Military history of Puerto Rico
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[[Image:STS034-76-88.jpg|150px|right|thumb|'''Puerto Rico''']]
The '''recorded [[military history]]''' of '''[[Puerto Rico]]''' encompasses the period from the 16th century, when [[Spanish people|Spanish]] [[conquistador]]es battled native [[Taino]]s in the rebellion of 1511, to the present employment of Puerto Ricans in the [[United States Armed Forces]] in the military campaigns in [[Afghanistan]] and [[Iraq]].
Puerto Rico was part of the [[Spanish Empire]] for four centuries, when the Puerto Ricans defended themselves against invasions from the [[British Empire|British]], [[French colonization of the Americas|French]], and [[Dutch colonization of the Americas|Dutch]]. During the mid-19th century, the quest for [[Latin America]]n independence from [[Spain]] spread to Puerto Rico, culminating in the failed revolution known as ''[[Grito de Lares|El Grito de Lares]]''. The island was invaded by the [[United States]] during the [[Spanish-American War]]; the war ended when Spain officially ceded the island under the [[1898 Treaty of Paris]]. Puerto Rico became a [[United States territory]] and a military regiment known as the Porto Rico Regiment was established on the island.
As citizens of the United States, Puerto Ricans have participated in every major United States military engagement from [[World War I]], with Puerto Rico's [[65th Infantry|65th Infantry Regiment]] distinguishing themselves in combat during the [[Korean War]]. The following is brief history of the military events in which Puerto Ricans have participated.
==Conflict with the Tainos==
[[Christopher Columbus]] discovered the island of Puerto Rico on [[November 19]], [[1493]] during his second voyage to the New World. The island was inhabited by the [[Arawak]] group of [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|indigenous peoples]] known as Tainos, who called the island "Borikén" or "Borinquen". Columbus named the island ''[[San Juan Bautista]]'' in honor of [[John the Baptist|Saint John the Baptist]]. The main port was named ''Puerto Rico (Rich Port)'' (eventually the island was renamed Puerto Rico and the port which was to evolve into the capital of the island was renamed San Juan). The conquistador [[Juan Ponce de León]] accompanied Columbus on this trip.<ref name=CEE>[http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0839647.html Ponce de Leon, Juan. ''The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia'', 6th ed. 2005. Columbia University Press.]</ref>
[[Image:Agueybana.JPG|right|250px|thumb|left|Cacique Agüeybaná greeting Juan Ponce de León]]
When Ponce de León arrived in Puerto Rico, he was well received by the ''Cacique'' ([[Tribal chief]]) [[Agüeybaná]] (The Great Sun), chieftain of the island Taino tribes. Besides the conquistadors, some of the first colonists were farmers and miners in search of [[gold mining|gold]]. In 1508, Ponce de León became the first appointed governor of Puerto Rico, founding the first settlement of [[Caparra]] between the modern-day cities of [[Bayamón, Puerto Rico|Bayamón]] and San Juan. After being named Governor, de León and the conquistadors forced the Tainos to work in the mines and to build fortifications; many Tainos died as a result of cruel treatment during their labor. In 1510, upon Agüeybaná's death, his brother Agüeybaná II (The Brave) and a group of Tainos led [[Diego Salcedo (soldier)|Diego Salcedo]], a Spaniard, to a river and drowned him, proving to his people that the white men were not gods. Upon realizing this, Agüeybaná II led his people in the Taino rebellion of 1511, the first rebellion in the island against the better armed Spanish forces. The colonists formed a citizens' [[militia]] to defend themselves against the attacks. Agüeybaná II was shot and killed, ending the first recorded military action in Puerto Rico.<ref> ''Naraciones historicas by Cayetano Coll y Toste, Pub. Editorial Cultural 1976 Pg.57 ISBN 84-399-5350-X.</ref>
==Europeans fight over Puerto Rico==
===16th Century===
[[Image:CastilloElNorro.jpg|thumb|right|El Morro, Puerto Rico's main military fortification]]
Puerto Rico was considered the "Key to the Antilles" by the Spanish because of its location as a way station and port for Spanish vessels. In 1540, with revenue from [[Mexico|Mexican]] mines, the Spanish settlers began the construction of [[Fort San Felipe del Morro]] ("the promontory") in San Juan. With the completion of the initial phase of the construction in 1589 ''El Morro'' became the island's main military fortification, guarded by professional soldiers. The rest of Puerto Rico, which had been reorganized in 1580 as a [[Captaincy General of Puerto Rico|captaincy general]], had to rely on only a handful of soldiers and the local volunteer militia to defend the island against militant and pirate attacks.
The main enemies of Spain at the time were the British and the Dutch. They, however were not the only enemies that Spain faced in the Caribbean during this period. On [[October 11]], [[1528]], the French sacked and burned the settlement of [[San Germán, Puerto Rico|San Germán]] during an attempt to capture the island, destroying many of the island's first settlements—including Guánica, Sotomayor, Daguao and Loiza—before the local militia forced them to retreat. The only settlement that remained was San Juan.<ref name=Miller/>
In 1585, war broke out between England and Spain. The [[Anglo-Spanish War (1585)|Anglo-Spanish War]] was not limited to Europe—extending to Spanish and English territories in the Americas. On [[November 22]], [[1595]], [[Sir Francis Drake]], the [[vice-admiral]] in command of the [[Royal Navy]] that overcame the [[Spanish Armada]], and [[John Hawkins|Sir John Hawkins]] attempted an invasion of the island with 26 vessels. Unable to take the island, Drake set San Juan on fire. In 1596, Drake died of [[dysentery]] after another unsuccessful attack on San Juan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sirfrancisdrakehistory.net/ |title=Sir Francis Drake |accessmonthday=October 10 |accessyear=2006 |author= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher=}}</ref> On [[June 15]], [[1598]], the British fleet, led by [[George Clifford, 3rd Earl of Cumberland|George Clifford]], landed in Santurce and held the island for several months. He was forced to abandon the island upon an outbreak of bacillary dysentery among his troops. In 1599, 400 additional soldiers and 46 cannons were sent to the island along with a new governor, Alonso de Mercado, to rebuild the city.<ref>'' Colle y Toste (1918)and Dr. Oscar Costa-Mandry (1935)</ref>
===17th Century===
The [[Netherlands]] was a world military and commercial power by 1625, competing in the Caribbean with the British. The Dutch wanted to establish a military stronghold in the area, and dispatched Captain Balduino Enrico (Boudewijn Hendricksz) to capture Puerto Rico. On [[September 24]], [[1625]], Enrico arrived at the coast of San Juan with 17 ships and 2,000 men. Enrico sent a message to the governor of Puerto Rico, Juan de Haros, ordering him to surrender the island. De Haros refused, he was an experienced military man and expected an attack in the section known as Boqueron. He therefore had that area fortified. However, the Dutch took another route and landed in La Puntilla.<ref name=Miller/>
[[Image:Fortaleza.jpg|thumb|[[La Fortaleza]], Puerto Rico's governor mansion]]
De Haro realized that an invasion was inevitable and ordered Captain [[Juan de Amezquita]] plus 300 men stationed at El [[Morro Castle]] and the city of San Juan evacuated. He also had former governor Juan de Vargas organize an armed resistance in the interior of the island. On [[September 25]] Enrico attacked San Juan, besieging El Morro Castle and [[La Fortaleza]] (the Governor's Mansion). He invaded the capital city and set up his headquarters in [[La Fortaleza]]. The Dutch were counterattacked by the civilian militia on land and by the cannons of the Spanish troops in El [[Morro Castle]]. The land battle left 60 Dutch soldiers dead and Enrico wounded. The Dutch ships at sea were boarded by Puerto Ricans who defeated those aboard. After a long battle, the Spanish soldiers and volunteers of the city's militia were able to defend the city from the attack and save the island from an invasion. On [[October 21]], Enrico set La Fortaleza and the city ablaze. Captains Amezquita and Andre Botello decided to put a stop to the destruction and led 200 men in a attack against the enemy's front and rear guard. They drove Enrico and his men from their trenches and into the ocean in their haste to reach their ships.<ref name="PRH">[http://infomotions.com/etexts/gutenberg/dirs/1/2/2/7/12272/12272.htm The History of Puerto Rico From the Spanish Discovery to the American Occupation / Middeldyk, R.A. Van Identifier: etext12272 The History of Puerto Rico From the Spanish Discovery to the American Occupation]</ref><ref name="Book">Insight Guides Puerto Rico; By Barbara Balletto; Pg. 32; Published 2003 Langenscheidt Publishing Group; ISBN:9812349499</ref> Enrico upon his retreat would leave behind him one of his largest ships, stranded, and over 400 dead.<ref name="PRH"> He then tried to invade the island by attacking the town of [[Aguada, Puerto Rico|Aguada]]. He was again defeated by the local militia and abandoned the idea of invading Puerto Rico.<ref name=Miller/><ref name="Book"/>
[[Image:Miguel Enriquez.jpg|left|130px|thumb|Captain Miguel Henriquez]]
While Spain and Britain were in a power struggle in the New World, Puerto Rican [[privateer]]ing of British ships was encouraged by the Spanish Crown. Captain [[Miguel Henriquez]] and Captain [[Roberto Cofresi]] (in the 19th Century) were two of the most famous pirates. In the latter half of the 17th century, Henriquez, a [[shoemaking|shoemaker]] by occupation, decided to try his luck as a pirate. He showed great valor in intercepting British merchant ships and other ships dedicated to [[List of items for which possession is restricted|contraband]] that were infesting the seas of Puerto Rico and the [[Atlantic Ocean]] in general. Miguel Henriquez organized an expeditionary force which fought and defeated the British in the island of Vieques. Henriquez was received as a national hero when he returned the island of Vieques to the Spanish Empire and to the governorship of Puerto Rico. In recognition of his service, the Spanish Crown awarded Henriquez the ''Medalla de Oro de la Real Efigie'' (The Gold Medal of the Royal Image), named him "Captain of the Seas and Land", and gave him a [[letter of marque and reprisal]] thus granting him the privileges of privateer.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://biblioteca.uprh.edu/cultural/rebelion_masas.htm|title=Centro Cultural |accessmonthday=October 22 |accessyear=2006 |author=Santiago Maunez Vizcarrondo |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher=Dra. Antonia Sáez|language=Spanish}}</ref>
===18th Century===
[[Image:Antonio de los Reyes Correa.JPG|150px|left|thumb|Captain Antonio de los Reyes Correa, militia commander and national hero]]
The British continued their attacks against Spanish colonies in the Caribbean, taking minor islands including [[Vieques, Puerto Rico|Vieques]] east of Puerto Rico. On [[August 5]], [[1702]], the city of [[Arecibo, Puerto Rico|Arecibo]], on Puerto Rico's northern coast, was invaded by the British. Armed only with spears and [[machete]]s, under the command of Captain [[Antonio de los Reyes Correa]], 30 militia members defended the city from the British, who were armed with [[musket]]s and [[sword]]s. The British were defeated, suffering 22 losses on land and 8 at sea. Reyes Correa was declared a [[national hero]] and was awarded the ''[[Medalla de Oro de la Real Efigie]]'' ("Gold Medal of the Royal Image") and the title of "Captain of Infantry" by [[Philip V of Spain|King Philip V]].<ref>[http://welcome.topuertorico.org/city/arecibo.shtml Captain Correa]</ref>
Native-born Puerto Rican (''criollos'') had petitioned the Spanish Crown to serve in the regular Spanish army, resulting in the 1741 organization of the Regimiento Fijo de Puerto Rico. The Fijo served in the defense of Puerto Rico and other Spanish overseas possessions, performing in battles in Santo Domingo, other islands in the Caribbean, and South America, most notably in [[Venezuela]]. However, Puerto Rican complaints that the Fijo was being used to suppress the revolution in Venezuela caused the Crown to bring the Fijo home and in 1815 it was mustered out of service.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.brigade-napoleon.org/infantrie/spanish/Spanish_Regiment.htm |title=Regimento Fijo de Puerto Rico |accessmonthday=October 6 |accessyear=2006 |author= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher= }}</ref>
In 1765, the Spanish Crown sent Field Marshall [[Alejandro O'Reilly]] to Puerto Rico to form an organized militia. O'Reilly, known as the "Father of the Puerto Rican Militia", oversaw training to bring fame and glory to the militia in future military engagements, nicknaming the civilian militia the "Disciplined Militia." O'Reilly was later appointed governor of colonial [[Louisiana]] in 1769 and became known as "Bloody O'Reilly."<ref name=Cultura>''Instituto de Cultura Puertorriqueña''</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://users.ev1.net/~gpmoran/ch1.htm |title=The Celtic Connection |accessmonthday=October 6 |accessyear=2006 |author= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher= }}</ref>
[[Image:18th century PR Militia.jpg|right|thumb|Type of uniform worn by the Puerto Rican Militias]]
During the [[American Revolutionary War]], Spain lent the rebelling colonists the use of its ports in Puerto Rico, through which flowed financial aid and arms for their cause. An incident occurred in the coast of Mayagüez, in 1777, between two [[Continental Navy]] ships, the ''Eudawook'' and the ''Henry'', and a Royal Navy warship, [[HMS Glasgow (1757)|HMS ''Glasgow'']]. Both American ships were chased by the larger and more powerful ''Glasgow''. The American colonial ships were close to the coast of [[Mayagüez]]; members of the Puerto Rican militia of that town, realizing that something was wrong, signaled for the ships to dock at the town's bay. After the ships docked, the crews of both ships got off and some Mayagüezanos boarded and raised the Spanish flag on both ships. The commander of the ''Glasgow'' became aware of the situation and asked the island's governor, Jose Dufresne to turn over the ships. Dufresne refused and ordered the British warship out of the Puerto Rican dock.<ref>{{cite news |author= Brenda A.Mari|title=Something Sweet Like Mango in the Air: A Primer on Mayagüez|url=http://www.puertorico-herald.org/issues2/2005/vol09n12/PRSST0912-en.shtml |format= |work= | publisher=Puerto Rico Herald |pages= |page= | date=March 25, 2005 | accessdate=2006-10-06}}</ref>
[[Image:Bernardo de Galvez.jpg|thumb|right|150px|General Bernardo de Gálvez, general of the Spanish colonial army in North America]]
The governor of [[Louisiana]], [[Bernardo de Gálvez]], was named general of the Spanish colonial army in North America. In 1779, Galvez and his troops, composed of Puerto Ricans and other Hispanic groups, distracted the British from the revolution by capturing the cities of [[Baton Rouge, Louisiana|Baton Rouge]], [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]], [[Pensacola, Florida|Pensacola]] and [[St. Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]]. Galvez and his troops also provided the Continental Army with guns, cloth, gunpowder and medicine shipped from [[Cuba]] up the [[Mississippi River]].<ref>''Bernardo De Galvez: Hero of the American Revolution'' by Lorenzo G. Lafarelle, p. 57 Pub. Eakin Press and Marion Koogler McNay (1992), ISBN 0-89015-849-5</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lasculturas.com/lib/law_RevolutionMD.htm |title=Maryland State Resolution on the Role Played by Hispanics In The Achievement of American Independence |accessmonthday=October 7 |accessyear=2006 |author=Hector Díaz |date= [[March 16]] [[1996]]|year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher=Lasculturas.com }}</ref>
[[Image:MilicianoDisciMoreno.jpg|left|thumb|100px|Uniform used by the Moreno Fijo Regiment]]
On [[February 17]], [[1797]], the appointed governor of Puerto Rico, [[brigadier general]] Ramón de Castro, received the news that Great Britain had invaded the island of Trinidad. Believing that Puerto Rico would be the next British objective he decided to put the local militia on alert and to prepare the island's forts against any military action. On [[April 17]], [[1797]], British ships under the command of Sir [[Ralph Abercromby]] approached the coastal town of [[Loíza, Puerto Rico|Loíza]], to the east of San Juan. On [[April 18]], British soldiers and German mercenaries ("[[Hessian]]s") landed on Loíza's beach. Under the command of de Castro, British ships were attacked with artillery and mortar fire from both El Morro and the San Gerónimo fortresses. The British twice tried to take the Martín Peña Bridge, a key passage to the San Juan islet and were met by the likes of Sergeants [[Jose and Francisco Diaz]]. After fiercely fighting the Spanish forces and local militia, they were defeated in both attempts. The invasion failed because Puerto Rican volunteers and Spanish troops fought back and defended the island. The British also attacked [[Aguadilla, Puerto Rico|Aguadilla]] and Punta Salinas, but they were defeated, and the British troops that had landed on the island were taken prisoner. The British retreated on [[April 30]] to their ships and on [[May 2]] set sail northward. Because of the defeat given to the British forces, governor Ramon de Castro petitioned Spanish King [[Charles IV of Spain|Charles IV]] for recognition for the victors; he was promoted to Field Marshal and several others were promoted and given pay raises.<ref>Municipio de San Juan. Actas del Cabildo 1792–1798., San Juan: M. Pareja, 1967, 287.</ref><ref name=Miller>''Historias de Puerto Rico'' by Paul G. Miller, (1947) pgs. 221–237.</ref>
After Abercromby's defeat the British persisted in invading Puerto Rico with unsuccessful skirmishes on the coastal towns of Aguadilla (December 1797), Ponce, Cabo Rojo, and Mayagüez until 1802 when the war finally came to an end.<ref>Brau, Salvador. Historia de Puerto Rico., San Juan: Editorial Coqui, 1966; 214.</ref>
===19th Century===
France had threatened to invade the Spanish Colony of [[Santo Domingo]]. In 1808, the Spanish Crown sent their Navy, under the command of Puerto Rican Admiral [[Ramon Power y Giralt]], to prevent the invasion of Santo Domingo by the [[France|French]] by enforcing a [[blockade]]. He was successful and was proclaimed a hero by the Spanish Government.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.zonai.com/promociones/biografias/1001/power.asp |title=Biografías - Ramon Power |accessmonthday=October 7 |accessyear=2006 |author=Carmen Leonor Rivera-Lassén y Cristina Fernández |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher=El Nuevo Día |pages= |language=Spanish}}</ref>
==Revolt against Spain==
===South America===
[[Image:Antonio Valero Bernabe.gif|thumb|left|General [[Antonio Valero de Bernabe]], the "Liberator from Puerto Rico"]]
In the early 19th century the Spanish colonies, in what is known as the [[Latin American revolutions]], began to revolt against Spanish rule. [[Antonio Valero de Bernabe]] was a Puerto Rican military leader known in Latin America as the "Liberator from Puerto Rico". Valero was a recent graduate of the Spanish Military Academy when [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] convinced King Charles IV of Spain to permit him to pass through Spanish soil with the sole purpose of attacking [[Portugal]]. When Napoleon refused to leave, the Spanish government declared war. Valero joined the Spanish Army and helped defeat Napoleon's army at the [[Siege of Saragossa (1808)|Siege of Saragossa]]. Valero became a hero; he was promoted to the rank of colonel and was awarded many decorations.<ref name=Valero>{{cite web |url=http://www.zonai.com/promociones/biografias/1001/valero.asp |title=Biografías - Antonio Valero|accessmonthday=October 7 |accessyear=2006 |author=Carmen Leonor Rivera-Lassén y Cristina Fernández |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher=El Nuevo Día |pages= |language=Spanish }}</ref>
When [[Ferdinand VII of Spain|Ferdinand VII]] assumed the throne of Spain in 1813, Valero became critical of the new king's policies towards the Spanish colonies in Latin America. He developed a keen hatred of the monarchy, resigned his commission in the army, and headed for [[Mexico]]. There he joined the insurgent army headed by [[Agustín de Iturbide]], in which Valero was named chief of staff. He fought for and helped achieve [[Mexican War of Independence|Mexico's independence]] from Spain. After the Mexican victory, Iturbide proclaimed himself Emperor of Mexico. Since Valero had developed anti-monarchist feelings following his experiences in Spain, he revolted against Iturbide. His revolt failed and he attempted to escape from Mexico by way of sea.<ref name=Valero/>
Valero was captured by a Spanish pirate, who turned him over to the Spanish authorities in Cuba. Valero was imprisoned but managed to escape with the help of a group of men that identified with [[Simón Bolívar]]'s ideals. Upon learning of Bolívar's dream of creating a unified Latin America, including Puerto Rico and Cuba, Valero decided to join him. Valero stopped in [[Saint Thomas, United States Virgin Islands|St. Thomas]], where he established contacts with the Puerto Rican independence movement. He then traveled to Venezuela, where he was met by General [[Francisco de Paula Santander]].<ref name=Valero/> He next joined Bolívar and fought alongside "The Liberator" against Spain, gaining his confidence and admiration. Valero was named Military Chief of the Department of Panama, Governor of Puerto Cabello, Chief of Staff of Colombia, Minister of War and Maritime of Venezuela, and in 1849 was promoted to the rank of Brigadier General.<ref>''General Antonio Valero de Bernabe y su aventura de libertad: De Puerto Rico a San Sebastian by Lucas G. Castillo Lara (1991) Pub. Academia Nacional de Historia, ISBN 980-222-616-5</ref>
===Puerto Rico===
[[Image:Scooner Grampus.jpg|left|thumb|200px|U.S. Schooner Grampus (1821-1843)<br />Note: the "Grampus" was lost at sea with all hands in 1843<br /> and is depicted flying her National Ensigns upside down, a sign of distress.]]
The Spanish government had received many complaints from the nations whose ships were attacked by Puerto Rican pirate Captain [[Roberto Cofresi]]. Cofresi and his men had attacked eight ships, amongst them an American ship. The Spanish government, which routinely encouraged piracy against other nations, was pressured and felt obliged to pursue and capture the famous pirate. In 1824, Captain John Slout of the U.S. Naval Forces and his schooner "[[USS Grampus (1821)|U.S. "Grampus"]] engaged Cofresi in a fierce battle. The pirate Cofresi was captured, along with eleven of his crew members, and turned over to the Spanish Government. He was imprisoned in [[El Morro|El Castillo del Morro]] in San Juan. Cofresi was judged by a Spanish Council of War, found guilty, and executed by firing squad on [[March 29]] [[1825]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://vacationpuertorico.com/cofresi.html |title=The Story of...Roberto Cofresí Ramírez de Arellano |accessmonthday=October 7 |accessyear=2006 |author= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher=}}</ref>
[[Image:San cristobal cannon s.jpg|thumb|right|Fort San Cristobal]]
On [[April 13]], [[1855]], a [[mutiny]] broke out among the artillerymen at [[Fort San Cristóbal]]. They were protesting an extended two years of military service imposed by the island's Spanish governor, Garcia Cambia. The mutineers pointed their cannons towards San Juan, creating a state of panic among the population. Upon their surrender, the governor had the eight men arrested and [[Capital punishment|sentenced to death]] by [[firing squad]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nps.gov/archive/saju/sancristobal.html |title= San Cristobal|accessmonthday=October 7 |accessyear=2006 |author= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher=National Park Service}}</ref>
Many Spanish colonies had gained their independence by the mid-1850s. In Puerto Rico, there were two groups: the loyalists, who were loyal to Spain, and the ''independentistas'', who advocated independence. In 1866, Dr. [[Ramón Emeterio Betances]], [[Segundo Ruiz Belvis]], and other independence advocates met in [[New York City]] where they formed the Revolutionary Committee of Puerto Rico. An outcome of this venture was a plan to send an armed expedition from the [[Dominican Republic]] to invade the island. Several revolutionary cells were formed in the western towns and cities of Puerto Rico. Two of the most important cells were at [[Mayagüez, Puerto Rico|Mayagüez]], led by [[Mathias Brugman]] and code named "Capa Prieto" and at Lares, code-named "Centro Bravo" and headed by [[Manuel Rojas]]. "Centro Bravo" was the main center of operations and was located in the Rojas plantation of El Triunfo. Manuel Rojas was named "Commander of the Liberation Army" by Betances. [[Mariana Bracetti]] (sister-in-law of Manuel) was named "Leader of the Lares Revolutionary Council." Upon the request of Betances, Bracetti knitted the revolutionary [[Flag of Puerto Rico#Historical flags of Puerto Rico|Flag of Lares]] (''Bandera de Lares'').<ref>{{cite news |author=Carlos Rovira |title=The birth of Puerto Rico’s fight for independence |url=http://socialismandliberation.org/mag/index.php?aid=459 |format= |work= | publisher=S&L Magazine |pages= |page= | date=September 2005 | accessdate=2006-10-07}}</ref>
[[Image:Ramon Emeterio Betances.jpg|thumb|left|150px|<center>Ramón Emeterio Betances</center> [[Image:Lares Revolutionary Flag (original).jpg|center|80px]]<center>Original Lares Revolutionary Flag</center>]]
The Spanish authorities discovered the plot and were able to confiscate Betances's armed ship before it arrived in Puerto Rico. The Mayor of the town of [[Camuy, Puerto Rico|Camuy]], Manuel Gonzalez (leader of that town's revolutionary cell), was arrested and charged with treason. He learned that the Spanish Army was aware of the independence plot, and escaped to warn Manuel Rojas. Alerted, the revolutionists decided to start the revolution as soon as possible, and set the date for [[September 28]], [[1868]]. Mathias Brugman and his men joined with Manuel Rojas's men and with about 800 men and women, marched on and took the town of Lares. This was to be known as "el [[Grito de Lares (The Cry of Lares)|Grito de Lares]]." The revolutionists entered the town's church and placed Mariana Bracetti's revolutionary flag on the High Altar as a sign that the revolution had begun. They declared Puerto Rico to be the "Republic of Puerto Rico" and named [[Francisco Ramirez Medina|Francisco Ramirez]] its President. Manuel and his poorly armed followers proceeded to march on to the town of [[San Sebastián, Puerto Rico|San Sebastián]], armed only with clubs and machetes. The Spanish Army had been forewarned, and awaited with superior fire power. The revolutionists were met with deadly fire. The revolt failed, many revolutionists were killed, and at least 475, including Manuel Rojas and Mariana Bracetti, were imprisoned in the jail of [[Arecibo]] and sentenced to death.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/rojas.html |title=Manuel Ronjas |accessmonthday=October 10 |accessyear=2006 |author= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work=The World of 1898:The Spanish-American War |publisher=Library of Congress}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.proyectosalonhogar.com/BiografiasPr/mariana_bracetti.htm |title=Mariana Bracetti |accessmonthday=October 10 |accessyear=2006 |author= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher= |pages= |language=Spanish}}</ref>
Others fled and went into hiding. Mathias Brugman was hiding in a local farm where he was betrayed by a farmer named Francisco Quiñones; he was captured and executed on the spot. In 1869, fearing another revolt, the Spanish Crown disbanded the Puerto Rican Militia, which had been composed almost entirely of native-born Puerto Ricans, and also the Compañia de Artilleros Morenos de Cangrejos, a separate company of black Puerto Ricans. They then organized the Volunteer Institute, composed entirely of Spaniards and their sons.<ref>''El Grito de Lares: Puerto Rico's Revolt for independence, 1868 by Olga J. De Wagenheim (1990) Pub. Waterfront Pr. ISBN 0-943862-51-5</ref>
===Cuba===
[[Image:Gen. Juan Ruis Rivera.JPG|130px|right|thumb|General Juan Rius Rivera, Commander-in-Chief of the Cuban Liberation Army]]
In 1869, the incoming governor of Puerto Rico, Jose Laureano Sanz, in an effort to ease tensions in the island, dictated a general [[amnesty]] and released all who were involved with the [[Grito de Lares]] revolt from prison.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/bras.html |title=The changing of the guard: Puerto Rico in 1898 |accessmonthday=October 1 |accessyear=2006 |author=Marisabel Brás |date= |year= |month= |format= |work=Hispanic Division |publisher=Library of Congress |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= }}</ref> Many of these former prisoners joined the Cuban Liberation Army and fought against Spain. Among the many Puerto Ricans who volunteered to fight for Cuba's independence were Juan Rius Rivera and Francisco Gonzalo Marin, also known as "Pachin Marin."
[[Juan Rius Rivera]] was released from prison for his participation in the Lares revolt. He joined the Cuban Liberation Army and was given the rank of General. He fought alongside Gen. [[Máximo Gómez]] in Cuba's [[Ten Years' War]]. He later fought alongside Gen. [[Antonio Maceo]] and upon Maceo's death was named Commander-in-Chief of the Cuban Liberation Army. After Cuba gained its independence, Gen. Juan Rius Rivera became an active political figure in the new nation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.redbetances.com |title=General Juan Rius Rivera |accessmonthday=October 10 |accessyear=2006 |author= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher= |pages= |language= }}</ref><!--This reference leads to the main page of the site, a direct url is needed-->
[[Francisco Gonzalo Marin]] was a renowned poet and journalist in Puerto Rico who joined the Cuban Liberation Army upon learning of the death of his brother Wecenlao in the battlefields of Cuba. Marin, who was given the rank of Lieutenant, befriended and fought alongside [[José Martí]]. In November 1897 Lt. Marin died from the wounds he received in a skirmish against the Spanish Army.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.redbetances.com |title=Francisco Marin |accessmonthday=October 10 |accessyear=2006 |author= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher= |pages= |language= }}</ref><!--This reference leads to the main page of the site, a direct url is needed-->
==Spanish-American War==
[[Image:AngelRiveroMendez.gif|thumb|left|150px|Captain Angel Rivero Mendez]]
The United States declared war on Spain in 1898 following the sinking of the battleship "[[USS Maine (ACR-1)|Maine]]" in Havana harbor, Cuba. One of the United States's principal objectives in the Spanish-American War was to take control of Spanish possessions Puerto Rico and Cuba in the Atlantic, and the [[Philippines]] and [[Guam]] in the Pacific.
On [[May 10]], [[1898]], Spanish forces, under the command of [[Angel Rivero Mendez|Capt. Angel Rivero Mendez]] in the fortress of San Cristobal in San Juan, exchanged fire with the [[USS Yale (1889)|USS ''Yale'']], and on [[May 12]] a fleet of 12 American ships [[Battle of San Juan|bombarded San Juan]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://members.tripod.com/~adjuntas1/guerra1.html |title=1898 - Adjuntas en la Guerra Hispanoamericana |accessmonthday=October 10 |accessyear=2006 |author= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher= |pages= |language=Spanish}}</ref> On [[June 25]], the [[USS Yosemite (1892)|USS ''Yosemite'']] arrived in San Juan and blockaded the port. On [[July 25]], General [[Nelson A. Miles]] entered the southern town of [[Guánica, Puerto Rico|Guánica]] with 3,300 troops and, with the exception of some minor skirmishes, went practically unopposed. One of the most notable skirmishes between Spanish forces and Puerto Rican volunteers with the Americans occurred on [[July 26]]. The Spanish forces engaged the 6th Massachusetts in a firefight in what became known as the [[Battle of Yauco]]. Two Spanish soldiers died. The Americans were well received by the Puerto Rican population in general, making the invasion much easier, and the Spanish surrendered without other major incidents. The total casualties of the [[Puerto Rican Campaign]] were 450 dead or wounded Spanish and Puerto Ricans, and 4 dead and 39 wounded Americans.<ref> ''From Yauco to Las Marias; Being a story of the recent campaign in western Puerto Rico by the independent regular brigade under command of Brigadier general Schwon'' by Karl Hermann, Pub. R.G. Badger & Co. 1900 [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/10439 free from gutenberg]</ref>
[[Image:KentuckPortoRico.jpg|thumb|right|150px|"1st Kentucky Volunteers" in Puerto Rico, 1898]]
On [[August 8]], [[1898]], the Spanish-American War ended, and upon the signing of the [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|Treaty of Paris]] on [[December 10]], Puerto Rico became a territory of the United States. The Spanish troops had already left by [[October 18]], and the United States named General [[John R. Brooke]] as military governor of the island. On [[July 1]], [[1899]], "The Porto Rico Regiment of Infantry, United States Army" was created, and approved by the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] on [[May 27]], [[1908]]. The regiment was a segregated, all-volunteer unit made up of 1,969 Puerto Ricans.<ref> ''From Yauco to Las Marias; Being a story of the recent campaign in western Puerto Rico by the independent regular brigade under command of Brigadier general Schwon'' by Karl Hermann, Pub. R.G. Badger & Co. 1900 [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/10439 free from gutenberg]</ref>
In 1897, before the onset of fighting in Puerto Rico, [[Juan Alonso Zayas]], born in San Juan, was a Second Lieutenant in the Spanish Army when he received orders to head for the Philippines to take command of the 2nd Expeditionary Battalion stationed in [[Baler, Aurora|Baler]]. He arrived in [[Manila]], the capital, in May 1897. There he took a vessel and headed for Baler, on the island of [[Luzon]]. The distance between Manila and Baler is 62 miles (100 km); if traveled through the jungles and badly-built roads, the actual distance was 144 miles (230 km). At that time a system of communication between Manila and Baler was almost non-existent. The only way Baler received news from Manila was by way of vessels. The Spanish colonial government was under constant attack from local Filipino groups who wanted independence. Zayas's mission was to fortify Baler against any possible attack. Among his plans for the defense of Baler was to convert the local church of San Luis de Tolosa into a fort.<ref name=Alonso>{{cite web |url=http://www.fortunecity.com/victorian/churchmews/1216/AlonsoZayas.htm |title=Juan Alonso Zayas: Un héroe puertorriqueño desconocido |accessmonthday=October 10 |accessyear=2006 |author=Miguel Hernández Torres |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher= |pages= |language=Spanish}}</ref>
The independence advocates, under the leadership of Colonel Calixto Vilacorte, were called "[[insurgency|insurgents]]" (''Tagalos'') by the Spanish crown. On [[June 28]], [[1898]], they demanded the surrender of the Spanish army. The Spanish governor of the region, Enrique de las Morena y Fossi, refused; the Filipinos immediately attacked Baler in a battle that was to last for seven months. Despite being outnumbered and suffering hunger and disease, the battalion did not capitulate. In the meantime, Zayas and the rest of the battalion were totally unaware of the Spanish-American War that was going on. On August 1898, the hostilities between the United States and Spain came to an end. The Philippines became a U.S. possession under the accordance of the Treaty of Paris. In May 1899, the Battalion at Baler found out about the Spanish-American War and its aftermath. They had been unaware that they had been fighting for a possession which was no longer theirs to fight for. On [[June 2]], [[1899]]the Battalion's commander, Lieutenant Martín Cerezo surrendered to the Tagalos only after some conditions were met. Among the conditions were the following:
*1. That the Spaniards not be treated as prisoners of war and
*2. that they would not be harmed in their quest of reaching a Spanish ship which would take them back to Spain.
The 32 survivors of Zayas Battalion were sent to Manila, where they boarded a ship for Spain. In Spain, they were given a hero's welcome and became known as ''los Ultimos de Baler''—"the Last of Baler."<ref name=Alonso/>
==Puerto Rican National Guard==
[[Image:Esteves.jpg|left|thumb|150px|Major General Luis R. Esteves (Army)]]
In 1906, a group of Puerto Ricans met with the appointed Governor Winthrop, and suggested the organization of a Puerto Rican National Guard. The petition failed because the [[United States Constitution|U.S. Constitution]] prohibits the formation of any armed force within the United States and its territories without the authorization of Congress.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/agency/army/arng-pr.htm |title=Puerto Rico National Guard |accessmonthday=October 10 |accessyear=2006 |author= |authorlink= |coauthors= |date=May 23, 2005 |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher=Globalsecurity.org |pages= |language= }}</ref>
On [[June 19]], [[1915]], Major General [[Luis R. Esteves]] of the [[United States Army|U.S. Army]] became the first Puerto Rican to graduate from the [[United States Military Academy]] at [[West Point, New York|West Point]], [[New York]]. While he attended West Point, he tutored fellow classmate [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] in [[Spanish language|Spanish]]; a second language was required in order to graduate. He was a Second Lieutenant in the 8th Infantry Brigade of the army under the command of [[John J. Pershing]] when he was sent to [[El Paso, Texas|El Paso]], [[Texas]] in the [[Pancho Villa Expedition]]. From El Paso, he was sent to the town of Polvo, where he was appointed mayor and judge by its citizens. Esteves helped organize the 23rd Battalion, which would be composed of Puerto Ricans and be stationed in [[Panama]] during World War I. He would also play a key role in the formation of the Puerto Rican National Guard.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://bellsouthpwp.net/r/u/ruiz_b/LuisRaulEsteves/Luis_Raul_Esteves.htm |title= Major General Luis Raúl Esteves Völckers |accessmonthday=October 10 |accessyear=2006 |author=Bruce C. Ruiz |authorlink= |coauthors= |date=November 1, 2002 |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher= |}}</ref>
==World Wars==
===World War I===
[[Image:OfficerStaffPortoRicoRegiment.jpg|left|300px|thumb|Officer Staff of the Puerto Rico Regiment (c.1906)<br />
Lt. Teofilo Marxuach pictured on top row, fifth L-R.]]
Upon the outbreak of World War I, the [[U.S. Congress]] approved the [[Jones-Shafroth Act]], which granted Puerto Ricans [[citizenship]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/jonesact.html |title=Jones Act |accessmonthday=October 10 |accessyear=2006 |author= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher=Library of Congress |pages= |language= }}</ref> As a result, many Puerto Ricans, with the exception of women, became eligible for the military [[Conscription|draft]]. On [[May 3]], [[1917]], the Regiment recruited 1,969 men. The 295th and 296 Infantry Regiments were created in Puerto Rico. The first shot of World War I by the U.S. was fired in Puerto Rico by a Puerto Rican serving in the U.S. Army, Lieutenant [[Teofilo Marxuach]]. Lt. Marxuach was officer of the day at El Morro Castle, at the entrance to San Juan Bay, when war was declared. An armed supply ship for German submarines in the Atlantic, the ''[[Odenwald]]'', tried to force its way out of the bay. Lieutenant Marxuach opened fire from the walls of the fortress and forced the ship to return to port and be interned.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.houseofpuertorico.com/articles/PR-A_Commonwealth.htm |title= First US Shot of World War I in Puerto Rico|accessmonthday=October 10 |accessyear=2006 |author= |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher= |pages= |language= }}</ref>
On [[May 17]], [[1917]], the Porto Rico Regiment of Infantry was sent to guard the [[Panama Canal]] in defense of the [[Panama Canal Zone]] One of the Puerto Ricans who distinguished himself during World War I was Lieutenant [[Frederick Lois Riefkohl]] of the US Navy, who on [[August 2]], [[1917]] became the first known Puerto Rican to be awarded the [[Puerto Rican recipients of the Navy Cross|Navy Cross]]. The [[Navy Cross]], which is the second highest medal after the Medal of Honor, that can be awarded by the U.S. Navy, was awarded to Lt. Riefkohl for his actions in an engagement with an enemy submarine. Lt. Riefkohl, who was also the first Puerto Rican to graduate from the United States Naval Academy, served as a Rear Admiral in World War II.<ref>[http://www.homeofheroes.com/valor/1_Citations/01_wwi-nc/nc_02_WW1_Navy-SUB.html Riefkohl's Navy Cross Citation]</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rootsweb.com/~prsanjua/military.htm |title=Military Records |accessmonthday=October 10 |accessyear=2006 |author= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher= |pages= |language= }}</ref>
By 1918, the Army realized that there was a shortage of physicians specializing in anesthesia, a low salary specialty required in the military operating rooms. Therefore, the Army reluctantly began hiring women physicians as civilian contract employees. The first Puerto Rican woman doctor to serve in the Army under contract was Dr. Dolores Piňero from San Juan. She was assigned to the San Juan base hospital where she worked as an anesthesiologist during the mornings and in the laboratory during the afternoons.<ref>{{cite journal |quotes= |author=Mercedes Graf |year=2002 |month=Summer |title=With high hopes: women contract surgeons in World War I |journal=Minerva: Quarterly Report on Women and the Military |volume= |issue= |pages=7 |id= |url=http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EXI/is_2_20/ai_106472385/pg_7 |accessdate=2006-10-10}}</ref>
In [[New York]], many Puerto Ricans joined the 396th Infantry Regiment which was mostly composed of [[Afro-Americans]]. They were not allowed to fight alongside their white counterparts; however, they were permitted to fight as members of a French unit in French uniforms. They fought along the [[Western Front]] in [[France]], and their reputation earned them the nickname of "the Harlem Hell Fighters" by the [[German Empire|German]]s. Among them was [[Rafael Hernandez]], considered by many as Puerto Rico's greatest composer. The 396th was awarded French ''Croix de Guerre'' for battlefield gallantry by the French President. The Porto Rico Regiment returned to Puerto Rico on March 1919 and was renamed the [[The 65th Infantry Regiment|65th Infantry Regiment]] under the Reorganization Act of [[June 4]], [[1920]].<ref>[http://www.dmna.state.ny.us/historic/btlflags/infantry/369thInfReg.htm 369th Regiment US Army color]</ref>
The need for a Puerto Rican National Guard unit became apparent to Major General Luis R. Esteves, who had served as instructor of Puerto Rican Officers for the Porto Rico Regiment of Infantry at Camp Las Casas in Puerto Rico. His request was met with the approval of the government and Puerto Rican Legislature. In 1919, the first regiment of the Puerto Rican National Guard was formed, and General Luis R. Esteves became the first official Commandant of the Puerto Rican National Guard.<ref> Puerto Rico's Fighting 65th U.S. Infantry: From San Juan to Chowon by W.W. Harris (2201), Pub. Presidio Press ISBN 0-89141-056-2.</ref><ref name=Valerosos>{{cite web |url=http://www.valerosos.com/ |title=Valerosos |accessmonthday=October 10 |accessyear=2006 |author= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher= |pages= |language= }}</ref>
Puerto Rico suffered greatly during the [[Great Depression]] of the 1930s, and many Puerto Ricans moved to the [[East Coast of the United States]] looking for jobs and a better way of life. On the island, the unemployment rate continued to rise and many Puerto Ricans who were unable to find a job looked to the Armed Forces of the United States as a source of employment. Not only were they paid better than at the few other available jobs, but they were also guaranteed three meals a day, clothing, and shelter.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.english.uiuc.edu/maps/depression/photoessay.htm |title= Great Depression Photoessay|accessmonthday=October 10 |accessyear=2006 |author= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher= }}</ref>
===Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)===
[[Image:Manuel Goded Llopis.jpg|150px|right|thumb|General Manuel Goded Llopis]]
Before the United States entered World War II, Puerto Ricans were already fighting on European soil in the [[Spanish Civil War]].
The Spanish Civil War was a major conflict in [[Spain]] that started after an attempted ''[[coup d'état]]'' committed by parts of the [[Spanish Army|army]], led by the [[Franquism|Nationalist]] [[Francisco Franco|General Francisco Franco]], against the government of the [[Second Spanish Republic]]. Puerto Ricans fought on behalf of both of the factions involved, the "Nationalists" as members of the Spanish Army and the "Loyalists" (Republicans) as members of the [[Abraham Lincoln Brigade|Abraham Lincoln International Brigade]].<ref>[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/la-mano/message/3099 Latinos who fought in Spain], Retrieved [[November 12]] [[2007]]</ref>
Among the Puerto Ricans who fought alongside General Franco on behalf of the Nationalists was General [[Manuel Goded Llopis]](1882 - 1936), a high ranking officer in the Spanish Army. Llopis, who was born in San Juan, was named Chief of Staff of the [[Spanish Army of Africa]], after his victories in the [[Rif War]], took the [[Balearic Islands]] and by order of Franco, suppressed the rebellion of [[Asturias]]. Llopis was sent to lead the fight against the Anarchists in [[Catalonia]], but his troops were outnumbered. He was captured and was sentenced to die by firing squad.<ref>"Richard A. H. Robinson. The Origins of Franco’s Spain – The Right, the Republic and Revolution, 1931-1936. (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1970) p.28", Retrieved [[November 12]] [[2007]]</ref><ref>[http://www.aworldtowin.net/reviews/Spanishcivilwar.html Battle for Spain], Retrieved [[November 12]] [[2007]]</ref>
Among the many Puerto Ricans who fought on behalf of the Second Spanish Republic as members of the [[Abraham Lincoln Brigade]], was [[Lieutenant]] [[Carmelo Delgado Delgado]] (1913-1937), a leader of the [[Puerto Rican Nationalist Party]] from [[Guayama, Puerto Rico|Guayama]] who upon the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War was in Spain in pursuit of his law degree. Delgado was an [[anti-fascist]] who believed that the Spanish Nationalists were traitors. He fought in the [[Battle of Madrid]], but was captured and was sentenced to die by firing squad on [[April 29]], [[1937]], he was amongst the first US citizens to die in that conflict.<ref>[http://www.alba-valb.org/ US citizens that fought against fascism], Retrieved [[November 12]] [[2007]]</ref>
===World War II===
====The Pearl Harbor of the Atlantic====
[[Image:Rosmap.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Map of U.S. Naval Station Roosevelt Roads]]
In 1938, when Germany attacked Great Britain, the United States feared that if Germany controlled Great Britain, Mexico and the U.S. would be next. In 1940, President [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] ordered the construction of a naval base in the Atlantic similar to [[Pearl Harbor]] in Hawaii. The site was meant to provide anchorage, docking, repair facilities, fuel, and supplies for 60% of the Atlantic Fleet. The naval base, which was named U.S. Naval Station Roosevelt Roads’ became the largest naval installation in the world in land mass and was meant to be the Pearl Harbor of the Atlantic. The fate of the base was changed after the Germans were defeated and Navy’s attention shifted from the Atlantic to the Pacific.<ref>[http://www.puertorico-herald.org/issues/2003/vol7n18/CBRROpportunityCrsrds-en.html Puerto Rico Herald May 1, 2003]</ref>
====Puerto Ricans in the military====
During [[World War II]], over 53,000 Puerto Ricans served within the U.S. military.<ref name="neta_unit1">{{cite web|accessdate=2007-03-19
|url=http://www.neta.com/~1stbooks/unit1.htm
|title=Introduction: World War II (1941–1945)
|work=Hispanics in the Defense of America}}</ref> Soldiers from the island, serving in the [[65th Infantry Regiment (United States)|65th Infantry Regiment]], participated in combat in the [[European Theatre of World War II|European Theater]] — in Germany and Central Europe. Those who resided in the mainland of the United States were assigned to regular units of the military and served either in the European or [[Pacific War|Pacific theaters]] of the war. In some cases they were subject to the racial discrimination which at that time was widespread in the United States.<ref name="neta_unit1"/>
World War II was also the first conflict in which women, other than nurses, were allowed to serve in the U.S. Armed Forces. However, when the United States entered World War II, Puerto Rican nurses volunteered for service but were not accepted into the Army or Navy Nurse Corps. As a result, many of the island's women work force migrated to the mainland U.S. to work in the factories which produced military equipment. In 1944, the Army Nurse Corps decided to actively recruit Puerto Rican nurses so that Army hospitals would not have to deal with the language barriers. Among them was Second Lieutenant [[Carmen Dumler]], who became one of the first Puerto Rican female military officers.<ref name=Women>{{cite web |url=http://www.womensmemorial.org/Education/PRHistory.html |title=Puerto Rican Servicewomen in Defense of the Nation |accessmonthday=October 10 |accessyear=2006 |author=Judith Bellafaire |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher=Women In Military Service For America Memorial Foundation |pages=}}</ref>
The 149th [[Women's Army Corps|Women's Army Auxiliary Corps]] (WAAC) Post Headquarters Company was the first WAAC Company to go overseas, setting sail from New York Harbor for Europe on January 1943. The unit arrived in Northern Africa on [[January 27]], [[1943]] and rendered overseas duties in [[Algiers]] within General [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]’s theatre headquarters. Tech4 [[Carmen Contreras-Bozak]], a member of this unit, was the first Hispanic to serve in the [[Women's Army Corps|U.S. Women's Army Corps]] as an interpreter and in numerous administrative positions.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.utopia.utexas.edu/explore/latino/narratives/07Bozak_Carmen.html |title=Carmen Contreras-Bozak |accessmonthday=October 10 |accessyear=2006 |author= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher= |pages= |language= }}</ref>
[[Image:Pedro del Valle.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Lt. Gen. Pedro del Valle, (USMC)]]
The 65th Infantry, after an extensive training program in 1942, was sent to Panama to protect the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] and the Atlantic sides of the [[isthmus]] in 1943. On [[November 25]], [[1943]], Colonel [[Antulio Segarra]], proceeded Col. John R. Menclenhall as Commander of the 65th Infantry, thus becoming the first Puerto Rican Regular Army officer to command a Regular Army regiment.<ref name="C">[http://www.valerosos.com/CommandsGVillahermosa.html Commands]</ref> In 1944, the regiment was sent to [[North Africa]], arriving at [[Casablanca]], where they underwent further training. For some Puerto Ricans, this would be the first time that they were away from their homeland. Being away from their homeland for the first time would serve as an inspiration for compositions of two of Puerto Rico's most renowned [[Bolero]]'s; "[[En mi viejo San Juan]]" by [[Noel Estrada]] <ref>[http://www.prpop.org/biografias/PR Popular Culture]</ref> and "Despedida" (My Good-bye), a farewell song written by [[Pedro Flores (composer)|Pedro Flores]] and interpreted by [[Daniel Santos (singer)|Daniel Santos]].<ref name="veinte y cinco">{{cite book| title=Daniel Santos: Su vida y sus canciones| author=Francisco José Correa Bustamante| year=1995| publisher=Editores Corsan| location=Guayaquil, Ecuador| pages= pg. 25 - 51}}</ref> By [[April 29]], [[1944]], the Regiment had landed in [[Italy]] and moved on to [[Corsica]]. On [[September 22]], [[1944]], the 65th Infantry landed in France and was committed to action on the Maritime Alps at Peira Cava. On [[December 13]] [[1944]], the 65th Infantry, under the command of Lieutenant Colonel [[Juan Cesar Cordero Davila]], relieved the 2nd Battalion of the [[442nd Infantry Regiment]], a Regiment which was made up of [[Japanese Americans]] under the command of Col. [[Virgil R. Miller]], a native of Puerto Rico. The 3rd Battalion fought against and defeated Germany's 34th Infantry Division's 107th Infantry Regiment. There were 47 battle casualties including Pvt, Sergio Sanchez-Sanchez and Sergeant Angel Martinez, from the town of [[Sabana Grande, Puerto Rico|Sabana Grande]], who were the first two Puerto Ricans to be killed in combat action from the 65th Infantry. On [[March 18]], [[1945]], the regiment was sent to the [[Germany|District of Mannheim]] and assigned to [[military occupation]] duties. In all, the 65th Infantry participated in the battles of [[Naples]]-Fogis, [[Rome]]-Arno, [[central Europe]] and of the [[Rhineland]]. On [[October 27]], [[1945]], the regiment sailed from France, arriving at Puerto Rico on [[November 9]], [[1945]]. The regiment suffered a total of 23 soldiers killed in action.
This was also the first time that Puerto Ricans played important roles as commanders in the Armed Forces of the United States. Among them Lieutenant Colonel [[Juan Cesar Cordero Davila]] who served with the 65th Infantry and Colonel [[Virgil R. Miller]], a West Point graduate, born in [[San German, Puerto Rico]], who was the Regimental Commander of the [[442nd Regimental Combat Team (United States)|442d Regimental Combat Team]], a unit which was composed of "Nisei" (second generation Americans of Japanese descent), during [[World War II]]. He led the 442nd in its rescue of the Lost Texas Battalion of the [[36th Infantry Division (United States)|36th Infantry Division]], in the forests of the Vosges Mountains in northeastern [[France]].<ref name" USMA"> [http://digital-library.usma.edu/libmedia/archives/assembly/vol28no2.pdf Collection of the U.S. Military Academy Library, Pages 132-133; Publication: Assembly; Summer 1969]</ref><ref name="JAWWII">[http://www.army.mil/cmh/topics/apam/Patriots%20Under%20Fire.htm PATRIOTS UNDER FIRE: JAPANESE AMERICANS IN WORLD WAR II]</ref> Seven Puerto Ricans who graduated from the [[United States Naval Academy]] served in command positions in the Navy and the Marine Corps.<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2007-03-18
|url=http://www.ansomil.org/home/USNAofficers.html
|title=USNA graduates of Hispanic descent for the Class of 1911, 1915, 1924, 1927, 1931, 1935, 1939, 1943, 1947
|publisher=Association of Naval Service Officers}}</ref>
They were Lieutenant General [[Pedro Augusto del Valle]], the first Hispanic [[United States Marine Corps|Marine Corps]] general, who played a key role in the Guadalcanal Campaign and the [[Battle of Guam (1944)|Battle of Guam]], became the Commanding General of the First Marine Division. Del Valle played an instrumental role in the defeat of the Japanese forces in Okinawa and was in charge of the reorganization of [[Okinawa Prefecture|Okinawa]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.65thdiv.com/lev1/hist.html |title=65th Division |accessmonthday=October 10 |accessyear=2006 |author= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher= |pages= |language= }}</ref>;<ref> Puerto Rico's Fighting 65th U.S. Infantry: From San Juan to Chowon by W.W. Harris (2001), Pub Presidio Press ISBN 0-89141-056-2.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://hqinet001.hqmc.usmc.mil/HD/Historical/Whos_Who/delValle_PA.htm |title=Lieutenant General Pedro A. Del Valle, USMC |accessmonthday=October 10 |accessyear=2006 |author= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work=History Division |publisher=United States Marine Corps |pages= |language=}}</ref> Admiral [[Horacio Rivero]], Jr., USN, who was the first Puerto Rican to become a four-star [[Admiral]]; Captain [[Marion Frederic Ramirez de Arellano]], USN, was the first Hispanic submarine commanding officer.<ref>"The Submarine Forces Diversity Trailblazer - Capt. Marion Frederick Ramirez de Arellano"; Summer 2007 Undersea Warfare magazine; pg.31</ref> As submarine commander of the USS ''Balao'' (SS-285), he is credited with sinking two Japanese ships; Rear Admiral [[Rafael Celestino Benitez]], USN, a highly decorated submarine commander who was the recipient of two Silver Star Medals; Rear Admiral [[Jose M. Cabanillas]], USN, who was the Executive Officer of the [[USS Texas (BB-35)|USS ''Texas'']] which participated in the invasions of North Africa and Normandy (D-Day); Rear Admiral [[Edmund Ernest Garcia]], USN, commander of the destroyer [[USS Sloat (DE-245)|USS ''Sloat'']] who saw action in the invasions of Africa, Sicily, and France; Rear Admiral [[Frederick Lois Riefkohl]], USN, the first Puerto Rican to graduate from the Naval Academy and recipient of the Navy Cross and Colonel Jaime Sabater, USMC, who commanded the 1st Battalion, 9th Marines during the [[Bougainville Island|Bouganville]] amphibious operations.
Among the many Puerto Ricans who distinguished themselves were Private Anibal Irizarry, Captain [[Mihiel Gilormini|Mihiel "Mike" Gilormini]] and Sergeant First Class [[Agustin Ramos Calero]].
Private [[Puerto Rican recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross|Anibal Irrizarry]] was a member of Co. L of the 18th Infantry Regiment, [[1st Infantry Division (United States)|1st Infantry Division]] which landed in [[Oran]], [[Algeria]] on [[November 8]], [[1942]] as part of [[Operation Torch]]. That same month his outfit was pinned down by enemy machine gun fire. Irrizarry worked his way up to the hillside where the enemy was located and killed the entire crew with his [[M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle|BAR]]. He then went on to capture eight prisoners and wiped out another machine gun nest, firing at his outfit, with a grenade at twenty yards of distance before he was seriously wounded. Irizarry, who was awarded the Purple Heart Medal, became the first Puerto Rican to be awarded the [[Distinguished Service Cross (United States)|Distinguished Service Cross]].<ref>The Puerto Rican Diaspora: Historical; By Carmen Teresa Whalen and Víctor Vázquez; Pg. 78; Published 2005 by Temple University Press; ISBN:1592134130</ref><ref>[http://www.homeofheroes.com/valor/02_DSC/citatons/03_wwii-dsc/army_ij.html Irizarry's DSC Citation], Retrieved June 6, 2008</ref>
Captain Mihiel "Mike" Gilormini served in the [[Royal Air Force]] and in [[United States Army Air Force]] as a [[fighter pilot]] during World War II. He was the recipient of the Silver Star Medal, the Air Medal with four clusters and the Distinguished Flying Cross 5 times. Gilormini later became the Founder of the Puerto Rico Air National Guard and retired as Brigadier General.<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2007-03-18 |url=http://www.worldwar2pilots.com/earlspage.html |title=Memories of a Jug Driver
|publisher=World War II Pilots}}</ref>
Sergeant First Class Agustin Ramos Calero was awarded a total of 22 decorations and medals his actions in Europe during World War II, thus becoming the second most decorated Puerto Rican soldier in the United States Military during that war.<ref>{{cite web |accessdate=2006-11-19 |url=http://www.prsoldier.com/17-aug2005.pdf
|title=Who was Agustín Ramos Calero? |format=PDF
|work=The Puerto Rican Soldier
|date=[[August 17]] [[2005]]}}</ref>
[[Image:Denton.jpg|150px|thumb|right|LTJG Maria Rodriguez Denton]]
Lieutenant Maria Rodriguez Denton (U.S. Navy), born in Guanica, Puerto Rico, was the first known woman of Puerto Rican descent who became an officer in the United States Navy as member of the [[WAVES]]. It was Lt. Denton who forwarded the news (through channels) to President Harry S. Truman that the war had ended.<ref name=Women/>
Unfortunately, the exact total amount of Puerto Ricans who served in World War II in other units, besides those of Puerto Rico, cannot be determined because the military categorized Hispanics under the same heading as whites. The only racial groups to have separate stats kept were Blacks and [[Asian American|Asians]].<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2007-03-18|url=http://www.army.mil/cmh/documents/WWII/minst.htm
|title=Minority Groups in World War II |publisher=U.S. Army Center of Military History}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2007-03-18 |url=http://www.nationalww2museum.org/education/education_numbers.html
|title=World War II By The Numbers |publisher=The National World War II Museum|date=2006}}</ref>
==Revolt against the United States==
During the mid-1940s, various pro-independence groups, such as the [[Puerto Rican Independence Party]], which believed in gaining the island's independence through the electoral process, and the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party, which believed in the concept of armed revolution, existed in Puerto Rico. On [[October 30]], [[1950]] the nationalists, under the leadership of Dr. [[Pedro Albizu Campos]] staged uprisings in the towns of [[Ponce, Puerto Rico|Ponce]], Mayagüez, [[Naranjito, Puerto Rico|Naranjito]], Arecibo, [[Utuado]], San Juan and [[Jayuya]].
[[Image:Blanca Canales.JPG|130px|right|thumb|Blanca Canales, nationalist leader of the [[Jayuya Uprising]]]]
The most notable of these occurred in Jayuya in what became known as ''El Grito de Jayuya'' ([[Jayuya Uprising]]). Nationalist leader [[Blanca Canales]] led the armed nationalists into the town and attacked the police station. A small battle with the police occurred; one officer was killed and three others were wounded before the rest dropped their weapons and surrendered. The nationalists cut the telephone lines and burned the post office. Canales led the group into the town square where the illegal light blue version of the [[Puerto Rican Flag]] was raised.<ref>It was against the law to carry a Puerto Rican Flag from 1898 to 1952.</ref> In the town square, Canales gave a speech and declared Puerto Rico a free Republic. The town was held by the nationalists for three days.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Caribbean/Puerto_Rico-Uprising_1950.html |title=Remember the 1950 Uprising of October 30:Puerto Rico |accessmonthday=October 10 |accessyear=2006 |author=Carlos Rovira |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher= }}</ref>
The United States declared [[martial law]] in Puerto Rico and sent the Puerto Rico National Guard to attack Jayuya. The town was attacked by U.S. [[bomber]] planes and ground [[artillery]]. Even though part of the town was destroyed, news of this military action was prevented from spreading outside of Puerto Rico. It was called an incident between Puerto Ricans. The top leaders of the nationalist party, including Albizu Campos and Blanca Canales, were arrested and sent to jail to serve long prison terms.
[[Griselio Torresola]], Albizu Campos's bodyguard, was in the United States at the time of the Jayuya Uprising. Torresola and fellow nationalist [[Oscar Collazo]], were to assassinate [[Harry Truman|President Harry S. Truman]]. On [[November 1]], [[1950]], they attacked the [[Blair House]] where Torresola and a policeman, [[Leslie Coffelt]], lost their lives. Oscar Collazo was arrested and sentenced to death. His sentence was later commuted to life imprisonment by President Truman and he eventually received a presidential pardon.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.peacehost.net/WhiteStar/Voices/eng-canales.html |title=Blanca Canales |accessmonthday=October 10 |accessyear=2006 |author= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher= |pages= |language=}}</ref><!--Must check if this excerpt comes from a book-->
==Cold War (1947–1991)==
After [[World War II]] a [[geopolitical]], [[ideological]], and [[economic]] struggle emerged between the [[United States]] and the [[Soviet Union]] which included their respective allies. This struggle was popularly named the [[Cold War]] because open hostilities never occurred between the main parties involved. The so-called "war" involved a nuclear and conventional weapons arms race, networks of military alliances, economic warfare and trade embargoes, propaganda, espionage, and proxy wars. The [[Cuban Missile Crisis]] of 1962 was the most important direct confrontation. The [[Korean War|Korean]] and [[Vietnam War]] were among the major civil wars polarized along Cold War lines.
===The USS Cochino incident===
The [[USS Cochino (SS-345)|USS ''Cochino'']] (SS-345), was a [[Gato-class submarine]] under the command of [[Rafael Celestino Benitez]]. On [[August 12]], [[1949]], the ''Cochino'', along with the [[USS Tusk (SS-426)|USS ''Tusk'']], departed from the harbor of [[Portsmouth, England]]. Both diesel submarines were supposed to be on a cold-water training mission, however, according to ''Blind Man's Bluff: The Untold Story of American Submarine Espionage'',<ref>Blind Man's Bluff: The Untold Story of American Submarine Espionage", (Public Affairs, 1998) by Sherry Sontag and Christopher Drew, with Annette Lawrence Drew, ISBN 0-06-103004-X </ref> the submarines were part of an American intelligence operation. They had snorkels that allowed them to spend long periods underwater, largely invisible to an enemy, and they carried electronic gear designed to detect far-off radio signals. The mission of the ''Cochino'' and the ''Tusk'' was to eavesdrop on communications that revealed the testing of submarine-launched Soviet missiles that might soon carry [[nuclear warheads]]. Thus, making this the first American undersea spy missions of the cold war.
The mission was cut short when one the ''Cochino''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s 4,000-pound batteries caught fire. Commander Benitez directed the firefighting, trying both to save the ship and his crew from the toxic gases. The crew members of the ''Tusk'' rescued all except one ''Cochino'' crew member and convinced Commander Benitez, who was the last man on the ''Cochino'', to board the ''Tusk''. The ''Cochino'' sank off the coast of [[Norway]] two minutes after Benitez's departure. Benitez retired as a Rear Admiral from the Navy in 1957.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mishalov.com/Benitez.html
|title=Rear Admiral R.C. Benitez, 81, Dies; Led Cold War Rescue|author=Richard Goldstein|date=[[April 5]], [[1999]]|work=The New York Times|accessdate=2006-10-21}}</ref>
===The Korean War===
[[Image:Company c.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Company "C" of the 65th Infantry on patrol]]
Sixty-one thousand Puerto Ricans served in the Korean War, including 18,000 Puerto Ricans who enlisted in the [[continental United States]].<ref> ''Puerto Rico's Fighting 65th U.S. Infantry by W.W. Harris (2001), Pub. Presidio Press ISBN 0-89141-056-2</ref> Puerto Ricans distinguished themselves as part of the 65th Infantry Regiment receiving many awards and recognitions; however, they were also involved in the largest court martial of the Korean War.
On [[August 26]], [[1950]], the 65th Infantry departed from Puerto Rico and arrived in Pusan, Korea on [[September 23]], [[1950]]. It was during the long sea voyage that the 65th Infantry was nicknamed the "Borinqueneers". The name is a combination of the words "Borinquen" (the Taíno name for Puerto Rico) and "Buccaneers". The men of the 65th were the first infantrymen to meet the enemy on the battle fields of Korea. Among the hardships suffered by the Puerto Ricans was the lack of warm clothing during the cold, harsh winters. The enemy made many attempts to encircle the Regiment, but each time they failed because of the many casualties inflicted by the 65th. On December 1950, the [[U.S. Marine Corps|U.S. Marines]] found themselves at the Chosin Reservoir area. In June 1951, The 65th was part of a task force which enabled the Marines to withdraw from the Hauack-on Reservoir. When the Marines were encircled by the [[Chinese Communist]] troops close to the [[Manchuria]]n border, the 65th rushed to their defense. As a consequence, the Marines were able to return safely to their ships.<ref name=Valerosos/>
Among the battles and operations in which the 65th participated was the Operation "Killer" of January 1951, becoming the first Regiment to cross the [[Han River (Korea)|Han River]]. On April 1951, the Regiment participated in the Uijonber Corridor drives and on June 1951, the 65th was the third Regiment to cross the Han Ton River. The 65th was the Regiment that took and held Cherwon and they were also instrumental in breaking the "Iron Triangle" of Hill 717 on July 1951. On November 1951, the Regiment fought off an attack by two Regimental size enemy units, with success. Colonel [[Juan Cesar Cordero Davila]] was named commander of 65th Infantry on [[February 8]], [[1952]], thus becoming one of the highest ranking ethnic officers in the Army. On [[July 3]], [[1952]], the Regiment defended the MLR for 47 days and saw action at Cognac, King and Queen with successful attacks on Chinese positions. On October the Regiment also saw action in the Cherwon Sector and on Iron Horse, Hill 391, whose lower part was called "Jackson Heights". On September 1952, the 65th Infantry was holding on to a hill known as "Outpost Kelly". Chinese Communist forces that had joined the North Koreans overran the hill in what became known as the Battle for Outpost Kelly. Twice the 65th Regiment was overwhelmed by Chinese artillery and driven off.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mervino.com/window/IBB/map65th.html |title=Outpost Kelly |accessmonthday=October 10 |accessyear=2006 |author= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher= |pages= |language=}}</ref>
In June 1953, the 2nd [[Battalion]] conducted a series of successful raids on Hill 412 and in November, the Regiment successfully counterattacked enemy units in the Numsong Valley and held their positions until the truce signing between all parts involved.
====Mass court-martial and post-war recognitions====
Col. Cordero Davila was relieved of his command by Col. Chester B. DeGavre, a West Point graduate and a "continental" officer from the mainland United States and the officer staff of the 65th was replaced with non-Hispanic officers.<!--When was the colonel relieved?--> DeGavre ordered that the unit stop calling itself the Borinqueneers, cut their special rations of rice and beans, ordered the men to shave off their mustaches and had one of them wear signs that read "I am a coward". It is believed that as a result of this humiliation, combat exhaustion, and the language barrier where factors that influenced some of the men of Company L of the 65th in their refusal to continue to fight.
In December 1954, 162 Puerto Ricans of the 65th Infantry were arrested, 95 were court martialed, and 91 were found guilty and sentenced to prison terms ranging from 1 to 18 years of hard labor. It was the largest mass [[court martial]] of the Korean War. The [[Secretary of the Army]] [[Robert Stevens]] moved quickly to remit the sentences and granted clemency and pardons to all those involved. Though the men who were court martialed were pardoned, there is currently a campaign for a formal exoneration.<ref name=Brown>{{cite news |author=Matthew Hay Brown |title=New Generation Fights For 65th |url=http://www.puertorico-herald.org/issues/2002/vol6n22/NewGenFights65th-en.shtml |format= |work= | publisher=Puerto Rico Herald |pages= |page= | date=May 26, 2002 | accessdate=2006-10-10}}</ref>
An Army report released in 2001 blamed the breakdown of the 65th on the following factors: a shortage of officers and noncommissioned officers, a rotation policy that removed combat-experienced leaders and soldiers, tactics that led to high casualties, an ammunition shortage, communication problems between largely white, English-speaking officers and Spanish-speaking Puerto Rican enlisted men, and declining morale. The report also found bias in the prosecution of the Puerto Ricans, citing instances of continental soldiers who were not charged after refusing to fight in similar circumstances, before and after Jackson Heights.<ref>{{cite news |author=Gilberto Villahermosa |title= From Glory to Disaster and Back
|url=http://www.ausa.org/webpub/DeptArmyMagazine.nsf/byid/CCRN-6CCRYR |format= |work= | publisher=Army Magazine |pages= |page= | date=September 1, 2001 | accessdate=2006-10-10}}</ref>
The 65th Infantry was credited with battle participation in nine campaigns.<ref> The campaigns in which the 65th infantry particpated were the [[United Nations|UN]] Defense-1950, UN Offense-1950, CCF Intervention-1950, First UN Counterattack Offensive-1951, UN and CCF Spring Offensive-1951, UN Summer-Fall Offensive-1951, 2nd Korean Winter 1951–52, Korean Summer-Fall-1952 and 3rd Korean Winter-1952-53.</ref> Among the distinctions awarded to the members of the 65th were 10 [[Distinguished Service Cross (United States)|Distinguished Service Cross]], 256 [[Silver Star]]s and 595 [[Bronze Star Medal|Bronze Star]]s. According to "El Nuevo Día Newspaper, [[30 May]] [[2004]]" a total of 756 Puerto Ricans lost their lives in Korea, from all four branches of the U.S. Armed Forces. More than half of these were from the 65th Infantry (This is without including non-Puerto Ricans). The 65th Infantry returned to Puerto Rico and was deactivated in 1956. However, Brig. General Juan Cordero, Puerto Rico's Adjutant General, persuaded the Department of the Army to transfer the 65th Infantry from the regular Army to the Puerto Rican National Guard. This was the only unit ever transferred from active component Army to the Army Guard.<ref name=Brown/>
Among the Puerto Ricans from the regiment who distinguished themselves are:Brigadier General [[Antonio Rodriguez Balinas]] (awarded two [[Silver Star]]s), Colonel [[Carlos Betances Ramirez]] (only Puerto Rican officer to command an infantry battalion), Master Sergeant [[Pedro Rodriguez (soldier)|Pedro Rodriguez]] (awarded two Silver Stars), and Staff Sergeant [[Modesto Cartagena]] (the most decorated Hispanic in history). Other Puerto Ricans who distinguished themselves were [[United States Marine Corps|United States Marines]] Private First Class [[Fernando Luis Garcia]], who became the first Puerto Rican recipient of the [[Medal of Honor]] when he covered a grenade with his body, saving the lives of his fellow Marines and [[Ramon Nuñez-Juarez|PFC. Ramon Nuñez-Juarez]] and PFC Enrique Romero-Nieves, who were awarded the [[Puerto Rican recipients of the Navy Cross|Navy Cross]], the Navy's second highest military decoration after the Medal of Honor. Also, Major General [[Salvador E. Felices]] ([[United States Air Force|USAF]]) who flew in 19 combat bombing missions over North Korea.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://hqinet001.hqmc.usmc.mil/HD/Home_Page.htm|title=United States Marine Corps History and Museums Division |accessmonthday=October 10 |accessyear=2006 |author= |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher= |pages= }}</ref><!--This link leads to a home page, a direct URL is needed.-->
===Cuban Missile Crisis===
[[Image:Horacio Rivero Jr.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Admiral Horacio Rivero, Jr., (U.S. Navy)]]
The Cuban Missile Crisis was a tense confrontation between the [[Soviet Union]] and the United States over the Soviet deployment of nuclear missiles in Cuba. On [[October 22]], [[1962]], Admiral [[Horacio Rivero, Jr.|Horacio Rivero]] was the commander of the American fleet sent by [[President of the United States|President]] [[John F. Kennedy]] to set up a quarantine (blockade) of the Soviet ships. On October 28, [[Premier of the Soviet Union|Soviet Premier]] [[Nikita Khrushchev]] ordered the removal of the Soviet missiles in Cuba, and Kennedy ordered an end of the quarantine of Cuba on November 20, bringing an end to the crisis. Admiral Rivero later served as U.S. Ambassador to Spain (1972–75).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.puertorico-herald.org/issues/vol4n08/ProfileRivero-es.shtml|title= Profile of Horacio Rivero|work=Puerto Rico Herald|date=[[February 25]], [[2000]]|accessdate=2006-10-03}}</ref>
===Vietnam War===
[[Image:Sp4c. Hector Santiago-Colon.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Sp4c. Hector Santiago-Colón (U.S. Army)]]
During the [[Vietnam War]], an estimated 48,000 Puerto Ricans served in the four branches of the armed forces.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.house.gov/fortuno/Speeches/Citizenship/88thcitizenship.pdf |title=House of Representatives-Special Order |accessmonthday=October 10 |accessyear=2006 |author= |date=March 2, 2005 |year= |month= |format=pdf |work=Speech on the House Floor |publisher= }}</ref> Of the 345 Puerto Ricans who died in combat, 17 were [[Missing in Action]] (MIA), and of these, PFC. [[Humberto Acosta-Rosario]] is the only one whose body has never been recovered and is currently still listed as MIA.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.archives.gov/research/vietnam-war/casualty-lists/pr-alpha.html |title=Research at the National Archives |accessmonthday=October 10 |accessyear=2006 |author= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher=The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration }}</ref>
Four Puerto Ricans—Spc4 [[Hector Santiago-Colon]], Captain [[Euripides Rubio]], PFC [[Carlos Lozada]] and Captain [[Humbert Roque Versace]]—were awarded the Medal of Honor, the highest United States military decoration. Sergeant [[Angel Mendez]], a United States Marine, was posthumously awarded the Navy Cross. On [[March 16]], [[1967]], he saved the life of his platoon commander, Lieutenant Ronald D. Castille, (one of the seven justices of the [[Supreme Court of Pennsylvania]]). U.S. Senator [[Charles Schumer]] has recommended that Mendez' award be upgraded to Medal of Honor.<ref name="AM">{{cite web|accessdate=2007-12-20
|url=http://www.virtualwall.org/dm/MendezAx01a.htm
|title=Angel Mendez
|publisher=VirtualWall.org}}</ref> The most decorated soldier in the Vietnam War was Sergeant First Class [[Jorge Otero Barreto]] from the town of [[Vega Baja, Puerto Rico]]. Sgt. Otero-Barreto was a member of the U.S. Army, who was awarded 38 decorations, among them 3 Silver Star Medals, 5 Bronze Star Medals with Valor, 5 Purple Heart Medals and 5 Air Medals.<ref>[http://www.cityoflorain.org/calendar/?e=36222 City of Lorain]</ref><ref>[http://archive.vva.org/TheVeteran/2003_05/statements/mudge.htm Veteran]</ref>
Other Puerto Ricans who served in Vietnam and had distinguished military careers include: Major General [[Salvador E. Felices]], Rear Admiral [[Diego E. Hernandez]], Colonel [[Hector Andres Negroni]] and Brigadier General [[Ruben A. Cubero]] who in 1991 became the first person of Hispanic heritage to be named Dean of Faculty of the [[United States Air Force Academy]].
Two Puerto Ricans who served in Vietnam currently hold positions in the Administration of [[George W. Bush|President George W. Bush]]. They are Dr. [[Richard Carmona]], a former [[United States Army Special Forces|Green Beret]] who was awarded two [[Purple Heart|Purple Heart Medals]] and was appointed [[Surgeon General]] in March 2002, and Major General [[William A. Navas]] Jr., who was awarded the Bronze Star Medal and was named [[Assistant Secretary of the Navy]] in [[June 6]], [[2001]].<!--This link is broken<ref>{{cite web |url=http://members.aol.com/warlibrary/ww3.htm |title=Vietnam War Casualties by U.S. Geographic Division & Region |accessmonthday=October 10 |accessyear=2006 |author= |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher= |pages=}}</ref>-->
===Operation El Dorado Canyon===
On [[April 14]], [[1986]], in response to acts of terrorism sponsored by [[Libya]]n leader [[Muammar al-Gaddafi]]—in particular, the [[1986 Berlin discotheque bombing|Berlin disco bombing]] of [[April 6]]—and against the backdrop of heightened tension and clashes between the Libyan and U.S. Navies over Libya's disputed territorial water claims in the [[Gulf of Sidra]], the United States launched a surprise attack on key facilities in [[Tripoli]] and other parts of Libya. The attack was code-named [[Operation El Dorado Canyon]].
With the acquiescence of the [[Government of the United Kingdom|British government]], 24 U.S. Air Force [[General Dynamics F-111|F-111F]] fighter-bombers took off from U.S. air bases in England. Attacking in the pre-dawn hours of [[April 15]], their main objectives were 22 airfields, terrorist training camps, and other military installations. Captain [[Fernando L. Ribas-Dominicci]] was one of the pilots who participated in the Libyan air raid. His F-111 was shot down over the disputed Gulf of Sidra off the Libyan coast. Ribas-Dominicci and his weapons systems officer, Captain [[Paul F. Lorence]], were the only U.S. casualties. Al-Qaddafi, who was also personally targeted, escaped harm, but his daughter was killed.<ref> ''Libyan state sponsored terrorism: What did Operation El Dorado Canyon accomplish? by Gregory L. Trebon (1988), Pub. Air Command and Staff College, Air University, ASIN 800071KDLB.</ref>
==Recent events==
In 1980, Captain [[Linda Garcia Cubero]], who was a member of the first class of women to graduate from the [[United States Air Force Academy]], became the first [[Hispanic]] woman to graduate from any service academy.<ref name="Latina Style Magazine">[http://www.latinastyle.com/currentissue/v10-5/punto.html Latina Style Magazine, Retrieved May 12, 2007]</ref>
===Gulf War and Operation Restore Hope===
[[Image:Manuel Rivera.jpg|150px|frame|Captain Manuel Rivera Jr., (USMC)]]
In 1990, 1,700 Puerto Rican National Guardsmen were among the 20,000 [[Hispanic]]s deployed to the [[Persian Gulf]] in Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm as part of the [[Gulf War]]. Four Puerto Ricans lost their lives, including Captain [[Manuel Rivera, Jr.]] of the Marine Corps, a Puerto Rican from the South [[The Bronx|Bronx]], who on [[January 22]], [[1991]] became the first soldier to be killed in Operation Desert Shield. Rivera was killed during a support mission over the Persian Gulf. <!--His body was recovered--><!--When was his body recovered?--> On [[January 30]], [[1991]], the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]] paid tribute to Rivera.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?r102:E09MY1-429:/ |title=Tribute to Capt. Manuel Rivera, Jr. |accessmonthday=October 17 |accessyear=2006 |author= |date=May 1, 1991 |format= |work= |publisher=Library of Congress}}</ref>
[[Operation Restore Hope]] was an American [[Operation (military)|military operation]] with the support of the United Nations that was formed to deliver [[humanitarian aid]] and restore order to the [[Africa]]n nation of [[Somalia]], which was suffering from a severe [[famine]], anarchy, and domination by a number of [[warlord]]s following the collapse of [[Siad Barre|Siad Barre's]] [[Marxism|Marxist]] government and the outbreak of the [[Somalian Civil War]]. On [[January 30]], [[1993]], Private First Class [[Domingo Arroyo]] Jr., a Marine from Puerto Rico, became the first of the 44 American soldiers killed during the operation. He was ambushed in [[Mogadishu]], the capital of Somalia, by Somali warlords.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?r103:S17FE3-94:/ |title=PFC Domingo Arroyo Jr. |accessmonthday=October 17 |accessyear=2006 |author= |date=February 17, 1993 |format= |work= |publisher=Library of Congress}}</ref>
===21st century campaigns===
[[Image:Francis M. Vega.JPG|right|frame|SPC. Frances M. Vega, (U.S. Army)]]
In the military campaigns of [[Afghanistan]] and [[Iraq]], in what the United States and its allies refer to as the [[War on Terrorism]], among those that have perished are the first three Puerto Rican women to die in a foreign combat zone. They are Specialist Frances M. Vega, Specialist Lizbeth Robles and Specialist Aleina Ramirez Gonzalez. On [[November 2]], [[2003]], Specialist [[Frances M. Vega]] became the first female Puerto Rican soldier born in the United States to die in a war zone. A ground-to-air missile fired by insurgents in [[Fallujah]] hit the [[CH-47 Chinook|Chinook]] transport helicopter Vega was in; she was one of 16 soldiers who lost their lives in the crash that followed. On [[March 1]], [[2005]] Specialist [[Lizbeth Robles]] became the first female Puerto Rican soldier born on the island to die in Iraq when her Humvee was involved in an accident. On [[July 10]], [[2007]], Captain [[Maria Ines Ortiz]], who was assigned to a hospital in an area known as the "[[Green Zone]]" in [[Baghdad]], Irag, became the first Puerto Rican nurse to die in combat and the first Army nurse to die in the Iraq War after the area came under a heavy mortar attack.<ref name=Herald> {{cite web| accessdate=2007-07-13
|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2007/07/13/news/CB-GEN-Puerto-Rico-Soldier-Killed.php
|title=Puerto Rican soldier first Army nurse killed in Iraq war
|author=Associated Press |date=July 13, 2007
|work=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> As of May 2004, there were 1,800 Puerto Rican soldiers stationed in Iraq, [[Kuwait]], Afghanistan and [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.militarycity.com/valor/256873.html |title=Military City |accessmonthday=October 10 |accessyear=2006|author= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher= |pages= }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aimeeallison.org/?q=node/186 |title=Bush's War Viewed from the South |accessmonthday=October 10|accessyear=2006 |author=Jorge Mariscal |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher= |pages=}}</ref>
[[Image:Monumento de la Recordacion.JPG|left|thumb|El Monumento de la Recordacion]]
Over 1,225 Puerto Ricans have died while serving for the United States. The names of those who perished in combat are inscribed in "El Monumento de la Recordacion" (Monument of Remembrance), which was unveiled on [[May 19]], [[1996]] and is situated in front of the Capitol Building in San Juan, Puerto Rico.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fallenheroesmemorial.com/oif/profiles/robleslizbeth.html |title=Fallen Heroes Memorial |accessmonthday=October 10 |accessyear=2006 |author=Tim Rivera |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher= |pages= }}</ref>
General William W. Harris was quoted in the ''Puerto Rico Herald'' as saying, "No ethnic group has greater pride in itself and its heritage then the Puerto Rican people. Nor have I encountered any that can be more dedicated and zealous in support of the democratic principles for which the United States stands. Many Puerto Ricans have fought to the death to uphold them".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.puertorico-herald.org/issues/vol3n46/VetsTribute-en.shtml |title=A tribute to Puerto Rican veterans |accessdate=2006-10-02 |author= |date=November 11, 1999 |format= |work= |publisher=Puerto Rico Herald |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= }}</ref>
==See also==
{{portalpar|Puerto Rico}}
*[[Battle of San Juan (1797)]]
*[[List of Puerto Ricans#Military|Puerto Ricans in the Military]]
*[[Puerto Rican women in the military]]
*[[Puerto Ricans Missing in Action - Korean War]]
*[[Puerto Ricans Missing in Action - Vietnam War]]
*[[Puerto Rican recipients of the Medal of Honor]]
*[[Puerto Rican recipients of the Navy Cross]]
*[[Puerto Rican recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross]]
*[[Puerto Ricans in World War II]]
==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}
==References==
*[http://www.fortunecity.com/victorian/churchmews/1216/historia.htm Historic Documents of Puerto Rico]
*[http://www.neta.com/~1stbooks/revolt_0.htm Hispanics in the American Revolution]
*Miller, Paul G. ed (1947) "Historia de Puerto Rico" Rand McNally
*[http://www.puertorico-herald.org/issues/2004/vol8n38/PRVideo0838-en.shtml Puerto Rico Herald: Puerto Rico's Proud Military History]
*[http://media.nara.gov/media/images/27/34/27-3386a.gif Casualties in Panama Canal Zone]
*[http://members.aol.com/warlibrary/vwc3.htm Casualties in Vietnam War]
*[http://www.valerosos.com/65thinfcaspg1.html Killed in Action]
*[http://www.puertorico-herald.org/issues/2002/vol6n22/NewGenFights65th-en.shtml Puerto Rico Herald/[[May 26]] [[2002]] - Court Martials]
*[http://www.womensmemorial.org/Education/PRHistory.html Puerto Rican Servicewomen in Defense of the Nation]
==External links==
*[http://www.managementaides.com/my_interests/hispanic_america.htm Hispanic America]
*[http://www.rootsweb.com/~prwgw/65th.htm 65th Infantry]
*[http://www.latinola.com/story.php?story=2341/ Latino La]
{{North America in topic|Military history of}}
{{featured article}}
[[Category:Military history of Puerto Rico| ]]
[[es:Historia militar de Puerto Rico]]