Meteorology
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2008-07-16T14:43:32Z
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{{For|the stellar phenomena|Meteor}}
{{Atmospheric sciences}}
'''Meteorology''' (from Greek: μετέωρον, ''metéōron'', "high in the sky"; and λόγος, ''lógos'', "knowledge") is the [[interdisciplinary]] scientific study of the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] that focuses on [[weather]] processes and forecasting (in contrast with [[climatology]]). [[List of meteorological phenomena|Meteorological phenomena]] are observable weather events which illuminate and are explained by the science of meteorology. Those events are bound by the variables that exist in [[Earth]]'s atmosphere. They are [[temperature]], [[pressure]], [[water vapor]], and the gradients and interactions of each variable, and how they change in time. The majority of Earth's observed weather is located in the [[troposphere]]. <ref> "Meteorology." The Encyclopedia Britannica.15th Ed. 2005.</ref> <ref>Byers, Horace. General Meteorology. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1994.</ref>
Meteorology, [[climatology]], [[atmospheric physics]], and [[atmospheric chemistry]] are sub-disciplines of the [[atmospheric sciences]]. Meteorology and [[hydrology]] compose the interdisciplinary field of [[hydrometeorology]].
Interactions between [[Earth's atmosphere]] and the oceans are part of coupled ocean-atmosphere studies. Meteorology has application in many diverse fields such as the military, energy production, transport, agriculture and construction.
==Sub-classifications==
In the study of the atmosphere, meteorology can be divided into distinct areas of emphasis depending on the temporal scope and spatial scope of interest. At one extreme of this scale is climatology. In the timescales of hours to days, meteorology separates into micro-, meso-, and synoptic scale meteorology. Respectively, the [[geospatial]] size of each of these three scales relates directly with the appropriate timescale.
Other subclassifications are available based on the need by humans, or by the unique, local or broad effects that are studied within that sub-class.
;Boundary layer meteorology
[[Boundary layer]] meteorology is the study of processes in the [[air]] layer directly above [[Earth]]'s surface, known as the [[Planetary boundary layer|atmospheric boundary layer]] (ABL) or peplosphere. The effects of the surface – heating, cooling, and [[friction]] – cause [[turbulence|turbulent mixing]] within the air layer. Significant [[flux]]es of [[sensible heat|heat]], [[matter]], or [[momentum]] on time scales of less than a day are advected by turbulent motions.<ref>''Garratt, J.R., ''<u>The atmospheric boundary layer</u>'', Cambridge University Press, 1992; [[ISBN]] 0-521-38052-9.</ref> Boundary layer meteorology includes the study of all types of surface-atmosphere boundary, including ocean, lake, urban land and non-urban land.
;Mesoscale meteorology
[[Mesoscale meteorology]] is the study of atmospheric phenomena that has horizontal scales ranging from microscale limits to synoptic scale limits and a vertical scale that starts at the Earth's surface and includes the atmospheric boundary layer, [[troposphere]], [[tropopause]], and the lower section of the [[stratosphere]]. Mesoscale timescales last from less than a day to the lifetime of the event, which in some cases can be weeks. The events typically of interest are [[thunderstorm]]s, [[squall line]]s, [[weather front|fronts]], precipitation bands in [[tropical cyclone|tropical]] and [[extratropical cyclone]]s, and topographically generated weather systems such as mountain waves and sea and land breezes.<ref>''[http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary Online Glossary of Meteorology]'', [[American Meteorological Society]] [http://www.ametsoc.org/] ,2nd Ed., 2000, [http://www.allenpress.com Allen Press].</ref>
[[Image:Surface analysis.gif|right|thumb|300px|[[NOAA]]: Synoptic scale weather analysis.]]
;Synoptic scale
[[Synoptic scale]] meteorology is generally large area dynamics referred to in horizontal coordinates and with respect to time. The phenomena typically described by [[synoptic meteorology]] include events like extratropical cyclones, baroclinic troughs and ridges, [[weather front|frontal zones]], and to some extent jets. All of these are typically given on [[weather map]]s for a specific time. The minimum horizontal scale of synoptic phenomena are limited to the spacing between [[weather station|surface observation stations]]. <ref>Bluestein, H., ''<u>Synoptic-Dynamic Meteorology in Midlatitudes: Principles of Kinematics and Dynamics, Vol. 1</u>'', Oxford University Press, 1992; [[ISBN]] 0-19-506267-1</ref>
[[Image:Wiki plot 03.png|thumb|left|200px|Annual mean sea surface temperatures.]]
;Global scale
Global scale meteorology is study of weather patterns related to the transport of heat from the [[tropics]] to the [[Geographical pole|poles]]. Also, very large scale oscillations are of importance. Those oscillations have time periods typically longer than a full annual seasonal cycle, such as [[ENSO]], [[Pacific decadal oscillation|PDO]], [[MJO]], etc. Global scale pushes the thresholds of the perception of meteorology into climatology. The traditional definition of climate is pushed in to larger timescales with the further understanding of how the global oscillations cause both climate and weather disturbances in the synoptic and mesoscale timescales.
Numerical Weather Prediction is a main focus in understanding air-sea interaction, tropical meteorology, atmospheric predictability, and tropospheric/stratospheric processes.<ref>[http://www.nrlmry.navy.mil/sec7532.htm Global Modelling], US Naval Research Laboratory, Monterrey, Ca.</ref>. Currently (2007) Naval Research Laboratory in Monterey produces the atmospheric model called '''NOGAPS''', a global scale atmospheric model, this model is run operationally at Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center. There are several other global atmospheric models.
;Dynamic meteorology
Dynamic meteorology generally focuses on the [[physics]] of the atmosphere. The idea of [[air parcel]] is used to define the smallest element of the atmosphere, while ignoring the discrete molecular and chemical nature of the atmosphere. An air parcel is defined as a point in the fluid continuum of the atmosphere. The fundamental laws of fluid dynamics, thermodynamics, and motion are used to study the atmosphere. The physical quantities that characterize the state of the atmosphere are temperature, density, pressure, etc. These variables have unique values in the continuum.<ref>Holton, J.R. [2004]. An Introduction to Dynamic Meteorology, 4th Ed., Burlington, Md: Elsevier Inc.. ISBN 0-12-354015-1.</ref>
;Aviation meteorology
Aviation meteorology deals with the impact of weather on [[air traffic control|air traffic management]]. It is important for air crews to understand the implications of weather on their flight plan as well as their aircraft, as noted by the [[Aeronautical Information Manual]]<ref>An international version called the [[Aeronautical Information Publication]] contains parallel information, as well as specific information on the international airports for use by the international community.</ref>:
<blockquote>''The effects of ice on aircraft are cumulative-thrust is reduced, drag increases, lift lessens, and weight increases. The results are a decrease in stall speed and a deterioration of aircraft performance. In extreme cases, 2 to 3 inches of ice can form on the leading edge of the airfoil in less than 5 minutes. It takes but 1/2 inch of ice to reduce the lifting power of some aircraft by 50 percent and increases the frictional drag by an equal percentage.''<ref>''"7-1-22. PIREPs Relating to Airframe Icing"'', [February 16, 2006], [[Aeronautical Information Manual]], [http://www.faa.gov/airports_airtraffic/air_traffic/publications/ATpubs/AIM/ FAA AIM Online]</ref></blockquote>
;Agricultural meteorology
Meteorologists, [[soil science|soil scientists]], agricultural hydrologists, and [[agronomy|agronomists]] are persons concerned with studying the effects of weather and climate on plant distribution, [[crop yield]], water-use efficiency, [[phenology]] of plant and animal development, and the energy balance of managed and natural ecosystems. Conversely, they are interested in the role of vegetation on climate and weather.<ref>[http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/503295/description?navopenmenu=-2 Agricultural and Forest Meteorology], Elsevier, ISSN: 0168-1923.</ref>
;Hydrometeorology
[[Hydrometeorology]] is the branch of meteorology that deals with the [[hydrologic cycle]], the water budget, and the rainfall statistics of [[storm]]s.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9041744/hydrometeorology Encyclopedia Britannica], 2007.</ref> A hydrometeorologist prepares and issues forecasts of accumulating (quantitative) precipitation, heavy rain, heavy snow, and highlights areas with the potential for flash flooding. Typically the range of knowledge that is required overlaps with climatology, mesoscale and synoptic meteorology, and other geosciences.<ref>[http://www.hpc.ncep.noaa.gov/html/about2.shtml About the HPC], NOAA/ National Weather Service, National Centers for Environmental Prediction, [http://www.hpc.ncep.noaa.gov/ Hydrometeorological Prediction Center], Camp Springs, Maryland, 2007.</ref>
== History ==
{{main|Timeline of meteorology}}
=== Observation networks and weather forecasting ===
The arrival of the [[electrical telegraph]] in 1837 afforded, for the first time, a practical method for quickly gathering [[surface weather observation]]s from a wide area. This data could be used to produce maps of the state of the atmosphere for a region near the Earth's surface and to study how these states evolved through time. To make frequent weather forecasts based on these data required a reliable network of observations, but it was not until 1849 that the [[Smithsonian Institution]] began to establish an observation network across the [[United States]] under the leadership of [[Joseph Henry]] <ref>[http://www.si.edu/archives/ihd/jhp/joseph03.htm Smithsonian Institution Archives<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>. Similar observation networks were established in [[Europe]] at this time. In 1854, the [[United Kingdom]] government appointed [[Robert FitzRoy]] to the new office of ''Meteorological Statist to the Board of Trade'' with the role of gathering weather observations at sea. FitzRoy's office became the [[UKMO|United Kingdom Meteorological Office]] in 1854, the first national meteorological service in the world. The first daily weather forecasts made by FitzRoy's Office were published in ''[[The Times]]'' newspaper in 1860. The following year a system was introduced of hoisting storm warning cones at principal ports when a gale was expected.
Over the next 50 years many countries established national meteorological services: Finnish Meteorological Central Office (1881) was formed from part of Magnetic Observatory of [[Helsinki University]]; [[India Meteorological Department]] (1889) established following tropical cyclone and [[monsoon]] related [[famine]]s in the previous decades; [[United States Weather Bureau]] (1890) was established under the [[United States Department of Agriculture]]; [[Bureau of Meteorology|Australian Bureau of Meteorology]] (1905) established by a Meteorology Act to unify existing state meteorological services.
=== Coriolis effect ===
Understanding the kinematics of how exactly the rotation of the Earth affects airflow was partial at first. Late in the 19th century the full extent of the large scale interaction of [[pressure gradient force]] and deflecting force that in the end causes air masses to move ''along'' [[isobar]]s was understood. Early in the 20th century this deflecting force was named the '''[[Coriolis effect]]''' after [[Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis]], who had published in 1835 on the energy yield of machines with rotating parts, such as waterwheels. In 1856, [[William Ferrel]] proposed the existence of a [[Ferrel cell|circulation cell]] in the mid-latitudes with air being deflected by the Coriolis force to create the prevailing westerly winds.
=== Numerical weather prediction ===
[[Image:Weather Bureau 1965.jpg|200px|thumb|A meteorologist at the console of the IBM 7090 in the Joint Numerical Weather Prediction Unit. c. 1965]]
In 1904, Norwegian scientist [[Vilhelm Bjerknes]] first postulated that prognostication of the weather is possible from calculations based upon [[physical law|natural laws]].
Early in the 20th century, advances in the understanding of atmospheric physics led to the foundation of modern [[numerical weather prediction]]. In 1922, [[Lewis Fry Richardson]] published "Weather prediction by numerical process," which described how small terms in the fluid dynamics equations governing atmospheric flow could be neglected to allow numerical solutions to be found. However, the sheer number of calculations required was too large to be completed without the use of computers.
At this time in Norway a group of meteorologists led by [[Vilhelm Bjerknes]] developed the model that explains the generation, intensification and ultimate decay (the life cycle) of [[extratropical cyclone|mid-latitude cyclones]], introducing the idea of [[front (meteorology)|front]]s, that is, sharply defined boundaries between [[air mass]]es. The group included [[Carl-Gustaf Rossby]] (who was the first to explain the large scale atmospheric flow in terms of [[fluid dynamics]]), [[Tor Bergeron]] (who first determined the mechanism by which rain forms) and [[Jacob Bjerknes]].
Starting in the 1950s, [[number|numerical]] experiments with computers became feasible. The first [[weather forecast]]s derived this way used [[barotropic]] (that means, single-vertical-level) models, and could successfully predict the large-scale movement of midlatitude [[Rossby wave]]s, that is, the pattern of [[low pressure area|atmospheric lows]] and [[high pressure area|highs]].
In the 1960s, the [[chaos|chaotic]] nature of the atmosphere was first observed and understood by [[Edward Lorenz]], founding the field of [[chaos theory]]. These advances have led to the current use of [[ensemble forecasting]] in most major forecasting centers, to take into account uncertainty arising from the chaotic nature of the atmosphere.
==Equipment==
[[Image:Huracán Hugo.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Satellite image of [[Hurricane Hugo]] with a [[polar low]] visible at the top of the image.]]
{{main|List of weather instruments}}
Generally speaking, each science has its own unique sets of laboratory equipment. However, meteorology is a science which does not use much lab equipment but relies more on field-mode observation equipment. In some aspects this can make simple observations slide on the erroneous side.
In science, an observation, or ''observable'', is an abstract idea that can be measured and data can be taken. In the atmosphere, there are many things or qualities of the atmosphere that can be measured. Rain, which can be observed, or seen anywhere and anytime was one of the first ones to be measured historically. Also, two other accurately measured ''qualities'' are wind and humidity. Neither of these can be ''seen'' but can be felt. The devices to measure these three sprang up in the mid-15th century and were respectively the [[rain gauge]], the [[anemometer]], and the [[hygrometer]].<ref>Many attempts had been made prior to the 15th century to construct adequate equipment to measure the many atmospheric variables. Many were faulty in some way or were simply not reliable. Even [[Aristotle]] notes this in some of his work; ''as the difficulty'' to measure the air.</ref>
Sets of surface measurements are important data to meteorologists. They give a snapshot of a variety of weather conditions at one single location and are usually at a [[weather station]], a [[ship]] or a [[weather buoy]]. The measurements taken at a weather station can include any number of atmospheric observables. Usually, [[temperature]], [[atmospheric pressure|pressure]], [[wind]] measurements, and [[humidity]] are the variables that are measured by a [[thermometer]], [[barometer]], [[anemometer]], and [[hygrometer]], respectively.
Upper air data are of crucial importance for weather forecasting. The most widely used technique is launches of [[radiosondes]]. Supplementing the radiosondes a [[Aircraft Meteorological Data Relay|network of aircraft collection]] is organized by the [[World Meteorological Organization]].
[[Remote sensing]], as used in meteorology, is the concept of collecting data from remote weather events and subsequently producing weather information. The common types of remote sensing are [[Radar]], [[Lidar]], and [[satellites]] (or [[photogrammetry]]). Each collects data about the atmosphere from a remote location and, usually, stores the data where the instrument is located. RADAR and LIDAR are not passive because both use [[EM radiation]] to illuminate a specific portion of the atmosphere.<ref>Peebles, Peyton, [1998], ''Radar Principles'', John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, ISBN 0-471-25205-0.</ref>
The 1960 launch of the first successful [[weather satellite]], [[TIROS-1]], marked the beginning of the age where weather information became available globally. Weather satellites along with more general-purpose Earth-observing satellites circling the earth at various altitudes have become an indispensable tool for studying a wide range of phenomena from forest fires to [[El Niño]].
In recent years, [[climate model]]s have been developed that feature a resolution comparable to older weather prediction models. These climate models are used to investigate long-term [[climate]] shifts, such as what effects might be caused by human emission of [[greenhouse gas]]es.
==Weather forecasting==
{{Main article|Weather forecasting}}
[[Image:Day5pressureforecast.gif|thumb|right|250 px|Forecast of surface pressures five days into the future for the north Pacific, North America, and north Atlantic ocean.]]
Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] for a future time and a given location. Human beings have attempted to predict the weather informally for millennia, and formally since at least the nineteenth century.<ref>Mistic House. [http://www.mistichouse.com/astrology-lessons.htm Astrology Lessons, History, Predition, Skeptics, and Astrology Compatibility.] Retrieved on [[2008-01-12]].</ref><ref>Eric D. Craft. [http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/craft.weather.forcasting.history An Economic History of Weather Forecasting.] Retrieved on [[2007-04-15]].</ref> Weather forecasts are made by collecting quantitative [[data]] about the current state of the atmosphere and using scientific understanding of atmospheric processes to project how the atmosphere will evolve.<ref>[[NASA]]. [http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Library/WxForecasting/wx2.html Weather Forecasting Through the Ages.] Retrieved on [[2008-05-25]].</ref>
Once an all human endeavor based mainly upon changes in [[Atmospheric pressure|barometric pressure]], current weather conditions, and sky condition,<ref>Weather Doctor. [http://www.islandnet.com/~see/weather/eyes/barometer3.htm Applying The Barometer To Weather Watching.] Retrieved on [[2008-05-25]].</ref><ref>Mark Moore. [http://www.nwac.us/education_resources/Field_forecasting.pdf Field Forecasting - A Short Summary.] Retrieved on [[2008-05-25]].</ref> [[numerical weather prediction|forecast models]] are now used to determine future conditions. Human input is still required to pick the best possible forecast model to base the forecast upon, which involves pattern recognition skills, [[teleconnection]]s, knowledge of model performance, and knowledge of model biases. The [[chaos theory|chaotic]] nature of the atmosphere, the massive computational power required to solve the equations that describe the atmosphere, error involved in measuring the initial conditions, and an incomplete understanding of atmospheric processes mean that forecasts become less accurate as the difference in current time and the time for which the forecast is being made (the ''range'' of the forecast) increases. The use of ensembles and model consensus help narrow the error and pick the most likely outcome.<ref name="Klaus">Klaus Weickmann, Jeff Whitaker, Andres Roubicek and Catherine Smith. [http://www.cdc.noaa.gov/spotlight/12012001/ The Use of Ensemble Forecasts to Produce Improved Medium Range (3-15 days) Weather Forecasts.] Retrieved on [[2007-02-16]].</ref><ref name="TBK">Todd Kimberlain. [http://www.hpc.ncep.noaa.gov/research/TropicalTalk.ppt Tropical cyclone motion and intensity talk (June 2007).] Retrieved on [[2007-07-21]].</ref><ref>Richard J. Pasch, Mike Fiorino, and [[Chris Landsea]]. [http://www.emc.ncep.noaa.gov/research/NCEP-EMCModelReview2006/TPC-NCEP2006.ppt TPC/NHC’S REVIEW OF THE NCEP PRODUCTION SUITE FOR 2006.] Retrieved on [[2008-05-05]].</ref>
There are a variety of end users to weather forecasts. Weather warnings are important forecasts because they are used to protect life and property.<ref>[[National Weather Service]]. [http://www.weather.gov/mission.shtml National Weather Service Mission Statement.] Retrieved on [[2008-05-25]].</ref> Forecasts based on [[temperature]] and [[Precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]] are important to [[agriculture]],<ref>Blair Fannin. [http://southwestfarmpress.com/news/061406-Texas-weather/ Dry weather conditions continue for Texas.] Retrieved on [[2008-05-26]].</ref><ref>Dr. Terry Mader. [http://beef.unl.edu/stories/200004030.shtml Drought Corn Silage.] Retrieved on [[2008-05-26]].</ref><ref>Kathryn C. Taylor. [http://pubs.caes.uga.edu/caespubs/pubcd/C877.htm Peach Orchard Establishment and Young Tree Care.] Retrieved on [[2008-05-26]].</ref><ref>[[Associated Press]]. [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D0CE5DB1E30F937A25752C0A967958260 After Freeze, Counting Losses to Orange Crop.] Retrieved on [[2008-05-26]].</ref> and therefore to commodity traders within stock markets. Temperature forecasts are used by utility companies to estimate demand over coming days.<ref>[[The New York Times]]. [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F0CE7D9123AF935A15751C0A965958260 FUTURES/OPTIONS; Cold Weather Brings Surge In Prices of Heating Fuels.] Retrieved on [[2008-05-25]].</ref><ref>[[BBC]]. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/5212724.stm Heatwave causes electricity surge.] Retrieved on [[2008-05-25]].</ref><ref>Toronto Catholic Schools. [http://www.tcdsb.org/environment/energydrill/EDSP_KeyMessages_FINAL.pdf The Seven Key Messages of the Energy Drill Program.] Retrieved on [[2008-05-25]].</ref> On an everyday basis, people use weather forecasts to determine what to wear on a given day. Since outdoor activities are severely curtailed by heavy [[rain]], [[snow]] and the [[wind chill]], forecasts can be used to plan activities around these events, and to plan ahead and survive them.
== References ==
{{reflist|2}}
== Further reading ==
* Byers, Horace. General Meteorology. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1994.
*{{cite book
|last = Garret
|first = J.R.
|title = The atmospheric boundary layer
|origdate = 1992
|publisher = Cambridge University Press
|isbn = 0-521-38052-9 }}
*{{cite book
|authorlink = http://www.ametsoc.org/
|others = American Meteorological Society
|title = Glossary of Meteorology
|origdate = 2000
|url = http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary
|edition = 2nd Ed.
|publisher = Allen Press }}
*{{cite book
|last = Bluestein
|first = H
|title = Synoptic-Dynamic Meteorology in Midlatitudes: Principles of Kinematics and Dynamics, Vol. 1
|origdate = 1992
|publisher = [[Oxford University Press]]
|isbn = 0-19-506267-1 }}
* {{cite book
|last = Bluestein
|first = H
|title = Synoptic-Dynamic Meteorology in Midlatitudes: Volume II: Observations and Theory of Weather Systems
|origdate = 1993
|publisher = Oxford University Press
|isbn = 0-19-506268-X }}
* {{cite book
|last = Reynolds
|first = R
|title = Guide to Weather
|origdate = 2005
|publisher = Firefly Books Inc
|location = Buffalo, New York
|isbn = 1-55407-110-0
|pages = 208 }}
*{{cite book
|last = Holton
|first = J.R.
|title = An Introduction to Dynamic Meteorology
|origdate = 2004
|url = http://elsevier.com.uk
|edition = 4th Ed.
|publisher = Elsevier Inc.
|location = Burlington, Md
|isbn = 0-12-354015-1 }}
== External links ==
''Please see [[weather forecasting]] for weather forecast sites.''
* [http://www.shodor.org/metweb/ Air Quality Meteorology] - Online course that introduces the basic concepts of meteorology and air quality necessary to understand meteorological computer models. Written at a bachelor's degree level.
* [http://www.globe.gov/globe_flash.html The GLOBE Program] - (Global Learning and Observations to Benefit the Environment) An international environmental science and education program that links students, teachers, and the scientific research community in an effort to learn more about the environment through student data collection and observation.
* [http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary Glossary of Meteorology] - From the American Meteorological Society, an excellent reference of nomenclature, equations, and concepts for the more advanced reader.
* [http://www.srh.noaa.gov/srh/jetstream/ JetStream - An Online School for Weather] - National Weather Service
* [http://www.bom.gov.au/lam/ Learn About Meteorology] - Australian Bureau of Meteorology
* [http://weather.about.com The Weather Guide] - Weather Tutorials and News at About.com
* [http://meted.ucar.edu/ Meteorology Education and Training (MetEd)] - The COMET Program
* [http://www.lib.noaa.gov/ NOAA Central Library] - National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration
* [http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu The World Weather 2010 Project] The University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
* [http://dapper.pmel.noaa.gov/dchart/index.html?dsetid=e9f4fb6cf715cddaf101a13e3ce1ce9 NOAA Weather Navigator] Plot and download archived data from thousands of worldwide weather stations
* [http://www.ogimet.com/index.phtml.en Ogimet - online data from meteorological stations of the world, obtained through NOAA free services]
Satellite imagery:
* [http://www.goes.noaa.gov/ Geostationary Satellite Imagery] - NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service
* [http://www.meto.gov.uk/weather/satellite/ Satellite Imagery] - UK Met Office
Base Reflectivity (Radar):
* [http://radar.weather.gov/ Find and click with NWS]
* [http://radar.weather.gov/Conus/index_lite.php Reflectivity mosaic]
Meteorology during Solar Eclipse
* [http://hvezdarna.plzen-city.cz/zatmeni/semm/en/index.html Solar Eclipse Meteorological Measurement]
{| style="border:3px solid; background:#efefef;"
|'''Links to other keywords in meteorology'''
|
'''Atmospheric conditions:''' [[Absolute stable air]] | [[Temperature inversion]] | [[Dine's compensation]] | [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]] | [[Cyclone]] | [[anticyclone]] | [[Thermal]] | [[Tropical cyclone]] (hurricane or typhoon) | [[Vertical draft]] | [[Extratropical cyclone]]
'''[[Weather forecasting]]''': [[atmospheric pressure]] | [[Low pressure area]] | [[High pressure area]] | [[dew point]] | [[weather front]] | [[jet stream]] | [[windchill]] | [[heat index]] | [[Equivalent potential temperature|Theta-e]] | [[primitive equations]] | [[Pilot Reports]]
'''[[Storm]]''': [[thunderstorm]] | [[lightning]] | [[thunder]] | [[hail]] | [[tornado]] | [[convection]] | [[blizzard]] | [[supercell]]
'''[[Climate]]''': [[El Niño]] | [[monsoon]] | [[flood]] | [[drought]] | [[Global warming]] | [[Effect of sun angle on climate]].
'''[[Air Pollution]]''': [[Atmospheric dispersion modeling|Air pollution dispersion modeling]] | [[Compilation of atmospheric dispersion models]] | [[Smog]]
'''Other phenomena:''' [[deposition (meteorology)|deposition]] | [[dust devil]] | [[fog]] | [[tide]] | [[wind]] | [[cloud]] | [[air mass]] | [[evaporation]] | [[sublimation (chemistry)|sublimation]] | [[ice]] | [[crepuscular rays]] | [[anticrepuscular rays]]
'''Weather-related disasters:''' [[weather disasters]] | [[extreme weather]]
'''Climatic or Atmospheric Patterns:''' [[Alberta clipper]] | [[El Niño]] | [[Derecho]] | [[Gulf Stream]] | [[La Niña]] | [[Jet stream]] | [[North Atlantic Oscillation]] | [[Madden-Julian oscillation]] | [[Pacific decadal oscillation]] | [[Pineapple Express]] | [[Sirocco]] | [[Siberian Express]] | [[Walker circulation]]
|}
== See also ==
{{WeatherPortal}}
{|
|- valign=top
|
*[[American Practical Navigator]]
*[[Atmospheric circulation]]
*[[Atmospheric dynamics]]
*[[Atmospheric layers]]
*[[Atmospheric models]]
*[[Atmospheric thermodynamics]]
*[[ENSO]] (El Niño-Southern Oscillation)
|
*[[List of weather instruments]]
*[[List of meteorology institutions]]
*[[List of meteorology topics]]
*[[Madden-Julian oscillation]]
*[[Space weather]]
*[[Walker circulation]]
|}
{{Template group
|list =
{{Meteorological variables}}
{{Meteorological equipment}}
{{Earth-based meteorological observation}}
{{Space-based meteorological observation}} }}
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[[sv:Meteorologi]]
[[th:อุตุนิยมวิทยา]]
[[vi:Khí tượng học]]
[[tr:Meteoroloji]]
[[uk:Метеорологія]]
[[vec:Meteorołogia]]
[[wa:Meteyorolodjeye]]
[[zh:气象学]]