Mesopotamia
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{{Ancient Mesopotamia}}
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'''Mesopotamia''' (from the Greek meaning "The land between the two rivers")<ref name="BM">{{cite web|url=http://www.mesopotamia.co.uk/|title=Mesopotamia - The British Museum}}</ref> is an area geographically located between the [[Tigris]] and [[Euphrates]] rivers, largely corresponding to modern [[Iraq]],<ref name="MMA">{{cite web|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/m_wam/hd_m_wam.htm|title=Geography of Mesopotamia - Thematic Essay - Timeline of Art History - The Metropolitan Museum of Art}}</ref> northeastern [[Syria]],<ref name="MMA" /> southeastern [[Turkey]],<ref name="MMA" /> and the [[Khūzestān Province]] of southwestern [[Iran]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jstor.org/view/00222968/ap020105/02a00040/0|title=www.jstor.org/view/00222968/ap020105/02a00040/0<!--INSERT TITLE-->}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9045360/Khuzestan|title=www.britannica.com/eb/article-9045360/Khuzestan<!--INSERT TITLE-->}}</ref>.
Commonly known as the "[[Cradle of civilization]]", [[Bronze Age]] Mesopotamia included [[Sumer]] and the [[Akkad]]ian, [[Babylonia]]n, [[Assyria]]n Empires. In the [[Iron Age]], it was ruled by the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] and [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]], and later conquered by the [[Achaemenid Empire]]. It mostly remained [[Persian Mesopotamia|under Persian rule]] until the 7th century [[Islamic conquest of Persia|Islamic conquest]] of the [[Sassanid Empire]]. Under the [[Caliphate]], the region came to be known as [[Iraq]].
== History ==
{{main|Timeline of Ancient Mesopotamia}}
[[Image:Mesopotamia.PNG|thumb|right|350px|Overview map of ancient Mesopotamia]]
[[Image:Lagash.JPG|thumb|right|350px|Archaeological sites of Mesopotamia]]
The history of Mesopotamia begins with the emergence of urban societies in southern Iraq in the 5th millennium BC, and ends with either the arrival of the [[Achaemenid Empire]] in the 6th century BC, when Mesopotamia began being colonized by foreign powers, or with the arrival of the Islamic [[Caliphate]], when the region came to be known as [[Iraq]].
A cultural continuity and spatial homogeneity for this entire historical geography ("the Great Tradition") is popularly assumed, though the assumption is problematic. Mesopotamia housed some of the world's most ancient states with highly developed social complexity. The region was famous as one of the four [[riverine]] civilizations where [[writing]] was first invented, along with the [[Nile]] valley in [[Egypt]], the Indus Valley in the [[Indian subcontinent]] and Yellow River valley in [[China]] (Although writing is also known to have arisen independently in Mesoamerica and the Andes).
Mesopotamia housed historically important cities such as [[Uruk]], [[Nippur]], [[Nineveh]], and [[Babylon]] as well as major territorial states such as the [[Akkad]]ian kingdom, [[Third Dynasty of Ur]], and [[Assyria]]n empire. Some of the important historical Mesopotamian leaders were [[Ur-Nammu]] (king of Ur), [[Sargon of Akkad|Sargon]] (who established the Akkadian Kingdom), [[Hammurabi]] (who established the Old Babylonian state), and [[Tiglath-Pileser I]] (who established the Assyrian Empire).
"Ancient Mesopotamia" begins in the late [[6th millennium BC]], and ends with either the rise of the [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid]] [[Persian Empire|Persians]] in the 6th century BC or the [[Islamic conquest of Persia]]n Mesopotamia in the 7th century AD. This long period may be divided as follows:
* Pre-Pottery Neolithic:
** [[Jarmo]] (ca. 7000 BC-? BC)
* Pottery Neolithic:
** [[Hassuna]] (ca. 6000 BC-? BC), [[Samarra]] (ca. 5500 BC-4800 BC) and [[Halaf]] (ca. 6000 BC-5300 BC) "cultures"
* Chalcolithic:
**[[Ubaid period]] (ca. 5900 BC–4000 BC)
**[[Uruk period]] (ca. 4000 BC–3100 BC)
**Jemdet Nasr period (ca. 3100 BC–2900 BC)
* Early Bronze Age
**Early Dynastic [[Sumer]]ian city-states (ca. 2900 BC–2350 BC)
**[[Akkadian Empire]] (ca. 2350 BC–2193 BC).
**[[Third dynasty of Ur]] ("Sumerian Renaissance" or "Neo-Sumerian Period") (ca. 2119 BC–2004 BC)
* Middle Bronze Age
**[[Early Assyrian kingdom]] (20th to 18th c. BC)
**[[First Babylonian Dynasty]] (18th to 17th c. BC)
* Late Bronze Age
**[[Kassite dynasty]], [[Middle Assyrian period]] (16th to 12th c. BC)
**[[Bronze Age collapse]] (12th to 11th c. BC)
* Iron Age
**[[Neo-Hittite]] or Syro-Hittite regional states (11th–7th c. BC)
**[[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] (10th to 7th c. BC)
**[[Neo-Babylonian Empire]] (7th to 6th c. BC)
* Classical Antiquity
**[[Achaemenid Assyria]] (6th to 4th c. BC)
**[[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid]] Mesopotamia (4th to 1st c. BC)
**[[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] Mesopotamia (3rd c. BC to 3rd c. AD)
***[[Mesopotamia (Roman province)|Roman Mesopotamia]] (2nd c. AD)
**[[Sassanid Empire|Sassanid]] Mesopotamia (3rd to 7th c. AD)
**[[Islamic conquest of Persia]]n Mesopotamia (7th c. AD)
Dates are approximate for the second and third millennia BC; compare [[Chronology of the Ancient Near East]].
==Geography==
Mesopotamia is a semi-arid environment which ranges from the northern areas of rain fed agriculture, to the south where irrigation of agriculture is essential if a surplus [[EROEI|energy returned on energy invested]] ([[EROEI]]) is to be obtained. This irrigation is aided by a high water table and by melted snows from the high peaks of the Zagros and from the Armenian cordillera, the source of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, that give the region its name. The usefulness of irrigation depends upon the ability to mobilize sufficient labor for the construction and maintenance of canals, and this, from the earliest period, has assisted the development of urban settlements and centralized systems of political authority. Agriculture throughout the region has been supplemented by nomadic pastoralism, where tent dwelling nomads move herds of sheep and goats (and later camels) from the river pastures in the dry summer months, out into seasonal grazing lands on the desert fringe in the wet winter season. The area is generally lacking in building stone, precious metals and timber, and so historically has relied upon long distance trade of agricultural products to secure these items from outlying areas. In the marshlands to the south of the country, a complex water-borne fishing culture has existed since pre-historic times, and has added to the cultural mix.
Periodic breakdowns in the cultural system have occurred for a number of reasons. The demands for labour has from time to time led to population increases that push the limits of the ecological carrying capacity, and should a period of climatic instability ensue, collapsing central government and declining populations can occur. Alternatively, military vulnerability to invasion from marginal hill tribes or nomadic pastoralists have led to periods of trade collapse and neglect of irrigation systems. Equally, centripetal tendencies amongst city states has meant that central authority over the whole region, when imposed, has tended to be ephemeral, and localism has fragmented power into tribal or smaller regional units.<ref>Thompson, William R. (2004) "Complexity, Diminishing Marginal Returns, and Serial Mesopotamian Fragmentation" (Vol 3, Journal of World Systems Research)</ref> These trends have continued to the present day in Iraq.
== Language and writing ==
The earliest [[language]] written in Mesopotamia was [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]], an [[agglutinative language|agglutinative]] [[language isolate]]. Scholars agree that other languages were also spoken in early Mesopotamia along with Sumerian. Later a [[Semitic languages|Semitic language]], [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]], came to be the dominant language, although Sumerian was retained for [[administration (business)|administration]], [[religious]], [[literary]], and [[scientific]] purposes. Different varieties of Akkadian were used until the end of the Neo-Babylonian period. Then [[Aramaic]], which had already become common in Mesopotamia, became the official provincial administration language of the [[Achaemenid dynasty|Achaemenid]] [[Persian Empire]]. Akkadian fell into disuse, but both it and Sumerian were still used in [[temples]] for some centuries.
In Early Mesopotamia (around mid 4th millennium BC) [[cuneiform script]] was invented. Cuneiform literally means "wedge-shaped", due to the triangular tip of the stylus used for impressing signs on wet clay. The standardized form of each cuneiform sign appear to have been developed from [[pictograms]]. The earliest texts (7 archaic tablets) come from the [[E (temple)|E]]-anna super sacred precinct dedicated to the goddess Inanna at Uruk, Level III, from a building labeled as Temple C by its excavators.
The early [[logographic]] system of cuneiform script took many years to master. Thus only a limited number of individuals were hired as [[scribes]] to be trained in its reading and writing. It was not until the widespread use of a [[syllabic]] script was adopted under Sargon's rule{{Fact|date=March 2008}} that significant portions of Mesopotamian population became learned in literacy. Massive archives of texts were recovered from the archaeological contexts of Old Babylonian scribal schools, through which literacy was disseminated.
===Literature and mythology===
{{Main|Babylonian literature|Mesopotamian mythology}}
In Babylonian times there were libraries in most towns and temples; an old [[Sumer]]ian proverb averred that "he who would excel in the school of the scribes must rise with the dawn." Women as well as men learned to read and write, and for the Semitic Babylonians, this involved knowledge of the extinct [[Sumerian language]], and a complicated and extensive syllabary.
A considerable amount of Babylonian literature was translated from Sumerian originals, and the language of religion and law long continued to be the old agglutinative language of Sumer. Vocabularies, grammars, and interlinear translations were compiled for the use of students, as well as commentaries on the older texts and explanations of obscure words and phrases. The characters of the syllabary were all arranged and named, and elaborate lists of them were drawn up.
There are many Babylonian literary works whose titles have come down to us. One of the most famous of these was the [[Epic of Gilgamesh]], in twelve books, translated from the original Sumerian by a certain [[Sin-liqe-unninni]], and arranged upon an astronomical principle. Each division contains the story of a single adventure in the career of [[Gilgamesh]]. The whole story is a composite product, and it is probable that some of the stories are artificially attached to the central figure.
===Philosophy===
:''Further information: [[Babylonian literature#Philosophy|Babylonian literature: Philosophy]]''
The origins of [[philosophy]] can be traced back to early Mesopotamian [[wisdom]], which embodied certain philosophies of life, particularly [[ethics]], in the forms of [[dialectic]], [[dialog]]s, [[epic poetry]], [[folklore]], [[hymn]]s, [[lyrics]], [[prose]], and [[proverb]]s. Babylonian [[reasoning]] and [[rationality]] developed beyond [[Empiricism|empirical]] observation.<ref>Giorgio Buccellati (1981), "Wisdom and Not: The Case of Mesopotamia", ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'' '''101''' (1), p. 35-47.</ref>
The earliest form of [[logic]] was developed by the Babylonians, notably in the rigorous [[nonergodic]] nature of their [[Social structure|social systems]]. Babylonian [[thought]] was [[axiom]]atic and is comparable to the "ordinary logic" described by [[John Maynard Keynes]]. Babylonian thought was also based on an [[Open system (systems theory)|open-systems]] [[ontology]] which is compatible with [[ergodic]] axioms.<ref name=Sheila/> Logic was employed to some extent in [[Babylonian astronomy]] and medicine.
Babylonian thought had a considerable influence on early [[Greek philosophy]] and [[Hellenistic philosophy]]. In particular, the Babylonian text ''Dialog of Pessimism'' contains similarities to the [[agonist]]ic thought of the [[Sophism|sophists]], the [[Heraclitus|Heraclitean]] doctrine of contrasts, and the [[dialectic]] and dialogs of [[Plato]], as well as a precursor to the [[Maieutics|maieutic]] [[Socratic method]] of [[Socrates]].<ref>Giorgio Buccellati (1981), "Wisdom and Not: The Case of Mesopotamia", ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'' '''101''' (1), p. 35-47 43.</ref> The [[Phoenicia]]n philosopher [[Thales]] is also known to have studied philosophy in Mesopotamia.
==Science and technology==
===Astronomy===
{{main|Babylonian astronomy}}
{{see|Babylonian astrology|Babylonian calendar}}
The Babylonian astronomers were very interested in studying the stars and sky, and most could already predict eclipses and solstices. People thought that everything had some purpose in astronomy. Most of these related to religion and omens. Mesopotamian astronomers worked out a 12 month calendar based on the cycles of the moon. They divided the year into two seasons: summer and winter. The origins of astronomy as well as [[Babylonian astrology|astrology]] date from this time.
During the 8th and 7th centuries BC, Babylonian astronomers developed a new approach to astronomy. They began studying [[philosophy]] dealing with the ideal nature of the early [[universe]] and began employing an internal [[logic]] within their predictive planetary systems. This was an important contribution to astronomy and the [[philosophy of science]] and some scholars have thus referred to this new approach as the first '''scientific revolution'''.<ref name=Brown>D. Brown (2000), ''Mesopotamian Planetary Astronomy-Astrology '', Styx Publications, ISBN 9056930362.</ref> This new approach to astronomy was adopted and further developed in Greek and Hellenistic astronomy.
In [[Seleucid dynasty|Seleucid]] and [[Parthia]]n times, the astronomical reports were of a thoroughly scientific character; how much earlier their advanced knowledge and methods were developed is uncertain. The Babylonian development of methods for predicting the motions of the planets is considered to be a major episode in the [[History of Astronomy#Mesopotamia|history of astronomy]].
The only Babylonian astronomer known to have supported a [[heliocentrism|heliocentric]] model of planetary motion was [[Seleucus of Seleucia]] (b. 190 BC).<ref>[[Otto E. Neugebauer]] (1945). "The History of Ancient Astronomy Problems and Methods", ''Journal of Near Eastern Studies'' '''4''' (1), p. 1-38.</ref><ref>[[George Sarton]] (1955). "Chaldaean Astronomy of the Last Three Centuries B. C.", ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'' '''75''' (3), p. 166-173 [169].</ref><ref>William P. D. Wightman (1951, 1953), ''The Growth of Scientific Ideas'', Yale University Press p.38.</ref> Seleucus is known from the writings of [[Plutarch]]. He supported the heliocentric theory where the [[Earth's rotation|Earth rotated]] around its own axis which in turn revolved around the [[Sun]]. According to [[Plutarch]], Seleucus even proved the heliocentric system, but it is not known what arguments he used.
Babylonian astronomy was the basis for much of what was done in [[Greek astronomy|Greek and Hellenistic astronomy]], in classical [[Indian astronomy]], in [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanian]], [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] and [[Syria]]n astronomy, in medieval [[Islamic astronomy]], and in [[Central Asia]]n and [[Western Europe]]an astronomy.<ref name=dp1998>{{Harvtxt|Pingree|1998}}</ref>
===Mathematics===
{{Main|Babylonian mathematics}}
{{see|Babylonian calendar}}
The Mesopotamians used a [[sexagesimal]] (base 60) [[numeral system]]. This is the source of the current 60-minute hours and 24-hour days, as well as the 360 [[Degree (angle)|degree]] circle. The Sumerian calendar also measured weeks of seven days each. This mathematical knowledge was used in [[History of cartography|mapmaking]].
The Babylonians might have been familiar with the general rules for measuring the areas. They measured the circumference of a circle as three times the diameter and the area as one-twelfth the square of the circumference, which would be correct if <font face=symbol>p</font> were estimated as 3. The volume of a cylinder was taken as the product of the base and the height, however, the volume of the frustum of a cone or a square pyramid was incorrectly taken as the product of the height and half the sum of the bases. Also, there was a recent discovery in which a tablet used <font face=symbol>p</font> as 3 and 1/8 (3.125 for 3.14159~). The Babylonians are also known for the Babylonian mile, which was a measure of distance equal to about seven miles (11 km) today. This measurement for distances eventually was converted to a time-mile used for measuring the travel of the Sun, therefore, representing time.<ref>Eves, Chapter 2</ref>
===Medicine===
The oldest Babylonian texts on [[medicine]] date back to the [[Old Babylonian]] period in the first half of the [[2nd millennium BC]]. The most extensive Babylonian medical text, however, is the ''Diagnostic Handbook'' written by the physician Esagil-kin-apli of [[Borsippa]],<ref name=Stol-99/> during the reign of the [[List of Kings of Babylon|Babylonian king]] Adad-apla-iddina (1069-1046 BC).<ref>Marten Stol (1993), ''Epilepsy in Babylonia'', p. 55, [[Brill Publishers]], ISBN 9072371631.</ref>
Along with contemporary [[ancient Egyptian medicine]], the Babylonians introduced the concepts of [[diagnosis]], [[prognosis]], [[physical examination]], and [[prescription]]s. In addition, the ''Diagnostic Handbook'' introduced the methods of [[therapy]] and a[[etiology]] and the use of [[empiricism]], [[logic]] and [[rationality]] in diagnosis, prognosis and therapy. The text contains a list of medical [[symptom]]s and often detailed empirical [[observation]]s along with logical rules used in combining observed symptoms on the body of a [[patient]] with its diagnosis and prognosis.<ref>H. F. J. Horstmanshoff, Marten Stol, Cornelis Tilburg (2004), ''Magic and Rationality in Ancient Near Eastern and Graeco-Roman Medicine'', p. 97-98, [[Brill Publishers]], ISBN 9004136665.</ref>
The symptoms and diseases of a patient were treated through therapeutic means such as [[bandage]]s, [[Cream (pharmaceutical)|cream]]s and [[pill]]s. If a patient could not be cured physically, the Babylonian physicians often relied on [[exorcism]] to cleanse the patient from any [[curse]]s. Esagil-kin-apli's ''Diagnostic Handbook'' was based on a logical set of [[axiom]]s and assumptions, including the modern view that through the examination and [[inspection]] of the symptoms of a patient, it is possible to determine the patient's [[disease]], its aetiology and future development, and the chances of the patient's recovery.<ref name=Stol-99>H. F. J. Horstmanshoff, Marten Stol, Cornelis Tilburg (2004), ''Magic and Rationality in Ancient Near Eastern and Graeco-Roman Medicine'', p. 99, [[Brill Publishers]], ISBN 9004136665.</ref>
Esagil-kin-apli discovered a variety of [[illness]]es and diseases and described their symptoms in his ''Diagnostic Handbook''. These include the symptoms for many varieties of [[epilepsy]] and related [[ailment]]s along with their diagnosis and prognosis.<ref>Marten Stol (1993), ''Epilepsy in Babylonia'', p. 5, [[Brill Publishers]], ISBN 9072371631.</ref>
===Technology===
Mesopotamian people invented many technologies, most notably the [[wheel]], which some consider the most important [[Mechanical engineering|mechanical]] invention in history.<ref>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]]. [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Notes/Notes%203.htm The Crank-Connecting Rod System in a Continuously Rotating Machine].</ref> Other Mesopotamian inventions include [[metalwork]]ing, [[copper]]-working, [[glass]]making, [[lamp (fixture)|lamp]] making, [[textile|textile weaving]], flood control, water storage, as well as [[irrigation]]. They were also one of the first [[Bronze age]] people in the world. Early on they used [[copper]], [[bronze]] and [[gold]], and later they used [[iron]]. Palaces were decorated with hundreds of kilograms of these very expensive metals. Also, copper, bronze, and iron were used for [[armor]] as well as for different weapons such as [[sword]]s, [[dagger]]s, [[spear]]s, and [[Mace (club)|maces]].
== Religion ==
[[Image:Genealogy of Later Mesopotamian Gods.jpg|thumb|600px|Sumerian religion was based on a series of sacred marriages between divine couples]]
Mesopotamian [[religion]] was the first to be recorded. Mesopotamians believed that the world was a flat disc, surrounded by a huge, holed space, and above that, [[heaven]]. They also believed that water was everywhere, the top, bottom and sides, and that the [[universe]] was born from this enormous sea. In addition, Mesopotamian religion was [[polytheistic]].
Although the [[belief]]s described above were held in common among Mesopotamians, there were also regional variations. The Sumerian word for universe is an-ki, which refers to the god An and the goddess Ki. Their son was Enlil, the air god. They believed that Enlil was the most powerful god. He was the chief god of the [[Pantheon (gods)|Pantheon]], as the Greeks had [[Zeus]] and the Romans had [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]]. The Sumerians also posed [[philosophy|philosophical]] questions, such as: Who are we?, Where are we?, How did we get here?. They attributed answers to these questions to explanations provided by their gods.
=== Primary gods and goddesses ===
*[[Anu]] was the Sumerian god of the sky. He was married to Ki, but in some other Mesopotamian religions he has a wife called Uraš. Though he was considered the most important god in the pantheon, he took a mostly passive role in epics, allowing Enlil to claim the position as most powerful god.
*[[Enlil]] was initially the most powerful god in Mesopotamian religion. His wife was [[Ninlil]], and his children were [[Ishkur|Iškur]] (sometimes), [[Nanna (Sumerian deity)|Nanna]] - [[Suen]], [[Nergal]], [[Nisaba]], [[Namtar]], [[Ninurta]] (sometimes), [[Pabilsag]], [[Nushu]], [[Enbilulu]], [[Uraš Zababa]] and [[Ennugi]]. His position at the top of the pantheon was later usurped by Marduk and then by Ashur.
*[[Enki]] (Ea) god of [[Eridu]]. He was the god of rain.
*[[Marduk]] was the principal god of [[Babylon]]. When Babylon rose to power, the mythologies raised Marduk from his original position as an agricultural god to the principal god in the pantheon.
*[[Ashur]] was god of the Assyrian empire and likewise when the [[Assyrians]] rose to power their myths raised Ashur to a position of importance.
*[[Gula]] or [[Utu]] (in Sumerian), [[Shamash]] (in Akkadian) was the sun god and god of justice.
*[[Ishtar]] or [[Inanna]] was the goddess of sex and war.
*[[Ereshkigal]] was goddess of the Netherworld.
*[[Nabu]] was the Mesopotamian god of writing. He was very wise, and was praised for his writing ability. In some places he was believed to be in control of heaven and earth. His importance was increased considerably in the later periods.
*[[Ninurta]] was the Sumerian god of war. He was also the god of heroes.
*[[Ishkur|Iškur]] (or [[Adad]]) was the god of storms.
*[[Erra]] was probably the god of drought. He is often mentioned in conjunction with [[Adad]] and [[Nergal]] in laying waste to the land.
*[[Nergal]] was probably a plague god. He was also spouse of [[Ereshkigal]].
*[[Pazuzu]], also known as [[Zu (mythology)|Zu]], was an evil god, who stole the tablets of [[Enlil]]’s destiny, and is killed because of this. He also brought diseases which had no known cure.
=== Burials ===
{{Unreferencedsection|date=October 2007}}
Hundreds of [[Grave (burial)|graves]] have been excavated in parts of Mesopotamia, revealing information about Mesopotamian [[burial]] habits. In the city of [[Ur]], most people were buried in family graves under their houses (as in [[Catalhuyuk]]), along with some possessions. A few have been found wrapped in mats and [[carpets]]. Deceased children were put in big "jars" which were placed in the family [[chapel]]. Other remains have been found buried in common city [[graveyard]]s. 17 graves have been found with very precious objects in them <!-- such as? -->; it is assumed <!-- by whom ? -->that these were royal graves.
== Culture ==
=== Music, songs and instruments ===
Some songs were written for the gods but many were written to describe important events. Although music and songs amused [[Monarch|kings]], they were also enjoyed by ordinary people who liked to sing and dance in their homes or in the [[marketplace]]s. Songs were sung to children who passed them on to their children. Thus songs were passed on through many [[generation]]s until someone wrote them down. These songs provided a means of passing on through the [[century|centuries]] highly important [[information]] about [[history|historical events]] that were eventually passed on to modern historians.
The [[Oud]] (Arabic:العود) is a small, stringed musical instrument. The oldest pictorial record of the Oud dates back to the [[Uruk]] period in Southern Mesopotamia over 5000 years ago. It is on a [[cylinder seal]] currently housed at the British Museum and acquired by Dr. Dominique Collon. The [[image]] depicts a female crouching with her instruments upon a [[boat]], playing [[right-handed]]. This instrument appears hundreds of times throughout Mesopotamian history and again in ancient [[Egypt]] from the 18th [[dynasty]] onwards in long- and short-neck varieties.
The oud is regarded as a [[wiktionary:Precursor|precursor]] to the [[Europe]]an [[lute]]. Its name is derived from the Arabic word العود al-‘ūd 'the wood', which is probably the name of the tree from which the oud was made. (The Arabic name, with the definite article, is the source of the word 'lute'.)
=== Games ===
[[Hunting]] was popular among Assyrian kings. [[Boxing]] and [[wrestling]] feature frequently in art, and a form of [[polo]] was probably popular, with men sitting on the shoulders of other men rather than on horses.<ref>{{cite book|author=Karen Rhea Nemet-Nejat|title=Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia|date=1998}}</ref> They also played a board game similar to [[senet]] and [[backgammon]], now known as the "[[Royal Game of Ur]]."
=== Family life ===
{{Expand-section|date=June 2008}}
[[Image:Babylonian marriage market.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The Babylonian marriage market, in the Royal Holloway College.]]
Mesopotamia across its history became more and more a [[patriarchal society]], in which the men were far more powerful than the women. As for schooling, only royal offspring and sons of the rich and professionals such as scribes, physicians, temple administrators, and so on, went to school. Most boys were taught their father's trade or were apprenticed out to learn a trade.<ref>{{cite book|author=Rivkah Harris|title=Gender and Aging in Mesopotamia|date=2000}}</ref> Girls had to stay home with their mothers to learn [[housekeeping]] and [[cooking]], and to look after the younger children. Some children would help with crushing grain, or cleaning birds. Unusual for that time in history, women in Mesopotamia had [[rights]]. They could own [[property]] and, if they had good reason, get a [[divorce]].
==Economy==
[[Sumer]] developed the first [[economy]], while the Babylonians developed the earliest system of [[economics]], which was comparable to modern [[post-Keynesian economics]], but with a more "anything goes" approach.<ref name=Sheila>Sheila C. Dow (2005), "Axioms and Babylonian thought: a reply", ''Journal of Post Keynesian Economics'' '''27''' (3), p. 385-391.</ref>
== Agriculture ==
[[Food supply]] in Mesopotamia was quite rich due to the location of the two rivers from which its name is derived, [[Tigris]] and [[Euphrates]]. The Tigris and Euphrates River valleys formed the northeastern portion of the [[Fertile Crescent]], which also included the Jordan River valley & that of the Nile. Although land nearer to the rivers was [[fertile]] and good for [[Crop (agriculture)|crops]], portions of land further from the water were dry and largely uninhabitable. This is why the development of [[irrigation]] was very important for [[settler]]s of Mesopotamia. Other Mesopotamian [[innovation]]s include the control of water by [[dams]] and the use of [[aqueducts]].
Early settlers of fertile land in Mesopotamia used [[wood]]en [[plow]]s to soften the [[soil]] before planting crops such as [[barley]], [[onions]], [[grapes]], [[turnips]], and [[apples]]. Mesopotamian settlers were some of the first people to make [[beer]] and [[wine]].
The unpredictable Mesopotamian weather was often hard on farmers; crops were often ruined so backup sources of food such as cows and lambs were also kept.
As a result of the skill involved in farming in the Mesopotamian, farmers did not depend on [[slaves]] to complete farm work for them, with some exceptions. There were too many risks involved to make slavery practical (i.e. the escape/[[mutiny]] of the [[slave]]).
==Government==
=== Kings ===
{{see|Sumerian king list|List of Kings of Babylon|Kings of Assyria}}
The Mesopotamians believed their kings and queens were descended from the city [[god]]s, but, unlike the [[ancient Egyptians]], they never believed their kings were real gods.<ref>{{cite book|author=Robert Dalling|title=The Story of Us Humans, from Atoms to Today's Civilization|date=2004}}</ref> Most kings named themselves “king of the universe” or “great king”. Another common name was “[[shepherd]]”, as kings had to look after their people.
Notable Mesopotamian kings include:
[[Eannatum]] of [[Lagash]] who founded the first (short-lived) empire.
[[Sargon]] of [[Akkad]] who conquered all of Mesopotamia and created the first empire that outlived its founder.
[[Hammurabi]] founded the first [[Babylon]]ian empire.
[[Tiglath-Pileser III]] founded the neo-[[Assyrian]] empire.
[[Nebuchadnezzar]] was the most powerful king in the neo-[[Babylonia]]n Empire. He was thought to be the son of the god Nabu. He married the daughter of Cyaxeres, so the Median and the [[Babylonia]]n [[dynasty|dynasties]] had a familial connection. Nebuchadnezzar’s name means: Nabo, protect the crown!
Belshedezzar was the last king of Babylonia. He was the son of Nabonidus whose wife was Nictoris, the daughter of [[Nebuchadnezzar]].
=== Power ===
When [[Assyria]] grew into an [[empire]], it was divided into smaller parts, called [[provinces]]. Each of these were named after their main cities, like Nineveh, [[Samaria]], [[Damascus]] and [[Arpad]]. They all had their own [[governor]] who had to make sure everyone paid their taxes; he had to call up [[soldier]]s to [[war]], and supply [[worker]]s when a [[temple]] was built. He was also responsible for the laws being enforced. In this way it was easier to keep control of an empire like Assyria.
Although Babylon was quite a small [[state]] in the Sumerian, it grew tremendously throughout the time of [[Hammurabi]]'s rule. He was known as “the law maker”, and soon [[Babylon]] became one of the main cities in Mesopotamia. It was later called Babylonia, which meant "the gateway of the gods." It also became one of history's greatest centers of learning.
=== Warfare ===
[[Image:PLATE3BX.jpg|thumb|[[Assyrian soldiers]], from a plate in ''THE HISTORY OF COSTUME'' by Braun & Schneider (ca. 1860).]]
As [[city-states]] began to grow, their spheres of influence overlapped, creating arguments between other city-states, especially over land and canals. These arguments were recorded in tablets several hundreds of years before any major war - the first recording of a war occurred around 3200BC but was not common until about 2500BC. At this point warfare was incorporated into the Mesopotamian political system, where a neutral city may act as an arbitrator for the two rival cities. This helped to form unions between cities, leading to regional states.<ref>>{{cite book|author=Robert Dalling|title=The Story of Us Humans, from Atoms to Today's Civilization|date=2004}}</ref>
When [[empire]]s were created, they went to war more with foreign countries. King Sargon, for example conquered all the cities of [[Sumer]], some cities in Mari, and then went to war with northern [[Syria]].
Many Babylonian [[palace]] walls were decorated with the pictures of the successful fights and the enemy, whether desperately escaping, or hiding amongst reeds.
A king in Sumer, Gilgamesh, was thought two-thirds god and only one third human. There were legendary stories and poems about him, which were passed on for many generations, because he had many adventures that were believed very important, and won many wars and battles.
=== Laws ===
[[Hammurabi|King Hammurabi]], as mentioned above, was famous for his set of laws, [[Code of Hammurabi|The Code of Hammurabi]]
(created ca. 1780 BC), which is one of the earliest sets of laws found and one of the best preserved examples of this type of document from ancient Mesopotamia. He made over 200 laws for Mesopotamia ''For more information, see [[Hammurabi]] and [[Code of Hammurabi]].''
== Architecture ==
The study of ancient Mesopotamian architecture is based on available [[archaeological]] evidence, pictorial representation of buildings and texts on building practices. Scholarly literature usually concentrates on temples, palaces, city walls and gates and other monumental buildings, but occasionally one finds works on residential architecture as well.<ref>{{cite book|first=Sally|last=Dunham|chapter=Ancient Near Eastern architecture|title=A Companion to the Ancient Near East|editor=Daniel Snell|location=Oxford|publisher=Blackwell|year=2005|pages=266–280|id=ISBN 0-631-23293-1}}</ref> Archaeological surface surveys also allowed for the study of urban form in early Mesopotamian cities. Most notably known architectural remains from early Mesopotamia are the temple complexes at [[Uruk]] from the 4th millennium BC, temples and palaces from the [[Early Dynastic]] period sites in the [[Diyala River]] valley such as Khafajah and Tell Asmar, the [[Third Dynasty of Ur]] remains at [[Nippur]] (Sanctuary of [[Enlil]]) and [[Ur]] (Sanctuary of [[Sin (mythology)|Nanna]]), Middle [[Bronze Age]] remains at Syrian-Turkish sites of [[Ebla]], [[Mari, Syria|Mari]], [[Alalakh]], [[Aleppo]] and [[Kultepe]], Late Bronze Age palaces at [[Bogazkoy]] (Hattusha), [[Ugarit]], [[Ashur]] and [[Nuzi]], Iron Age palaces and temples at [[Assyria]]n ([[Kalhu]]/Nimrud, [[Khorsabad]], [[Nineveh]]), [[Babylonian]] ([[Babylon]]), [[Urartian]] ([[Tushpa]]/Van Kalesi, Cavustepe, Ayanis, [[Armavir]], [[Erebuni]], [[Bastam]]) and [[Neo-Hittite]] sites ([[Carchemish|Karkamis]], [[Tell Halaf]], [[Karatepe]]). Houses are mostly known from Old Babylonian remains at Nippur and Ur. Among the textual sources on building construction and associated rituals, Gudea's cylinders from the late 3rd millennium are notable, as well as the Assyrian and Babylonian royal inscriptions from the [[Iron Age]].
=== Houses ===
The materials used to build a Mesopotamian house were the same as those used today: mud brick, mud plaster and wooden doors, which were all naturally available round the city,<ref>{{cite book|author=Nicholas Postgate, J N Postgate|title=Early Mesopotamia: Society and Economy at the Dawn of History|date=1994}}</ref> although wood could not be naturally made very well during the particular time period described. Most houses had a square center room with other rooms attached to it, but a great variation in the size and materials used to build the houses suggest they were built by the inhabitants themselves [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/282/5393/1442]. The smallest rooms may not have coincided with the poorest people; in fact it could be that the poorest people built houses out of perishable materials such as reeds on the outside of the city, but there is very little direct evidence for this.<ref>{{cite book|author=Susan Pollock|title=Ancient Mesopotamia|date=1999}}</ref>
=== The Palace ===
The [[palace]]s of the early Mesopotamian elites were large scale complexes, and were often lavishly decorated. Earliest examples are known from the [[Diyala River]] valley sites such as Khafajah and Tell Asmar. These third millennium BC palaces functioned as a large scale socio-economic institutions, therefore, along with residential and private function, they housed craftsmen workshops, food storehouses, ceremonial courtyards, and often associated with shrines. For instance, the so-called "giparu" (or Gig-Par-Ku in Sumerian) at Ur where the Moon god [[Nanna]]'s priestesses resided was a major complex with multiple courtyards, a number of sanctuaries, burial chambers for dead priestesses, a ceremonial banquet hall, etc. A similarly complex example of a Mesopotamian palace was excavated at [[Mari, Syria|Mari]] in [[Syria]], dating from the [[Old Babylonian]] period.
Assyrian palaces of the Iron Age, especially at Kalhu/[[Nimrud]], Dur Sharrukin/[[Khorsabad]] and Ninuwa/[[Nineveh]], have become famous due to the pictorial and textual narrative programs on their walls, all carved on stone slabs known as orthostats. These pictorial programs either incorporated cultic scenes or the narrative accounts of the kings' military and civic accomplishments. Gates and important passageways were flanked with massive stone sculpture of apotropaic mythological figures. The architectural arrangement of these Iron Age palaces were also organized around large and small courtyards. Usually the king's throneroom opened to a massive ceremonial courtyard where important state councils met, state ceremonies performed.
Massive amounts of ivory furniture pieces were found in many [[Assyria]]n palaces pointing out an intense trade relationship with North Syrian [[Neo-Hittite]] states at the time. There is also good evidence that bronze repousse bands decorated the wooden gates.
=== Ziggurats ===
[[Ziggurat]]s (Akkadian ''ziqquratu'' from the verb zaqāru) were massive stepped cult platforms found in certain Mesopotamian sanctuaries. The idea seems to have originated in early Mesopotamian temples which were built successively, one building over another on the same site over centuries, creating a massive mound that raised the new temples over the rest of the city. A good example of such structure was the temple dedicated to Ea at [[Eridu]] (Tell Abu Shahrain) excavated by Fuad Safar and Seton Lloyd in 1940s, or the "White" Temple dedicated to [[Anu]] at [[Uruk]] in the Late Uruk period. [[Ur-Nammu]]'s ziggurat, built at the height the [[Third Dynasty of Ur]], at the site of [[Ur]] (Tell al Mugayyar) in the sanctuary of the Moon God [[Nanna]], is also believed to be encasing earlier temples of the [[Early Dynastic Period]]. Ur-Nammu's ziggurat is considered one of the earliest of all planned ziggurats. After that time [[Kassites]] and [[Elamites]] of the [[Late Bronze Age]], and [[Assyrians]] and [[Babylonians]] of the [[Iron age]] continued to build artificially erected ziggurats. Examples of such structures were found in Dur Kurigalzu (Aqar Quf), Dur-Untash (Tschoga Zanbil), Kalhu (Nimrud), Dur-Sharrukin (Khorsabad) and Babylon among others.
It has been suggested that ziggurats were built to resemble mountains, but there is little textual or archaeological evidence to support that hypothesis.
Ur-Nammu's ziggurat at Ur was designed as a three-stage construction, today only two of these survive. This entire mudbrick core structure was originally given a facing of baked brick envelope set in [[bitumen]], circa 2.5 m on the first lowest stage, and 1.15 m on the second. Each of these baked bricks were stamped with the name of the king. The sloping walls of the stages were buttressed. The access to the top was by means of a triple monumental staircase, which all converges at a portal that opened on a landing between the first and second stages. The height of the first stage was about 11 m while the second stage rose some 5.7 m. Usually a third stage is reconstructed by the excavator of the ziggurat ([[Leonard Woolley]]), and crowned by a temple. At the Tschoga Zanbil ziggurat archaeologists have found massive reed ropes that ran across the core of the ziggurat structure and tied together the mudbrick mass.
==Etymology==
The regional toponym Mesopotamia ( < meso (μέσος) = middle and potamia < ποταμός = river, literally means "between two rivers") was coined in the [[Hellenistic]] period without any definite [[Border|boundaries]], to refer to a broad [[geographical]] area and probably used by the [[Seleucid]]s. The term ''biritum/birit narim'' corresponded to a similar geographical concept and coined at the time of the [[Aramaic]]ization of the region.<ref>Finkelstein, J. J.; 1962. “Mesopotamia”, ''Journal of Near Eastern Studies'' 21: 73-92</ref> It is however widely accepted that early Mesopotamian societies simply referred to the entire [[alluvium]] as '''kalam''' in Sumerian (lit. "land"). More recently terms like "Greater Mesopotamia" or "Syro-Mesopotamia" have been adopted to refer to wider geographies corresponding to the Near East or Middle East. The later euphemisms are [[Eurocentrism|Eurocentric]] terms attributed to the region in the midst of various 19th century Western encroachments.<ref>Scheffler, Thomas; 2003. “ 'Fertile crescent', 'Orient', 'Middle East': the changing mental maps of Southeast Asia,” ''European Review of History'' 10/2: 253–272. Also: Bahrani, Zainab; 1998. “Conjuring Mesopotamia: imaginative geography a world past", in ''Archaeology under fire: Nationalism, politics and heritage in the Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East''. L. Meskell (ed.), Routledge: London and New York, 159–174.</ref>
==References==
===Notes===
{{Reflist|2}}
===Bibliography===
* ''Atlas de la Mésopotamie et du Proche-Orient ancien'', Brepols, 1996 ISBN|2503500463.
* Benoit, Agnès; 2003. ''Art et archéologie : les civilisations du Proche-Orient ancien'', Manuels de l'Ecole du Louvre.
* [[Jean Bottéro]]; 1987.''Mésopotamie. L'écriture, la raison et les dieux'', Gallimard, coll. « Folio Histoire », ISBN|2070403084.
* [[Jean Bottéro]]; 1992. ''Mesopotamia: writing, reasoning and the gods''. Trans. by Zainab Bahrani and Marc Van de Mieroop, University of Chicago Press: Chicago.
* Edzard, Dietz Otto; 2004. ''Geschichte Mesopotamiens. Von den Sumerern bis zu Alexander dem Großen'', München, ISBN 3-406-51664-5
* Hrouda, Barthel and Rene Pfeilschifter; 2005. ''Mesopotamien. Die antiken Kulturen zwischen Euphrat und Tigris.'' München 2005 (4. Aufl.), ISBN 3-406-46530-7
* Joannès, Francis; 2001. ''Dictionnaire de la civilisation mésopotamienne'', Robert Laffont.
* Korn, Wolfgang; 2004. ''Mesopotamien - Wiege der Zivilisation. 6000 Jahre Hochkulturen an Euphrat und Tigris'', Stuttgart, ISBN 3-8062-1851-X
* Kuhrt, Amélie; 1995. ''The Ancient Near East: c. 3000-330 B.C''. 2 Vols. Routledge: London and New York.
* Liverani, Mario; 1991. ''Antico Oriente: storia, società, economia''. Editori Laterza: Roma.
* Matthews, Roger: 2003. ''The archaeology of Mesopotamia. Theories and approaches'', London 2003, ISBN 0-415-25317-9
* Matthews, Roger; 2005. ''The early prehistory of Mesopotamia - 500,000 to 4,500 BC'', Turnhout 2005, ISBN 2-503-50729-8
* Oppenheim, A. Leo; 1964. ''Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a dead civilization''. The University of Chicago Press: Chicago and London. Revised edition completed by Erica Reiner, 1977.
* Pollock, Susan; 1999.'' Ancient Mesopotamia: the Eden that never was''. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.
* Postgate, J. Nicholas; 1992. ''Early Mesopotamia: Society and Economy at the dawn of history''. Routledge: London and New York.
* Roux, Georges; 1964. ''Ancient Iraq'', Penguin Books.
* Silver, Morris; 2007. "Redistribution and Markets in the Economy of Ancient Mesopotamia: Updating Polanyi", [[Antiguo Oriente]] 5: 89-112.
* Snell, Daniel (ed.); 2005. ''A Companion to the Ancient Near East''. Malden, MA : Blackwell Pub, 2005.
* Van de Mieroop, Marc; 2004. ''A history of the ancient Near East. ca 3000-323 BC''. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
===External links===
{{commonscat}}
*[http://www.mesopotamia.co.uk Mesopotamia] — introduction to Mesopotamia from the [[British Museum]]
*[http://fax.libs.uga.edu/DS49xB8x1920/ By Nile and Tigris], a narrative of journeys in Egypt and Mesopotamia on behalf of the British museum between the years 1886 and 1913, by Sir E. A. [[Wallis Budge]], 1920 ''(a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; [[DjVu]] & [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/DS49xB8x1920/1f/ layered PDF] format)''
*[http://fax.libs.uga.edu/DS49x2xM465D/ A Dweller in Mesopotamia], being the adventures of an official artist in the Garden of Eden, by Donald Maxwell, 1921 ''(a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; [[DjVu]] & {{PDFlink|[http://fax.libs.uga.edu/DS49x2xM465D/1f/dweller_in_mesopotamia.pdf layered PDF]|7.53 [[Mebibyte|MiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 7896006 bytes -->}} format)''
*[http://fax.libs.uga.edu/DS69x5xH236M/ Mesopotamian Archaeology], by Percy S. P. Pillow, 1912 ''(a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; [[DjVu]] & {{PDFlink|[http://fax.libs.uga.edu/DS69x5xH236M/1f/mesopotamian_archaeology.pdf layered PDF]|12.8 [[Mebibyte|MiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 13442731 bytes -->}} format)''
{{Regions of the world}}
[[Category:History of Iraq]]
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[[Category:Mesopotamia| ]]
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