimsa]], the wheel ([[dharmacakra]]) stands for the resolve to halt the cycle of [[reincarnation]] through relentless pursuit of [[truth]] and [[nonviolence|non-violence]].]] === Jain view === {{See|Jainism|Jain philosophy}} [[Jainism]] is a religion originating in [[Iron Age India|ancient India]], its ethical system promotes self-discipline above all else. Through following the [[asceticism|ascetic]] teachings of [[Tirthankara|Jina]], a [[human]] achieves [[Moksa (Jainism)|enlightenment (perfect knowledge)]]. Jainism divides the universe into living and non-living beings. Only when the non-living become attached to the living does suffering result. Therefore, happiness is the result of self-conquest and freedom from external objects. The meaning of life may then be said to be to use of the physical body to achieve self-realization and bliss.<ref>Shah, Natubhai. ''Jainism: The World of Conquerors.'' Sussex Academic Press, 1998.</ref> Jains believe that every human is responsible for his or her actions and all living beings have an eternal [[soul]], ''[[jiva|jīva]]''. Jains believe all souls are equal because they all possess the potential of being liberated and attaining [[Moksa (Jainism)|Moksha]]. The [[Karma in Jainism|Jain view of karma]] is that every action, every word, every thought produces, besides its visible, an invisible, transcendental effect on the soul. Jainism includes strict adherence to [[Ahimsa in Jainism|ahimsa]] (or ''ahinsā''), a form of [[nonviolence]] that goes far beyond [[vegetarianism]]. Jains refuse food obtained with unnecessary cruelty. Many practice a lifestyle similar to [[Veganism]] due to the violence of modern dairy farms, and others exclude [[root vegetable]]s from their diets in order to preserve the lives of the plants from which they eat.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.retoday.org.uk/pdfs/dre/viren.pdf |title=Viren, Jain |accessdate=2007-06-14 |publisher=[http://www.retoday.org.uk/ RE Today] }}</ref> === Buddhist views === One of the central views in [[Buddhism]] is a [[nondual]] worldview, in which subject and object are the same, and the sense of doer-ship is illusionary. On this account, the meaning of life is to become enlightened as to the nature and oneness of the universe. According to the [[Buddhist texts|scriptures]], the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] taught that in life there exists [[Dukkha]], which is in essence sorrow/suffering, that is caused by [[tanha|desire]] and it can be brought to cessation by following the [[Noble Eightfold Path]].[[Image:Dharma wheel.svg|thumb|120px|right|The eight-spoked [[Dharmacakra]]. The eight spokes represent the [[Noble Eightfold Path]] of Buddhism.]]This teaching is called the Catvāry Āryasatyāni (Pali: {{unicode|Cattāri Ariyasaccāni}}), or the "[[Four Noble Truths]]". # There is suffering (duhkha) # There is a cause of suffering &mdash; [[Tanha|craving]] (trishna) # There is the cessation of suffering (nirvana) # There is a way leading to the cessation of suffering &mdash; the [[Noble Eightfold Path]] [[Theravada|Theravada Buddhism]] promotes the concept of [[Vibhajjavada]] ([[Pāli|Pali]]), literally "Teaching of Analysis." This doctrine says that insight must come from the aspirant's experience, critical investigation, and reasoning instead of by blind faith; however, the scriptures of the Theravadin tradition also emphasize heeding the advice of the wise, considering such advice and evaluation of one's own experiences to be the two tests by which practices should be judged. The Theravadin goal is liberation (or freedom) from suffering, according to the [[Four Noble Truths]]. This is attained in the achievement of [[Nibbana]], or Unbinding which also ends the [[reincarnation|repeated cycle]] of birth, old age, sickness and death. [[Mahayana|Mahayana Buddhist]] schools de-emphasize the traditional Theravada ideal of the release from individual [[dukkha|Suffering]] ([[Dukkha]]) and attainment of [[nirvana|Awakening]] ([[Nirvana]]). In Mahayana, the Buddha is seen as an eternal, immutable, inconceivable, omnipresent being. The fundamental principles of Mahayana doctrine are based around the possibility of universal [[liberation]] from suffering for all beings, and the existence of the transcendent [[Buddha-nature]], which is the eternal Buddha essence present, but hidden and unrecognised, in all living beings. === Sikh view === The monastic [[Sikhism|Sikh]] religion was founded by [[Guru Nanak Dev]], the term "sikh" means student, which denotes that followers will lead their lives forever learning. This system of religious [[philosophy]] and expression has been traditionally known as the [[Gurmat]] (literally ''the counsel of the gurus'') or the Sikh Dharma. The followers of Sikhism are ordained to follow the teachings of the ten [[The Sikh Gurus|Sikh gurus]], or enlightened leaders, as well as the holy scripture entitled the ''[[Guru Granth Sahib|Gurū Granth Sāhib]]'', which includes selected works of many philosophers from diverse socio-economic and religious backgrounds. The Sikh Gurus tell us that salvation can be obtained by following various spiritual paths. Therefore, Sikhs do not have a monopoly on salvation: "The Lord dwells in every heart, and every heart has its own way to reach Him."<ref name="Singh">{{cite book |author=Daljeet Singh |title=Guru Tegh Bahadur |publisher=Language Dept., Punjab |year=1971}}</ref> Sikhs do not consider they have an "exclusive" right to salvation. Sikhs believe that all people are equally important before [[Waheguru|God]].<ref name="Mayled">{{cite book |author=Jon Mayled |title=Modern World Religions: Sikhism |publisher=Harcourt Heinemann |year=2002 |isbn=0435336266}}</ref> Sikhs balance their moral and spiritual values with the quest for knowledge, and they aim to promote a life of peace and equality but also of positive action.<ref>[http://www.sikhcoalition.org The Sikh Coalition]</ref> A key distinctive feature of Sikhism is a non-[[Anthropomorphism#In religions and mythologies|anthropomorphic]] concept of God, to the extent that one can interpret God as the [[Universe]] itself ([[pantheism]]). Sikhism thus sees life as an opportunity to understand this God as well as to discover the divinity which lies in each individual. While a full understanding of God is beyond human beings,<ref name="p252">{{cite book | last=Parrinder | first=Geoffrey | authorlink=Geoffrey Parrinder | year=1971 | title=World Religions: From Ancient History to the Present | publisher=Hamlyn Publishing Group Limited | location=United States | id = ISBN 0-87196-129-6}}</ref> [[Guru Nanak Dev|Nanak]] described God as not wholly unknowable. God is omnipresent (''[[sarav viāpak]]'') in all creation and visible everywhere to the spiritually awakened. Nanak stressed that God must be seen from "the inward eye", or the "heart", of a human being: devotees must [[meditate]] to progress towards enlightenment. Nanak emphasized the revelation through meditation, as its rigorous application permits the existence of communication between God and human beings.<ref name="p252"/> According to Sikhism, every creature has a [[soul]]. In death, the soul passes from one body to another until final [[liberation]]. The journey of the soul is governed by the [[karma]] of the deeds and actions we perform during our lives, and depending on the goodness or wrongdoings committed by a person in their life they will either be rewarded or punished in their [[reincarnation|next life]]. As the spirit of God is found in all life and matter, a soul can be passed onto other life forms, such as plants and insects - not just human bodies. A person who has evolved to achieve spiritual perfection in his lifetimes attains salvation – union with God and liberation from rebirth in the material world. == East Asian religions and philosophy == {{Sectstub|date=May 2008}} [[Image:Yin yang.svg|right|thumb|120px|In Taoism, the ''[[Taijitu]]'' symbolizes the [[unity of opposites]] between yin and yang, described in the theory of the [[Taiji]].]][[Image:Torii.svg|thumb|right|120px|A [[torii]] is a traditional Japanese gate commonly found at the entry to a Shinto shrine.]] {{see|East Asian religions}} === Taoist views === The [[Taoists]] [[cosmogony]] emphasizes the need for all sentient beings and all man to return to the ''primordial'' or to rejoin with the ''Oneness'' of the Universe by way of self-correction and self realization. It is the objective for all adherents to understand and be in tune with the ultimate truth. Within the theology of Taoism, all men were originally a being called yuanling from [[Taiji]] and [[Tao]], the meaning in life for the adherents is to realise the temporal nature of the existence, and all adherents are expected to practise, hone and conduct their mortal lives by way of [[Xiuzhen]] and [[Xiushen]], as a preparation for the spiritual transcendence thereafter. "Only introspection can then help us to find our innermost reasons for living...the simple answer is here within ourselves."<ref name="Ming-Dao">{{cite book |author=Ming-Dao Deng |title=Scholar Warrior: An Introduction to the Tao in Everyday Life |publisher=HarperCollins |year=1990}}</ref> === Shinto views === [[Shinto]] wants life to live, not to die. Shinto sees death as pollution and regards life as the realm where the divine spirit seeks to purify itself by rightful self-development. Shinto wants individual human life to be prolonged forever on earth as a victory of the divine spirit in preserving its objective personality in its highest forms. The presence of evil in the world, as conceived by Shinto, does not stultify the divine nature by imposing on divinity responsibility for being able to relieve human suffering while refusing to do so. The sufferings of life are the sufferings of the divine spirit in search of progress in the objective world.<ref name="Mason">{{cite book |author=J. W. T. Mason |title=The Meaning of Shinto |publisher= Trafford Publishing |year=2002 |isbn=1412245516}}</ref> === Confucian views === [[Confucianism]] recognizes human nature in accordance with the need for discipline and education. Because mankind is driven by both positive and negative influences, Confucianists see a goal in achieving the good nature through strong relationships and reasoning as well as minimizing the negative energy. This emphasis on normal living is seen in the Confucianist scholar [[Tu Wei-Ming]]'s quote, "we can realize the ultimate meaning of life in ordinary human existence."<ref>Tu, Wei-Ming. ''Confucian Thought: Selfhood as Creative Transformation.'' Albany: State University of New York Press, 1985.</ref> == Non-Abrahamic Iranian religions and philosophy == {{Sectstub|date=May 2008}} {{see|Iranian religions|Iranian philosophy}} === Zoroastrian view === Founded by [[Zoroaster]], the [[Zoroastrianism]] message was that humans are responsible for the moral choices they make in a world of both good and evil options. For those who chose good actions, a blissful [[afterlife]] is promised, as well as a return to earth to continue life in a physical form. Those who chose evil actions would be doomed to a hellish [[afterlife]].<ref>Muesse, Mark. Religions of the Axial Age: An Approach to the World's Religions. Lectures at Rhodes College.</ref> == Scientific approaches == <!-- Please do not include single-scientific-theory specific entries in this section. Thank you. --> [[Image:DNA Overview.png|thumb|left|126px|[[DNA]] contains the [[genetics|genetic]] instructions used in the [[developmental biology|development]] and functioning of all known [[life|living organisms]].]] The primary aim of the [[science|scientific]] approach to the meaning of life is to describe the [[empirical]] facts about human existence. Claims that empirical science can shed light on issues such as the meaning of life are highly disputed within the scientific and [[Philosophy of science|philosophy-of-science]] communities, and have been from the very beginning of science. In spite of this, science has provided many theories about the origin of life and the world in which we live, in the areas of [[abiogenesis]] (for the origins of biological life) and [[cosmogony]] (for the origins of the universe). Both of these areas are quite hypothetical; cosmogony because no existing physical model can accurately describe the very early universe (the instant of the [[Big Bang]]),<ref>{{cite book | author = [[Brian Greene]] | title = [[The Fabric of the Cosmos]] | publisher = Alfred A. Knopf | date=2004 | location = New York | | isbn = 0375727205}}</ref> and abiogenesis because the environment of the young earth is still not accurately known, and even though the conditions and chemical processes that may have been present then have been reproduced in a laboratory, to produce organic molecules, those very conditions are still under debate.<ref name="Lahav">{{cite book | author = Noam Lahav | title = Biogenesis: Theories of Life's Origin | publisher = Oxford University Press US | date=1998 | isbn = 0195117557}}</ref><ref name="Brack">{{cite book | author = André Brack | title = The Molecular Origins of Life: Assembling Pieces of the Puzzle | publisher = Cambridge University Press | date=1998 | isbn = 0521564751}}</ref><ref>Günter Wächtershäuser (25 Aug 2000). "[http://ajdubre.tripod.com/Sci-Read-0/y-OriginLife-82500/OriginLifeSci-82500.html Origin of Life: Life as We Don't Know It]", ''Science'', '''289''' (5483) pp. 1307-1308.<!-- G. Wächtershäuser remarks 'It remains to be established whether such conditions are geophysically possible.' --></ref> In addition, some scientists have also explored the human need for meaning and the nature of the mind in discussing the meaning of life. ===Origin and nature of biological life=== The exact mechanisms by which [[abiogenesis|biological life could have originated]] from inanimate matter are unknown, but multiple theories have been posited, including the contemporary [[RNA world hypothesis]]. Some scientists claim life began on [[Earth]] as a [[primeval soup]], while others believe that a more "complete" form of life arrived on our planet through [[panspermia|exogenesis or panspermia]]. The initial mechanisms by which primitive cells were formed notwithstanding, almost all scientific origin theories are contingent upon the [[evolution]] of traits through [[mutation]] and [[natural selection]].<ref>[[Charles Darwin]] (1859). ''[[On the Origin of Species]]''.</ref> Near the end of the 20th century, equipped with insights from the [[gene-centered view of evolution]], biologists such as [[George C. Williams]], [[Richard Dawkins]] and [[David Haig (biologist)|David Haig]], to name a few, have suggested that insofar as there may be a primary function to life, it may be the survival of [[genes]]; following this approach, success is not measured in terms of the survival of species, but rather in terms of the successful replication of genes.<ref name="Dawkins selfish gene">{{cite book |author=[[Richard Dawkins]] |title=[[The Selfish Gene]] |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1976 |isbn=019857519X}}</ref> [[Image:CMB Timeline75.jpg|right|268px|thumb|A graphical representation of the [[Metric expansion of space|expansion of the universe]] with the [[inflationary epoch]] represented as the dramatic expansion of the [[metric tensor|metric]] seen on the left. Image from [[WMAP]] press release, 2006.]] ===The Big Bang and humanity's fate in this universe=== Though the [[Big Bang]] model was met with much scepticism when first introduced, partially because of a connection to the religious concept of [[creation]], it has become well supported by several independent observations.<ref>{{cite book | author = Helge Kragh | title = Cosmology and Controversy | publisher = Princeton University Press | year = 1996 | isbn=069100546X}}</ref> However, current physics can only describe the early universe from 10<sup>-43</sup> seconds after the Big Bang (where zero time corresponds to infinite temperature), a theory of [[quantum gravity]] would be required to go further back in time. Nevertheless, many physicists have speculated about what would have preceded this limit, and how our universe came into being.<ref name="Prantzos & Lyle">{{cite book |author=Nikos Prantzos; Stephen Lyle |title=Our Cosmic Future: Humanity's Fate in the Universe |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2000 |isbn=052177098X}}</ref> They generally agree amongst themselves that the Big Bang occurred coincidentally, and when considering the [[anthropic principle]], it is most often interpreted as implying the existence of a [[multiverse]].<ref name="Edwards">{{cite book |author=Rem B. Edwards |title=What Caused the Big Bang? |publisher=Rodopi |year=2001 |isbn=9042014075}}</ref> Humanity's fate in this universe appears to be doomed as —even if humanity would survive that long— biological life will eventually become unsustainable, be it through a [[Big Freeze]], [[Big Rip]] or [[Big Crunch]]. It would seem that the only way to survive indefinitely, would be by directing the flow of energy on a cosmic scale and altering the [[ultimate fate of the universe|fate of the universe]].<ref name="Prantzos & Lyle" /> ===Significance and value in life=== Science may or may not be able to tell us what is of [[essential value]] in life, but some studies bear on related questions: Researchers in [[positive psychology]] (and earlier and less rigorously in [[humanistic psychology]]) study factors that lead to [[Contentment|satisfaction]] in our lives. [[Social psychology (psychology)|Social psychology]] examines factors that lead to infants thriving or failing to thrive, and in other areas of [[psychology]] questions of motivation, preference, and what people value. [[Economics|Economists]] have learned a great deal about what is [[Value (economics)|valued]] in the marketplace; and [[sociology]] examines value at a social level using theoretical constructs such as [[Value theory#Sociology|value theory]], norms, [[anomie]], etc. ===Scientific questions about the mind=== The true nature and origin of [[consciousness]] and the [[mind]] itself are also widely debated in science, the [[explanatory gap]] is generally equated with the [[hard problem of consciousness]], and the question of [[free will]] is also considered to be of fundamental importance. These subjects are mostly addressed in the fields of [[cognitive science]], [[neuroscience]] and [[philosophy of mind]], though some [[evolutionary biology|evolutionary biologists]] and [[theoretical physics|theoretical physicists]] have also made several allusions to the subject.<ref name="Whitehouse">{{cite book |author=Harvey Whitehouse |title=The Debated Mind: Evolutionary Psychology Versus Ethnography |publisher=Berg Publishers |year=2001 |isbn=1859734278}}</ref><ref name="Gray">{{cite book |author=[[Jeffrey Alan Gray]] |title=Consciousness: Creeping Up on the Hard Problem |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |isbn=0198520905}}</ref> [[Reductionism|Reductionistic]] and [[eliminative materialism|eliminative materialistic]] approaches, such as the [[Multiple Drafts Model]], hold that consciousness can be wholly explained by neuroscience through the workings of the [[brain]] and its [[neuron]]s, accepting the view of [[biological naturalism]].<ref name="Churchland">{{cite book |author=[[Paul Churchland|Paul M. Churchland]] |title=A Neurocomputational Perspective: The Nature of Mind and the Structure of Science |publisher= MIT Press |year=1989 |isbn=0262531062}}</ref><ref name="Dennett">{{cite book |author=[[Daniel Dennett|Daniel Clement Dennett]] |title=[[Consciousness Explained]] |publisher=Little, Brown and Co. |year=1991 |isbn=0316180661}}</ref><ref name="Block">{{cite book |author=Ned Joel Block |title=Consciousness, Function, and Representation |publisher=MIT Press |year=2007 |isbn=0262026031}}</ref><ref name="Brook & Akins">{{cite book |author=Andrew Brook; Kathleen Akins |title=Cognition and the Brain: The Philosophy and Neuroscience Movement |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2005 |isbn=0521836425}}</ref><ref name="Dehaene">{{cite book |author=Stanislas Dehaene |title=The Cognitive Neuroscience of Consciousness |publisher=MIT Press |year=2001 |isbn=0262541319}}</ref><ref name="Gray" />[[Image:Ascent of the Blessed.jpg|125px|right|thumb|[[Hieronymus Bosch]]'s ''[[Ascent of the Blessed]]'' depicts a tunnel of light and spiritual figures, often described in reports of near-death experiences.]]On the other hand, some scientists, like [[Andrei Linde]], have considered that consciousness, like spacetime, might have its own intrinsic degrees of freedom, and that our perceptions may be as real as (or even more real than) material objects.<ref name="Barrow, Davies, Harper">{{cite book |author=[[John D. Barrow]]; [[Paul Davies|Paul C. W. Davies]]; Charles L. Harper |title=Science and Ultimate Reality: Quantum Theory, Cosmology and Complexity |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2004 |isbn=052183113X}}</ref> [[Hypotheses of consciousness and spacetime]] hold that consciousness exists separated from matter and explain consciousness in describing a "space of conscious elements"<ref name="Barrow, Davies, Harper" />, often encompassing a number of extra dimensions.<ref name="Millay, Heinze">{{cite book |author=Jean Millay; Ruth-Inge Heinze |title=Multidimensional Mind: Remote Viewing in Hyperspace |publisher=North Atlantic Books |year=1999 |isbn=1556433069}}</ref> [[Electromagnetic theories of consciousness]] solve the [[binding problem]] of consciousness in saying that the [[electromagnetic field]] generated by the brain is the actual carrier of conscious experience, there is however disagreement about the implementations of such a theory relating to other workings of the mind.<ref>J. McFadden (2002) "[http://www.mindcontrolforums.com/news/electromagnetic-field-theory-of-consciousness.htm Synchronous Firing and Its Influence on the Brain's Electromagnetic Field: Evidence for an Electromagnetic Field Theory of Consciousness]". ''Journal of Consciousness Studies'' '''9''' (4) pp. 23-50.</ref><ref name="Buccheri & Di Gesù & Saniga">{{cite book |author=R. Buccheri; V. Di Gesù; Metod Saniga |title=Studies on the Structure of Time: From Physics to Psycho(patho)logy |publisher=Springer |year=2000 |isbn=030646439X}}</ref> [[Quantum mind]] theories use [[quantum theory]] in explaining certain properties of the mind. [[Orch-OR]] asserts that a form of [[quantum computer|quantum computation]] is needed in explaining consciousness and specifically the process of [[understanding]], it also proposes that this process is achieved through "objective reduction", orchestrated through the organization of the cell's [[microtubule]]s.<ref name="Penrose">{{cite book |author=[[Roger Penrose]] |title=[[Shadows of the Mind|Shadows of the Mind: A Search for the Missing Science of Consciousness]] |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1994 |isbn=0-19-853978-9}}</ref><ref name="Bruce">{{cite book |author=Alexandra Bruce |title=Beyond the Bleep: The Definitive Unauthorized Guide to What the Bleep Do We Know!? |publisher=The Disinformation Company |year=2005 |isbn=1932857222}}</ref> [[Quantum brain dynamics]] explains consciousness and [[memory]] in the framework of [[quantum field theory]].<ref name="Jibu, Yasue">{{cite book |author=Mari Jibu; Kunio Yasue |title=Quantum brain dynamics and consciousness: an introduction |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company |date=1995 |isbn=1556191839}}</ref> The [[holonomic brain theory]] explains [[perception]] and memory in terms of [[holography|holograms]] and [[holographic data storage]], utilizing wave interference patterns and quantum vectors in doing so.<ref name="Kermanshahi">{{cite book |author=Mohsen Kermanshahi |title=Universal Theory: A Model for the Theory of Everything |publisher=Universal Publishers |date=May 2007 |isbn=1581129432}}</ref> Explaining the process of [[free will]] through [[quantum]] phenomena is a popular alternative to [[determinism]], such postulations may variously relate the free will to [[quantum fluctuation]]s,<ref name="Bohm & Hiley">{{cite book |author=[[David Bohm]]; Basil J. Hiley |title=The Undivided Universe: An Ontological Interpretation of Quantum Theory |publisher=Routledge |year=1993 |isbn=0415065887}}</ref> quantum measurement,<ref name="Bruce" /> quantum potential<ref name="Bohm & Hiley" /> and quantum probability.<ref name="Libet, Freeman, Sutherland">{{cite book |author=Benjamin Libet; Anthony Freeman; Keith Sutherland |title=The Volitional Brain: Towards a Neuroscience of Free Will |publisher=Imprint Academic |year=1999 |isbn=0907845118}}</ref> Based on the premises of non-materialistic explanations of the mind, some have suggested the existence of a [[cosmic consciousness]], asserting that consciousness is actually the "ground of all being".<ref name="Bruce" /><ref name="Ho">{{cite book |author=[[Mae-Wan Ho]] |title=The Rainbow and the Worm: The Physics of Organisms |publisher=World Scientific |year=1998 |pages=pp. 218-231 |isbn=9810234279}}</ref><ref name="Walker">{{cite book |author=[[Evan Harris Walker]] |title=The Physics of Consciousness: The Quantum Mind and the Meaning of Life |publisher=Perseus Books |year=2000 |isbn=0738204366}}</ref> Proponents of this view cite accounts of [[paranormal]] phenomena, such as [[extrasensory perception]]s and [[psychic]] powers, as existence for an [[incorporeal]] [[higher consciousness]]. In hopes of proving the existence of these phenomena, [[Parapsychology|parapsychologists]] have orchestrated various experiments. Meta-analyses of these experiments indicate that the effect size (though very small) has been relatively consistent, resulting in an overall [[statistical significance]].<ref name=Radnin97>{{cite book |last=Radin |first=Dean |authorlink = |title=The Conscious Universe: The Scientific Truth of Psychic Phenomena |publisher=HarperSanFrancisco |date=1997 |isbn=0062515020}}</ref><ref name=Dunne>{{cite journal |last=Dunne |first=Brenda |authorlink= |coauthors=Jahn, Robert G. |title=Does psi exist? Replicable evidence for an anomalous process of information transfer |journal=Journal of Scientific Exploration |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=pp. 207–241 |date=2003 |url=http://www.scientificexploration.org/jse/abstracts/v17n2a1.php |accessdate=2007-07-31}}</ref><ref name=Dunne85>{{cite journal |last=Dunne |first=Brenda J. |authorlink= |coauthors=Jahn, Robert G. |title=On the quantum mechanics of consciousness, with application to anomalous phenomena |journal=Foundations of Physics |volume=16 |issue=8 |pages=pp. 721–772 |date=1985 |url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/vtrr87tg356154r7/ |doi=10.1007/BF00735378|accessdate=2007-07-31}}</ref> Although some critical analysts feel that parapsychological study is [[scientific]], they are not satisfied with its experimental results.<ref name=Alcock03>{{cite journal |last=Alcock |first=James E. |authorlink= |coauthors=Jahn, Robert G. |title=Give the Null Hypothesis a Chance |journal=Journal of Consciousness Studies |volume=10 |issue=6-7 |pages=pp. 29–50 |date=2003 |url=http://www.imprint.co.uk/pdf/Alcock-editorial.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-07-30}}</ref><ref name=Hyman>{{cite journal |last=Hyman |first=Ray |title=Evaluation of the program on anomalous mental phenomena |journal=The Journal of Parapsychology |volume=59 |issue=1 |date=1995 |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2320/is_n4_v59/ai_18445600 |accessdate=2007-07-30}}</ref> Skeptical reviewers contend that apparently successful experimental results are more likely due to sloppy procedures, poorly trained researchers, or methodological flaws than to actual effects.<ref name=Akers>{{cite paper |author=Akers, C. |title=Methodological Criticisms of Parapsychology, Advances in Parapsychological Research 4 |publisher=PesquisaPSI |date=1986 |url=http://www.pesquisapsi.com/books/advances4/7_Methodological_Criticisms.html |accessdate=2007-07-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite paper |author=Child, I.L. |title=Criticism in Experimental Parapsychology, Advances in Parapsychological Research 5 |publisher=PesquisaPSI |date=1987 |url= http://www.pesquisapsi.com/books/advances5/6_Criticism_in_Experimental.html |accessdate=2007-07-30 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Wiseman |first=Richard |authorlink= |coauthors=Smith, Matthew, et al. |title=Exploring possible sender-to-experimenter acoustic leakage in the PRL autoganzfeld experiments - Psychophysical Research Laboratories |journal=The Journal of Parapsychology |date=1996 |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2320/is_n2_v60/ai_18960809 |accessdate=2007-07-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Lobach |first=E. |coauthors=Bierman, D. |title=The Invisible Gaze: Three Attempts to Replicate Sheldrake's Staring Effects |work=Proceedings of the 47th PA Convention |url=http://www.parapsych.org/papers/07.pdf |date=2004 |pages=pp. 77–90 |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-07-30}}</ref> == Popular views == <!--Please do not add 42 in this section. It is covered under the section titled "Popular culture treatments". Thank you.--> "What is the meaning of life?" is a question many people ask themselves at some point during their lives, most in the context "What is the purpose of life?"<ref name="WITMOL" /> Here are some of the life goals people choose, and some of their beliefs on what the purpose of life is: === ...to realize one's potential and ideals === <!--views specificly treating one ideal are found in the sections below--> * ...to chase dreams.<ref name="Seaman" /><br>...to live one's dreams.<ref name="Ellerton" /> * ...to spend it for something that will outlast it.<ref name="Cook" /> * ...to matter: to count, to stand for something, to have made some difference that you lived at all.<ref name="Cook" /> * ...to expand one's potential in life.<ref name="Ellerton" /> * ...to become the person you've always wanted to be.<ref name="Chandler">{{cite book |author=Steve Chandler |title=Reinventing Yourself: How to Become the Person You've Always Wanted to Be |publisher=Career Press |year=2005 |isbn=1564148173}}</ref> * ...to become the best version of yourself.<ref name="Kelly" /> * ...to seek happiness<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lee |first=Dong Yul |coauthors=Park, Sung Hee; Uhlemann, Max R.; Patsult, Philip |title =What Makes You Happy?: A Comparison of Self-reported Criteria of Happiness Between Two Cultures |journal=Social Indicators Research |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=pp. 351–362 |date=June 2000 |url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/q5m68401859l2320/ |doi=10.1023/A:1004647517069 |accessdate=2007-07-26}}</ref><ref>[https://portal.acm.org/poplogin.cfm?dl=GUIDE&coll=GUIDE&comp_id=320261&want_href=delivery%2Ecfm%3Fid%3D320261%26type%3Dpdf%26CFID%3D28988131%26CFTOKEN%3D50367582&CFID=28988131&CFTOKEN=50367582&td=1184895603779 Social perspectives], [[Association for Computing Machinery#Digital_Library|ACM Digital Library]]</ref> and flourish.<ref name="Baggini" /> * ...to be a true authentic human being.<ref name="Kultgen">{{cite book |author=John Kultgen |title=Autonomy and Intervention: Parentalism in the Caring Life |publisher=Oxford University Press US |year=1995 |isbn=0195085310}}</ref> * ...to be able to put the whole of oneself into one's feelings, one's work, one's beliefs.<ref name="Cook" /> * ...to follow our destiny.<ref name="Cappannelli" /><br>...to submit to our destiny.<ref name="West" /> * ...to create your own destiny.<ref name="Madorsky">{{cite book |author=Rachel Madorsky |title=Create Your Own Destiny!: Spiritual Path to Success |publisher=Avanty House |year=2003 |isbn=0970534949}}</ref> === ...to achieve biological perfection === * ...to survive,<ref>{{cite web |last=Lopez |first=Mike |title=Episode III: Relativism? A Jedi craves not these things |work=The Michigan Daily |date=September 22, 1999 |url=http://www.pub.umich.edu/daily/1999/sep/09-22-99/edit/edit2.html |accessdate=2007-07-26}}</ref> that is, to live as long as possible,<ref>{{cite book |last=Lovatt |first=Stephen C. |title=New Skins for Old Wine |publisher=Universal Publishers |date=2007 |pages=The Meaning of Life |url=http://homepage.ntlworld.com/pharseas.world/Life.html |isbn=1581129602}}</ref> including pursuit of [[immortality]] (through scientific means).<ref name="Kurweil & Grossmann">{{cite book |author=[[Raymond Kurzweil]]; [[Terry Grossman]] |title=[[Fantastic Voyage: Live Long Enough to Live Forever]] [http://www.fantastic-voyage.net/] |publisher=Holtzbrinck Publishers |date=2004 |isbn=1-57954-954-3}}</ref><br>...to [[Indefinite lifespan|live forever]]<ref name="Kurweil & Grossmann" /> or die [[Life extension|trying]].<ref name="Appleyard">{{cite book |author=Bryan Appleyard |title=How to Live Forever Or Die Trying: On the New Immortality |publisher=Simon & Schuster |year=2007 |isbn=0743268687}}</ref> * ...to evolve.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cameron |first=Donald |title=The Purpose of Life |publisher=Woodhill Publishing |date=2001 |url=http://www.woodhillpublishing.co.uk/ |isbn=0-9540291-0-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Wayne |first=Larry |coauthors=Johnson, Grace |title=Expanding The Oneness |work=SelfGrowth.com |url=http://www.selfgrowth.com/articles/Johnston7.html |accessdate=2007-07-26}}</ref> * ...to replicate, to reproduce.<ref name="Seaman">{{cite book |author=David Seaman |title=The Real Meaning of Life |publisher=New World Library |year=2005 |isbn=1577315146}}</ref> "The 'dream' of every cell is to become two cells."<ref name="Lane">{{cite book |author=[[Nick Lane]] |title=Power, Sex, Suicide: Mitochondria and the Meaning of Life |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2005 |isbn=0192804812}}</ref><ref name="Weiss & Buchanan">{{cite book |author=Kenneth M. Weiss; Anne V. Buchanan |title=Genetics and the Logic of Evolution |publisher=Wiley-IEEE |year=2004 |isbn=0471238058}}</ref><ref name="Ackerman">{{cite book |author=Jennifer Ackerman |title=Chance in the House of Fate: A Natural History of Heredity |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Books |year=2001 |isbn=0618219099}}</ref><ref name="Rensberger">{{cite book |author=Boyce Rensberger |title=Life Itself: Exploring the Realm of the Living Cell |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1996 |isbn=0195125002}}</ref> *...to be fruitful and multiply.<ref name="Burke">{{cite book |author=Thomas Patrick Burke |title=The Major Religions: An Introduction with Texts |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |year=2004 |isbn=140511049X}}</ref> ({{bibleverse||Genesis|1:28}}) === ...to seek wisdom and knowledge === [[Image:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 038-crop.jpg|thumb|150px|right|''Philosopher in Meditation'' (detail) by [[Rembrandt]]]] * ...to expand one's perception of the world.<ref name="Ellerton">{{cite book |author=Roger Ellerton PhD, CMC |title=Live Your Dreams... Let Reality Catch Up: NLP and Common Sense for Coaches, Managers and You |publisher=Trafford Publishing |year=2006 |isbn=1412047099}}</ref> * ...to follow the clues and walk out the exit.<ref name="Chris Grau">{{cite book |author=Chris Grau |title=Philosophers Explore the Matrix |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2005 |isbn=9780195181074}}</ref> * ...to learn as many things as possible in life.<ref name="Cooper & Hutchinson">{{cite book |author=John M. Cooper; D. S. Hutchinson |title=Plato: Complete Works |publisher=Hackett Publishing |year=1997 |isbn=0-87220-349-2}}</ref><br>...to know as much as possible about as many things as possible.<ref name="Findling & Thackeray">{{cite book |author=John E. Findling, Frank W. Thackeray |title=Events That Changed the World Through the Sixteenth Century |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=2001 |isbn=0313290792}}</ref> * ...to seek [[wisdom]] and [[knowledge]] and to tame the [[mind]], as to avoid [[suffering]] caused by [[ignorance]] and find [[happiness]].<ref name="Dalai Lama">{{cite book |author=[[Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama]] |title=The Meaning of Life: Buddhist Perspectives on Cause and Effect |publisher=Doubleday |year=1954}}</ref> * ...to face our [[fear]]s and accept the [[lesson]]s life offers us.<ref name="Cappannelli">{{cite book |author=George Cappannelli; Sedena Cappannelli |title=Authenticity: Simple Strategies for Greater Meaning and Purpose at Work and at Home |publisher=Emmis Books |year=2004 |isbn=1578601487}}</ref> * ...to find the meaning of life.<ref name="Simmons">{{cite book |author=Ernest Joseph Simmons |title=Tolstoy |publisher=Routledge |year=1973 |isbn=071007395X}}</ref><br>...to find the purpose of life.<ref name="Bowell">{{cite book |author=Richard A. Bowell |title=The Seven Steps Of Spiritual Intelligence: The Practical Pursuit of Purpose, Success and Happiness |publisher=Nicholas Brealey Publishing |year=2004 |isbn=1857883446}}</ref><br>...to find a reason to live.<ref name="Gibbs & Basinger & Fuller">{{cite book |author=John C. Gibbs; Karen S. Basinger; Dick Fuller |title=Moral Maturity: Measuring the Development of Sociomoral Reflection |publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates |year=1992 |isbn=0805804250}}</ref> * ...to resolve the imbalance of the mind by understanding the nature of reality.<ref name="Tang">{{cite book |author=Timothy Tang |title=Real Answers to The Meaning of Life and Finding Happiness |publisher=iUniverse |year=2007 |isbn=9780595459414}}</ref> === ...to do good, to do the right thing === * ...to leave the world a better place than you found it.<ref name="Seaman" /><br>...to do your best to leave every situation better than you found it.<ref name="Seaman" /> * ...to benefit others.<ref name="Hua" /> * ...to give more than you take.<ref name="Seaman" /> * ...to end suffering.<ref name="Roberts">{{cite book |author=Tyler T. Roberts |title=Contesting Spirit: Nietzsche, Affirmation, Religion |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1998 |isbn=0691001278}}</ref><ref name="Costigan">{{cite book |author=Lucy Costigan |title=What Is the Meaning of Your Life: A Journey Towards Ultimate Meaning |publisher=iUniverse |year=2004 |isbn=0595338801}}</ref><ref name="Jeffers & Smith">{{cite book |author=Steven L. Jeffers; Harold Ivan Smith |title=Finding a Sacred Oasis in Grief: A Resource Manual for Pastoral Care |publisher=Radcliffe Publishing |year=2007 |isbn=1846191815}}</ref> * ...to create equality.<ref name="Jeffrey">{{cite book |author=David L. Jeffrey |title=A Dictionary of Biblical Tradition in English Literature |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |year=1992 |isbn=0802836348}}</ref><ref name="Williams">{{cite book |author=Dana A. Williams |title="In the Light of Likeness-transformed": The Literary Art of Leon Forrest |publisher=Ohio State University Press |year=2005 |isbn=0814209947}}</ref><ref name="Muller">{{cite book |author=Jerry Z. Muller |title=Conservatism: An Anthology of Social and Political Thought from David Hume to the Present |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1997 |isbn=0691037116}}</ref> * ...to challenge oppression.<ref name="Nash & Stewart">{{cite book |author=Mary Nash; Bruce Stewart |title=Spirituality and Social Care: Contributing to Personal and Community Well-being |publisher=Jessica Kingsley Publishers |year=2002 |isbn=184310024X}}</ref> * ...to distribute wealth.<ref name="Yao">{{cite book |author=Xinzhong Yao |title=An Introduction to Confucianism |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2000 |isbn=0521644305}}</ref><ref name="Turner & Rojek">{{cite book |author=Bryan S. Turner; Chris Rojek |title=Society and Culture: Principles of Scarcity and Solidarity |publisher=SAGE |year=2001 |isbn=0761970495}}</ref> * ...to be generous.<ref name="Goonewardene">{{cite book |author=Anil Goonewardene |title=Buddhist Scriptures |publisher=Harcourt Heinemann |year=1994 |isbn=0435303554}}</ref><ref name="Ferry">{{cite book |author=Luc Ferry |title=Man Made God: The Meaning of Life |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2002 |isbn=0226244849}}</ref> * ...to contribute to the well-being and spirit of others.<ref name="Stephan & Pace">{{cite book |author=Eric G. Stephan; R. Wayne Pace |title=Powerful Leadership: How to Unleash the Potential in Others and Simplify Your Own Life |publisher=FT Press |year=2002 |isbn=0130668362}}</ref> * ...to help others,<ref name="Baggini" /><ref name="Ferry" /> to help one another.<ref name="Steinberg">{{cite book |name=Dominique Moyse Steinberg|title=The Mutual-aid Approach to Working with Groups: Helping People Help One Another |publisher=Haworth Press |date=2004 |isbn=0789014629}}</ref><br>...to take every chance to help another while on your journey here.<ref name="Seaman" /> * ...to be creative and innovative.<ref name="Stephan & Pace" /> * ...to forgive.<ref name="Seaman" /><br>...to accept and forgive human flaws.<ref name="Caunt">{{cite book |author=John Caunt |title=Boost Your Self-Esteem |publisher=Kogan Page |year=2002 |isbn=0749438711}}</ref> * ...to be emotionally sincere.<ref name="Cook">{{cite book |author=John Cook |title=The Book of Positive Quotations |publisher=Fairview Press |year=2007 |isbn=1577491696}}</ref> * ...to be responsible.<ref name="Cook" /> * ...to be honorable.<ref name="Cook" /> * ...to seek peace.<ref name="Cook" /> [[Image:Paradiso Canto 31.jpg|thumb|150px|Dante and Beatrice see God as a point of light surrounded by angels; from [[Gustave Doré]]'s illustrations for the ''[[Divine Comedy]]'']] === ...to attain spiritual enlightenment === * ...to reach the highest heaven and be at the heart of the Divine.<ref name="Halevi">{{cite book |author=[[Z'ev ben Shimon Halevi]] |title=The Work of the Kabbalist |publisher=Weiser |year=1993 |isbn=087728637X}}</ref> * ...to have a pure soul and experience God.<ref name="Cook" /> * ...to understand the mystery of God.<ref name="Cappannelli" /> * ...to know God.<ref name="Girard">{{cite book |author=Michael Joachim Girard |title=Essential Believing for the Christian Soul |publisher=Xulon Press |year=2006 |isbn=1597815969}}</ref> * ...to know oneself, know others, and know the will of heaven.<ref name="Mahadevan">{{cite book |author=T. M. P. Mahadevan |title=Philosophy: Theory and Practice (Proceedings of the International Seminar on World Philosophy) |publisher=Centre for Advanced Study in Philosophy, University of Madras |year=1974}}</ref> * ...to attain union with God.<ref name="Kashmir Shaivism">{{cite book |author=Jaideva Singh |title=Vijñanabhairava|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=2003 |isbn=8120808207}}</ref> === ...to love, to feel, to enjoy the act of living === * ...to love more.<ref name="Seaman" /> * ...to love those who mean the most. Every life you touch will touch you back.<ref name="Seaman" /> * ...to treasure every enjoyable sensation one has.<ref name="Seaman" /> * ...to seek [[beauty]] in all its forms.<ref name="Seaman" /> * ...to have fun.<ref name="Stephan & Pace" /><br>...to enjoy life.<ref name="Cappannelli" /> * ...to seek pleasure<ref name="Cook" /> and avoid pain.<ref name="Mitchell">{{cite book |author=T. W. Mitchell |title=Problems in Psychopathology |publisher=Harcourt, Brace & company, inc. |year=1927}}</ref> * ...to be compassionate.<ref name="Cook" /> * ...to be moved by the tears and pain of others, and try to help them out of love and compassion.<ref name="Seaman" /> * ...to love others as best we possibly can.<ref name="Seaman" /> * ...to love something bigger, greater, and beyond ourselves, something we did not create or have the power to create, something intangible and made holy by our very belief in it.<ref name="Seaman" /> * ...to love God<ref name="Girard" /> and all of his creations.<ref name="Scully">{{cite book |author=John T. Scully |title=The Five Commandments |publisher=Trafford Publishing |year=2007 |isbn=1425119107}}</ref> * ...to glorify God by enjoying him forever.<ref name="Piper">{{cite book |author=John Piper |title=Desiring God |publisher=Multnomah Books |year=2006 |isbn=1590521196}}</ref> === ...to have power, to be better === * ...to [[will to power|strive for power]]<ref name="Reginster" /> and superiority.<ref name="Mitchell" /> * ...to rule the world.<ref name="West">{{cite book |author=John G. West |title=Celebrating Middle-Earth: The Lord of the Rings as a Defense of Western Civilization |publisher=Inkling Books |year=2002 |isbn=1587420120}}</ref> * ...to know and master the world.<ref name="Harrison">{{cite book |author=Peter Harrison |title=The Bible, Protestantism, and the Rise of Natural Science |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |isbn=0521000963}}</ref><ref name="Dillon">{{cite book |author=Steven Dillon |title=The Solaris Effect: Art and Artifice in Contemporary American Film |publisher=University of Texas Press |year=2006 |isbn=0292713452}}</ref><br>...to know and master nature.<ref name="Aron">{{cite book |author=Raymond Aron |title=The Century of Total War |publisher=Wisdom Publications |year=2000 |isbn=0861711734}}</ref> * ...to fill the Earth and subdue it.<ref name="Burke" /> ({{bibleverse||Genesis|1:28}}) === One should not search for the meaning of life === * The answer to the meaning of life is too profound to be known and understood.<ref name="Tang" /> * You will never live if you are looking for the meaning of life.<ref name="Seaman" /> * The meaning of life is to forget about the search for the meaning of life.<ref name="Seaman" /> * One should live the life given to you instead. === Life has no meaning === * Life or human existence has no real meaning or purpose because human existence occurred out of a random chance in nature, and anything that exists by chance has no intended purpose.<ref name="Tang" /> * Life has no meaning, but as humans we try to associate a meaning or purpose so we can justify our existence.<ref name="Seaman" /> * There is no point in life, and that is exactly what makes it so special.<ref name="Seaman" /> * Life is a bitch, and then you die.<ref name="Chandler" /> * Life sucks and in the end you die.<ref name="Nash & Stewart" /> ==Popular culture treatments== The mystery of life and its meaning is an often recurring subject in [[popular culture]], featured in [[mass media|entertainment media]] and [[the arts|various forms]] of [[art]], and more specifically in [[music]], [[literature]] and [[visual arts]], for example: *in songs like [[The Offspring]]'s "[[The Meaning of Life (The Offspring song)|The Meaning of Life]]", [[Nas]]' "[[Life's a Bitch (song)|Life's a Bitch]]", [[Kiss (band)|Kiss]]' "[[Reason to Live]]", [[George Harrison]]'s "[[All Things Must Pass (song)|All Things Must Pass]]" and "[[What Is Life]]", [[Frank Sinatra]]'s "[[That's Life (song)|That's Life]]" and "[[If You Are but a Dream]]", [[Eric Idle]]'s "[[Always Look on the Bright Side of Life]]", [[Bobby McFerrin]]'s "[[Don't Worry, Be Happy]]", [[Evanescence]]'s "[[Bring Me to Life]]" and "[[Sweet Sacrifice]]", [[Nelly Furtado]]'s "[[All Good Things (Come To An End)]]" and "[[In God's Hands (song)|In God's Hands]]", [[30 Seconds to Mars]]' "[[A Beautiful Lie (song)|A Beautiful Lie]]", [[Good Charlotte]]'s "[[I Just Wanna Live]]" and "[[The Chronicles of Life and Death]]", [[Linkin Park]]'s "[[In the End]]" and "[[Breaking the Habit]]" and [[Creed]]'s "[[What's This Life For]]"; *in books like [[A. C. Grayling|Anthony C. Grayling]]'s ''[[The Meaning of Things]]'', [[Viktor Frankl]]'s ''[[Man's Search for Meaning]]'', [[Robert Nozick]]'s ''[[Philosophical Explanations]]'' and ''[[The Examined Life]]'', [[Ken Wilber]]'s ''[[Sex, Ecology, Spirituality]]'', [[Julian Baggini]]'s ''What's it All About? Philosophy and the Meaning of Life'', [[Rick Warren]]'s ''[[The Purpose Driven Life]]'', [[Norman O. Brown]]'s ''[[Life Against Death: The Psychoanalytic Meaning of History]]'', [[Oswald Spengler]]'s ''[[The Decline of the West]]'', [[Daniel Dennett]]'s ''[[Darwin's Dangerous Idea|Darwin's Dangerous Idea: Evolution and the Meanings of Life]]'', [[Richard Dawkins]]' ''[[Unweaving the Rainbow]]'' and ''[[River out of Eden]]'' and [[Alister McGrath]]'s ''[[Dawkins' God: Genes, Memes, and the Meaning of Life]]''; *and in paintings like [[Paul Gauguin]]'s ''[[Where Do We Come From? What Are We? Where Are We Going?]]'', [[Edvard Munch]]'s ''[[The Scream]]'', [[John Martin (painter)|John Martin]]'s ''[[The End of the World (painting)|The End of the World]]'', [[Hieronymus Bosch]]'s ''[[Ascent of the Blessed]]'' and ''[[The Seven Deadly Sins and the Four Last Things]]'', [[Hans Memling]]'s ''[[The Last Judgment (Memling)|The Last Judgment]]'' triptych and [[Thomas Cole]]'s ''[[The Voyage of Life]]'' series. <center><gallery> Image:Cole Thomas The Voyage of Life Childhood 1842.jpg|''[[The Voyage of Life]]<br>Childhood'' Image:Cole Thomas The Voyage of Life Youth 1842.jpg|''[[The Voyage of Life]]<br>Youth'' Image:Cole Thomas The Voyage of Life Manhood 1840.jpg|''[[The Voyage of Life]]<br>Manhood'' Image:Cole Thomas The Voyage of Life Old Age 1842.jpg|''[[The Voyage of Life]]<br>Old Age'' </gallery></center> [[Image:Answer to Life.png|thumb|right|150px|The Ultimate Answer to Life, The Universe and Everything in ''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy'' and illustration of the bizarre and humorous nature of the universe described in Douglas Adams' series]] In [[Douglas Adams]]' popular comedy book series ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'', the [[Answer to Life, the Universe, and Everything|Answer to the Ultimate Question of Life, the Universe and Everything]] has the numeric solution of [[42 (number)|42]], which was derived over seven and a half million years by a giant [[supercomputer]] called [[Minor characters from The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy#Deep Thought|Deep Thought]]. After much confusion from the descendants of his creators, Deep Thought explains that the problem is that they do not know the [[Ultimate Question]]<ref name="Baggini" />, and they would have to build an even more powerful computer to determine what that is. This computer is revealed to be [[Earth]], which, after 10 million years of calculating, is destroyed to make way for a [[galaxy|galactic]] [[bypass]] moments before it finishes calculations.<ref name="Adams H2G2 book1">{{cite book|title=[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (book)|The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]|author=[[Douglas Adams]]|published=1979|isbn=0-330-25864-8}}</ref><ref name="Yeffeth" /><ref name="Badke" /> In ''[[Life, the Universe and Everything]]'', it is confirmed that 42 is indeed the Ultimate Answer, and that it is impossible for both the Ultimate Answer and the Ultimate Question to be known about in the same universe, as they will cancel each other out and take the universe with them, to be replaced by something even more bizarre, and that this may have already happened.<ref name="Adams H2G2 book3">{{cite book|isbn=0-330-26738-8|title=[[Life, the Universe and Everything]]|author=[[Douglas Adams]]|published=1982}}</ref> Subsequently, in the hopes that his [[subconscious]] holds the question, [[Arthur Dent]] guesses at question, coming up with "What do you get when you multiply six by nine?", probably an incorrect guess, as the arrival of the [[Minor characters from The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy#Golgafrinchans|Golgafrinchans]] on prehistoric Earth would have disrupted the computation process.<ref name="Adams H2G2 book2">{{cite book|title=[[The Restaurant at the End of the Universe]]|author=[[Douglas Adams]]|date=1 January 1980|isbn=0-345-39181-0}}</ref> However, Dent, [[Minor characters from The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy#Fenchurch|Fenchurch]], and a dying [[Marvin the Paranoid Android|Marvin]] did see God's final message to his creation: "We apologise for the inconvenience".<ref name="Adams H2G2 book4">{{cite book|isbn=0-330-28700-1|title=[[So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish]]|author=[[Douglas Adams]]|published=1984}}</ref> In ''[[Monty Python's The Meaning of Life]]'', there are several allusions to the meaning of life. In "Part VI B: The Meaning of Life" a cleaning lady explains "Life's a game, you sometimes win or lose" and later a waiter describes his personal philosophy "The world is a beautiful place. You must go into it, and love everyone, not hate people. You must try and make everyone happy, and bring peace and contentment everywhere you go."<ref name="useless website">[http://www.intriguing.com/mp/_scripts/meanlife.asp Monty Python's Completely Useless Web Site: Monty Python's The Meaning Of Life: Complete Script]</ref> At the end of the film, we can see [[Michael Palin]] being handed an envelope, he opens it, and provides the viewers with 'the meaning of life': "Well, it's nothing very special. Uh, try to be nice to people, avoid eating fat, read a good book every now and then, get some walking in, and try to live together in peace and harmony with people of all creeds and nations."<ref name="useless website" /><ref name="Burnham">{{cite book |author=Terry Burnham |title=Mean Markets and Lizard Brains: How to Profit from the New Science of Irrationality |publisher=John Wiley and Sons |year=2005 |isbn=0471716952}}</ref><ref name="Fernandez">{{cite book |author=Yolanda Fernandez |title=In Their Shoes: Examining the Issue of Empathy and Its Place in the Treatment of Offenders |publisher=Wood 'N' Barnes Publishing |year=2002 |isbn=1885473486}}</ref> In ''[[The Simpsons]]'' episode "[[Homer the Heretic]]", a representation of God tells Homer what the meaning of life is, but as usual the one who really wanted to know (the viewer) is left disappointed. The dialogue goes as follows: :'''Homer:''' God, what's the meaning of life? :'''God:''' Homer, I can't tell you that. :'''Homer:''' Why not? :'''God:''' You'll find out when you die. :'''Homer:''' Oh, I can't wait that long. :'''God:''' You can't wait 6 months? :'''Homer:''' No, tell me now... :'''God:''' Oh, OK... The meaning of life is... :At this point, the credits music starts and the show ends, interrupting God's explanation to humorous effect. At the end of ''[[The Matrix Revolutions]]'', [[Agent Smith|Smith]] concludes that "the purpose of life is to end" and is determined to move that purpose along.<ref name="Lawrence">{{cite book|author=Matt Lawrence|title=Like a Splinter in Your Mind: The Philosophy Behind the Matrix Trilogy|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|year=2004|isbn=1405125241}}</ref> The crew of the [[Red Dwarf]] is captured in [[The Inquisitor (Red Dwarf episode)|episode 2 of season 5]] by a powerful being called [[Red Dwarf characters#Simulants|The Inquisitor]], a self-repairing simulant who survived until the end of time and, coming to the conclusion that there is no god and no [[afterlife]], decided that the only point of life was to make something of yourself. The Inquisitor then proceeds to put each of the Red Dwarf misfits on trial and forces them to justify their existence. Failure to do so will result in a sentence of being erased from history. In ''[[Peanuts]]'', Charlie Brown explains he thinks the purpose of life is to make others happy, to which Lucy responds that she doesn't think she is making anyone happy, and—more importantly—no one is making her happy, so someone isn't doing their job, eventually she asks him "You say we're put on this earth to make others happy? ... What are the others put here for?"<ref name="Pregnant">[http://mypregnantpauses.blogspot.com/2007/08/charlie-lucy.html Pregnant Pauses: Charlie & Lucy]</ref> On several other occasions, Charlie has asserted several other things in relation to life and its meaning: "In the book of life, the answers aren't in the back."<ref name="Pregnant" /><ref>[http://www.allgreatquotes.com/charlie_brown_quotes.shtml AllGreatQuotes: Charlie Brown Quotes]</ref>, "That's the secret to life... replace one worry with another."<ref name="Pregnant" /><ref>[http://www.quotationspage.com/quote/14129.html Quote Details: Charles M. Schulz: That's the secret to life... replace one worry with another....]</ref>, "Happiness is anyone and anything at all that's loved by you."<ref>[http://www.hamienet.com/lyrics90055.html HamieNET.com [You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown<nowiki>]</nowiki> Happiness Lyrics]</ref> and "Life is like an ice cream cone...you have to lick it one day at a time."<ref>[http://www.quotationspage.com/quote/14129.html Quote Details: Charles M. Schulz: Life is like an ice cream cone...you have to lick it one day at a time.]</ref> Lucy has also declared "Life is too short to waste it listening to some person who doesn't know when to shut up! Time is too valuable!"<ref name="Pregnant" /> and "All you really need is love, but a little chocolate now and then doesn't hurt."<ref name="Pregnant" /><ref>[http://www.allgreatquotes.com/lucy_van_pelt_quotes.shtml AllGreatQuotes: Lucy Van Pelt Quotes]</ref> In ''[[Bill and Ted's Bogus Journey]]'', Bill and Ted end up meeting God. Before being admitted into his presence, [[St. Peter]] (billed as The Gatekeeper on [[Internet Movie Database|IMDb]]) asks them what the meaning of life is, and they reply with the lyrics to the song "[[Every Rose Has Its Thorn]]" by [[Poison (band)|Poison]]. ''[[The Alchemist (novel)|The Alchemist]]'' and the movie ''[[City Slickers]]'' both present the meaning of life as an individual journey to find one's own "path". In this context, the "path", similar to what is defined in Buddhism as the [[Four Noble Truths|4th Noble Truth]]: the [[Eightfold Path]], is best explained simply as ''the overall way one chooses to lead their life''. In ''[[A Man Without a Country]]'', author [[Kurt Vonnegut]] sums up life with the words: "We're all here to fart around. Don't let anyone tell you any different!". In Vonnegut's novel ''[[Breakfast of Champions]]'', "To be the eyes and ears and conscience of the Creator of the Universe, you fool." is [[Kilgore Trout]]'s unwritten reply to the question "What is the purpose of life?" A quotation by [[Anton Chekhov]] states "You ask "What is life?" That is the same as asking "What is a carrot?" A carrot is a carrot and we know nothing more."<ref>[http://www.enotes.com/famous-quotes/you-ask-what-is-life-that-is-the-same-as-asking Chekhov Quote: You ask "What is life?" That is the same as asking "What is a carrot?" A carrot is a carrot and we know nothing more.]</ref> In [[William Shakespeare]]'s ''[[Hamlet]]'', [[Prince Hamlet]] states: "[[To be, or not to be|To be or not to be]], that is the question." And in the play ''[[Macbeth]]'', Macbeth, in his darkest hours, proclaims: "Life's but a walking shadow, a poor player, that struts and frets his hour upon the stage, and then is heard no more. It is a tale told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, signifying nothing." In ''[[Dune (novel)|Dune]]'', a seminal science fiction novel by [[Frank Herbert]], the meaning of life is defined as "not a question to be answered, but a reality to be experienced". == See also == <!-- Please insert links in alphabetical order and avoid repeating from the text above any but the most on-topic links. Thank you. --> {{wiktionary|meaning of life}} {{portalpar|Personal life}} {{portalpar|Philosophy}} {{col-begin|width=auto}} {{col-break|width=400}} === Origin and nature of life and reality === * [[Awareness]] * [[Being]] * [[Entropy]] ** [[Entropy and life]] ** [[Self-organization]] * [[Evolution]] ** [[Evolutionary psychology]] ** [[Gene-centered view of evolution]] * [[Existence]] * [[Life]] ** [[Abiogenesis]] &ndash; the origins of biological life ** [[Biosemiotics]] * [[Logos]] * [[Nature]] ** [[Metaphysical naturalism]] ** [[Teleology]] * [[Perception]] * [[Reality]] ** [[Cosmos]] *** [[Cosmogony]] ** [[Multiverse]] ** [[Omniverse]] ** [[Simulated reality]] ** [[Universe]] *** [[Big bang]] *** [[Ultimate fate of the universe]] {{col-break|width=300}} === Significance of life === * [[History]] * [[Semiotics]] === Value in and of life === * [[Culture of life]] * [[Bioethics]] * [[Pro-life]] versus [[Pro-choice]] * [[Quality of life]] * [[Right to life]] versus [[Right to die]] * [[Value of life]] === Purpose of life === * [[Purpose]] * [[Destiny]] * [[Ethical living]] * [[Intentional living]] * [[Life extension]] * [[Simple living]] * [[Sustainable living]] === Miscellaneous === * [[Ideology]] * [[Life stance]] * [[Perennial philosophy]] &ndash; the universal recurrence of philosophical principles * [[World riddle]] * [[World view]] {{col-end}} == References == {{reflist|3}} == External links == === General === * [http://www.meaningsoflife.com/ Meaningsoflife.com] * [http://meaningoflife.tv/ Meaningsoflife.tv] &ndash; Video discussions on the ultimate meaning of life with various religious and philosophical leaders. * [http://yudkowsky.net/tmol-faq/meaningoflife.html Frequently Asked Questions about the Meaning of Life] * [http://onemancan.ca/2007/11/25/gods-will-meaning-life-love/ God's Will and The Meaning of Life: Creation is Love] &ndash; A highly-trafficked blog-post which suggests simplifying and synthesizing the possibility of science and spiritual teachings being accurate... and then some. <!-- * [http://sysopmind.com/tmol-faq/tmol-faq.html The FAQ of life] &ndash; by [[Eliezer S. Yudkowsky]], [[Transhumanism|transhumanist]] &ndash; dead link, temporarily dead? Needs further checking. --> * [http://www.rapidtables.com/tmol/index.htm The Meaning of Life and other questions] * [http://users.aristotle.net/~diogenes/meaning1.htm The Meaning of Life (or, What's it all about?)] Lets step back a moment... Why do you want to know the meaning of life? * [http://www.scienceofsoulmates.com/meaning.htm Soulmates as The Meaning of Life] * [http://www.theonequestion.com/ The One Question] &ndash; Free articles, exercises and tests on discovering purpose in life. === Scientific === <!-- VIDEO NO LONGER AVAILABLE * [http://richarddawkins.net/article,325,The-Big-Question-Why-are-we-here,Discovery-Science The Big Question: why are we here?] &ndash; [[Richard Dawkins]]. --> <!-- Very questionable, little-known book: CERTAINLY does not belong in science section. * [http://www.2x21.com ''42 - The Answer to Life, The Universe, and Everything''], Mol Smith, 2007. ISBN 978-0-9557137-0-5. Information Site for a Book published in 2007 challenging Science and Religion by offering a definitive answer. --> * [http://rationalphilosophy.net/meaning-of-life/ Life's meaning from space/time principles] === Philosophical === * [http://www.rationalists.org/rc/1998_summer/einstein.htm Einstein's credo] * [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/life-meaning/ "The Meaning of Life" in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy] * [http://rationalphilosophy.net/meaning-of-life/ An Objective Philosophy: Why We Exist?] &ndash; by Martin G. Walker. *[http://eneida.over-blog.net/ Hedonism & Meaning of life] *[http://journal.ilovephilosophy.com/Article/The-Logic-of-Existential-Meaning/217 The Logic of Existential Meaning] * [http://myweb.dal.ca/kernohan/godless A Guide for the Godless: The Secular Path to Meaning] === Spiritual === * [http://www.motherearthnews.com/Alternative-Energy/1978-07-01/A-Guide-for-Perplexed.aspx A Guide for the Perplexed (excerpt included)] &ndash; by [[E. F. Schumacher]] * [http://www.simpletoremember.com/vitals/MeaningofLife.htm The Meaning of Life (from a Jewish perspective)] &ndash; by Rabbi [[Noah Weinberg]] <!-- Categories --> [[Category:Life]] [[Category:Spirituality]] [[Category:Core issues in ethics]] [[Category:Religion and science]] [[Category:Metaphysics]] [[Category:Ethics]] [[cs:Smysl života]] [[da:Meningen med livet]] [[de:Sinn des Lebens]] [[fr:Sens de la vie]] [[ko:인생의 의미]] [[he:משמעות החיים]] [[ms:Makna hidup]] [[nl:Zin van het leven]] [[ja:人生の意義]] [[no:Hva er meningen med livet]] [[pl:Sens życia]] [[pt:Sentido da vida]] [[ru:Смысл жизни]] [[sq:Kuptimi i jetës]] [[simple:Meaning of life]] [[sk:Zmysel života]] [[fi:Elämän tarkoitus]] [[sv:Meningen med livet]] [[tr:Hayatın anlamı]] [[zh:生命的意義]]