Mineralogy 19883 223021587 2008-07-02T05:59:00Z Will Beback 737021 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/203.158.43.74|203.158.43.74]] ([[User talk:203.158.43.74|talk]]) to last version by El C '''Mineralogy''' is an [[Earth Science]] focused around the [[chemistry]], [[crystal structure]], and physical (including [[optical mineralogy|optical]]) properties of [[mineral]]s. Specific studies within mineralogy include the processes of mineral origin and formation, classification of minerals, their geographical distribution, as well as their utilization. ==History== Early speculation, study, and [[theory]] of mineralogy was written of in ancient [[Babylonia]], the ancient [[Greco-Roman]] world, ancient and medieval [[History of China|China]], and noted in the ''prana'' of [[Sanskrit]] texts from [[ancient India]].<ref name="needham volume 3 637">Needham, Volume 3, 637.</ref> They included the [[Naturalis Historia]] of [[Pliny the Elder]] which not only described many different minerals but also explained many of their properties. Systematic scientific studies of minerals and rocks developed in post-[[Renaissance]] Europe.<ref name="needham volume 3 636">Needham, Volume 3, 636.</ref> The credible study of mineralogy was founded on the principles of [[crystallography]] and [[microscopic]] study of rock sections with the invention of the [[microscope]] in the 17th century.<ref name="needham volume 3 636"/> ===Europe and the Middle East=== [[Image:Theophrastus2.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Theophrastus]]]] The ancient Greek writers [[Aristotle]] ([[384 BC|384]]–[[322 BC|322]] BC) and [[Theophrastus]] ([[370 BC|370]]-[[285 BC|285]] BC) were the first in the Western tradition to write of minerals and their properties, as well as [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] explanations for them. The [[Greek philosophy|Greek philosopher]] Aristotle wrote his ''[[Meteorologica]]'', and in it theorized that all the known substances were composed of water, air, earth, and fire, with the properties of dryness, dampness, heat, and cold.<ref name="bandy i">Bandy, i (Forward).</ref> The Greek philosopher and [[botanist]] Theophrastus wrote his ''De Mineralibus'', which accepted Aristotle's view, and divided minerals into two categories: those affected by heat and those affected by dampness.<ref name="bandy i"/> The metaphysical emanation and exhalation (''anathumiaseis'') theory of the Greek philosopher Aristotle included early speculation on earth sciences including mineralogy. According to his theory, while metals were supposed to be congealed by means of moist exhalation, dry gaseous exhalation (''pneumatodestera'') was the efficient material cause of minerals found in the earth's soil.<ref name="needham volume 3 636 637">Needham, Volume 3, 636-637.</ref> He postulated these ideas by using the examples of moisture on the surface of the earth (a moist vapor 'potentially like water'), while the other was from the earth itself, pertaining to the attributes of hot, dry, smoky, and highly combustible ('potentially like fire').<ref name="needham volume 3 636 637"/> Aristotle's metaphysical theory from times of antiquity had wide-ranging influence on similar theory found in later medieval Europe, as the historian Berthelot notes: <blockquote> ''The theory of exhalations was the point of departure for later ideas on the generation of metals in the earth, which we meet with [[Proclus]], and which reigned throughout the [[middle ages]].''<ref name="needham volume 3 637"/> </blockquote> [[Image:Asbestos with muscovite.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Fibrous asbestos on [[muscovite]]]] Ancient Greek terminology of minerals has also stuck through the ages with widespread usage in modern times. For example, the Greek word [[asbestos]] (meaning 'inextinguishable', or 'unquenchable'), for the unusual mineral known today containing [[fibrous]] structure.<ref name="needham volume 3 656">Needham, Volume 3, 656.</ref> The ancient historians [[Strabo]] ([[63 BC]]-[[19]] AD) and [[Pliny the Elder]] ([[23]]-[[79]] AD) both wrote of asbestos, its qualities, and its origins, with the [[Hellenistic]] belief that it was of a type of [[vegetable]].<ref name="needham volume 3 656"/> Pliny the Elder listed it as a mineral common in India, while the historian [[Yu Huan]] ([[239]]-[[265]] AD) of China listed this 'fireproof cloth' as a product of ancient [[Rome]] or [[Arabia]] (Chinese: [[Daqin]]).<ref name="needham volume 3 656"/> Although documentation of these minerals in ancient times does not fit the manner of modern scientific classification, there was nonetheless extensive written work on early mineralogy. ====Pliny the Elder==== [[Image:Rough diamond.jpg|left|thumb|150px|octahedral shape of diamond.]] [[Image:Insects in baltic amber.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Baltic Sea|Baltic]] amber necklace with trapped insects ]] For example, Pliny devoted 5 entire volumes of his work [[Naturalis Historia]] (77 AD) to the classification of "earths, metals, stones, and gems".<ref name="ramsdell 164">Ramsdell, 164.</ref> He not only describes many minerals not known to [[Theophrastus]], but discusses their applications and properties. He is the first to correctly recognise the origin of [[amber]] for example, as the fossilized remnant of tree resin from the observation of insects trapped in some samples. He laid the basis of [[crystallography]] by discussing [[crystal habit]], especially the [[octahedral]] shape of [[diamond]]. His discussion of mining methods is unrivalled in the ancient world, and includes, for example, an [[eye-witness]] account of [[gold mining]] in northern [[Spain]], an account which is fully confirmed by modern research. However, before the more definitive foundational works on mineralogy in the 16th century, the ancients recognized no more than roughly 350 minerals to list and describe. <ref name="needham volume 3 646">Needham, Volume 3, 646.</ref> ====Jabir and Avicenna==== With philosophers such as [[Proclus]], the theory of [[Neoplatonism]] also spread to the [[Muslim world|Islamic world]] during the [[Middle Ages]], providing a basis for metaphyiscal ideas on mineralogy in the [[Islamic Golden Age|medieval Middle East]] as well. The medieval [[Islamic science|Islamic scientists]] expanded upon this as well, including the [[Persian people|Persian]] scientist [[Avicenna|Ibn Sina]] (ابوعلى سينا/پورسينا‎) ([[980]]-[[1037]] AD), also known as ''Avicenna'', who rejected [[alchemy]] and the earlier notion of [[Greek philosophy|Greek metaphysics]] that metallic and other elements could be transformed into one another.<ref name="needham volume 3 637"/> However, what was largely accurate of the ancient Greek and medieval metaphysical ideas on mineralogy was the slow chemical change in composition of the earth's crust.<ref name="needham volume 3 637"/> There was also the [[Alchemy and chemistry in Islam|Islamic alchemist]] and scientist [[Geber|Jabir ibn Hayyan]] ([[721]]-[[815]] AD), who was the first to bring the [[experiment]]al method into alchemy. Aided by [[Greek mathematics]] and [[Islamic mathematics]], he discovered the syntheses for [[hydrochloric acid]], [[nitric acid]], [[distillation]] and [[crystallization]] (the latter two being essential for the understanding of modern mineralogy). ====Georgius Agricola, 'Father of Mineralogy'==== [[Image:Georgius Agricola.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Agricola, author of De re metallica]] In the early 16th century AD, the writings of the [[Germany|German]] scientist Georg Bauer, pen-name [[Georgius Agricola]] ([[1494]]-[[1555]] AD), in his ''Bermannus, sive de re metallica dialogus'' (1530) is considered to be the official establishment of mineralogy in the modern sense of its study. He wrote the treatise while working as a town physician and making observations in [[Joachimsthal]], which was then a center for [[mining]] and [[metallurgy|metallurgic]] [[smelting]] industries. In 1544, he published his written work ''De ortu et causis subterraneorum'', which is considered to be the foundational work of modern physical [[geology]]. In it (much like Ibn Sina) he heavily criticized the theories laid out by the ancient Greeks such as Aristotle. His work on mineralogy and metallurgy continued with the publication of ''De veteribus et novis metallis'' in 1546, and culminated in his best known works, the ''[[De re metallica]]'' of 1556. It was an impressive work outlining applications of [[mining]], refining, and [[smelting]] metals, alongside discussions on geology of ore bodies, [[surveying]], mine construction, and [[ventilation]]. He praises [[Pliny the Elder]] for his pioneering work [[Naturalis Historia]] and makes extensive references to his discussion of minerals and mining methods. For the next two centuries this written work remained the authoritative text on mining in Europe. Agricola had many various theories on mineralogy based on empirical observation, including understanding of the concept of [[ore]] channels that were formed by the circulation of ground waters ('succi') in [[fissure]]s subsequent to the deposition of the surrounding rocks.<ref name="needham volume 3 649">Needham, Volume 3, 649.</ref> As will be noted below, the medieval Chinese previously had conceptions of this as well. For his works, Agricola is posthumously known as the "Father of Mineralogy". After the foundational work written by Agricola, it is widely agreed by the scientific community that the ''Gemmarum et Lapidum Historia'' of [[Anselmus de Boodt]] ([[1550]]-[[1632]]) of [[Bruges]] is the first definitive work of modern mineralogy.<ref name="needham volume 3 646"/> The German mining [[chemist]] [[J.F. Henckel]] wrote his ''Flora Saturnisans'' of 1760, which was the first treatise in Europe to deal with geobotanical minerals, although the Chinese had mentioned this in earlier treatises of 1421 and 1664.<ref name="needham volume 3 678">Needham, Volume 3, 678.</ref> In addition, the Chinese writer [[Du Wan]] made clear references to weathering and erosion processes in his ''Yun Lin Shi Pu'' of 1133, long before Agricola's work of 1546.<ref name="needham volume 3 604"/> ===China and the Far East=== In ancient China, the oldest literary listing of minerals dates back to at least the 4th century BC, with the ''Ji Ni Zi'' book listing twenty four of them.<ref name="needham volume 3 643">Needham, Volume 3, 643.</ref> Chinese ideas of metaphysical mineralogy span back to at least the ancient Han Dynasty ([[202 BC|202]] BC-[[220]] AD). From the 2nd century BC text of the ''Huai Nan Zi'', the Chinese used ideological [[Taoist]] terms to describe [[meteorology]], [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]], different types of minerals, metallurgy, and alchemy.<ref name="needham volume 3 640">Needham, Volume 3, 640.</ref> Although the understanding of these concepts in Han times was Taoist in nature, the theories proposed were similar to the [[Aristotelian]] theory of mineralogical exhalations (noted above).<ref name="needham volume 3 640"/> By 122 BC, the Chinese had thus formulated the theory for metamorphosis of minerals, although it is noted by historians such as Dubs that the tradition of alchemical-mineralogical Chinese doctrine stems back to the School of Naturalists headed by the philosopher [[Zou Yan]] ([[305 BC]]-[[240 BC]]).<ref name="needham volume 3 641">Needham, Volume 3, 641.</ref> Within the broad categories of rocks and stones (shi) and metals and alloys (jin), by Han times the Chinese had hundreds (if not thousands) of listed types of stones and minerals, along with theories for how they were formed.<ref name="needham volume 3 641"/><ref name="needham volume 3 651"/> In the 5th century AD, Prince [[Qian Ping Wang]] of the [[Liu Song Dynasty]] wrote in the encyclopedia ''Tai-ping Yu Lan'' (circa 444 AD, from the lost book ''Dian Shu'', or ''Management of all Techniques''): <blockquote> ''The most precious things in the world are stored in the innermost regions of all. For example, there is [[orpiment]]. After a thousand years it changes into [[realgar]]. After another thousand years the realgar becomes transformed into yellow gold.''<ref name="needham volume 3 638">Needham, Volume 3, 638.</ref> </blockquote> In ancient and medieval China, mineralogy became firmly tied to [[empirical]] observations in pharmaceutics and [[medicine]]. For example, the famous [[horologist]] and [[mechanical]] [[engineer]] [[Su Song]] ([[1020]]-[[1101]] AD) of the [[Song Dynasty]] ([[960]]-[[1279]] AD) wrote of mineralogy and [[pharmacology]] in his ''Ben Cao Tu Jing'' of 1070. In it he created a systematic approach to listing various different minerals and their use in medicinal concoctions, such as all the variously known forms of [[mica]] that could be used to cure various ills through [[digestion]].<ref name="needham volume 3 648">Needham, Volume 3, 648.</ref> Su Song also wrote of the [[subconchoidal]] fracture of native [[cinnabar]], signs of ore beds, and provided description on crystal form.<ref name="needham volume 3 649">Needham, Volume 3, 649.</ref> Similar to the ore channels formed by circulation of ground water mentioned above with the German scientist Agricola, Su Song made similar statements concerning [[copper carbonate]], as did the earlier ''Ri Hua Ben Cao'' of 970 AD with copper [[sulfate]].<ref name="needham volume 3 649"/> The [[Yuan Dynasty]] scientist [[Zhang Si-xiao]] (died 1332 AD) provided a groundbreaking treatise on the conception of ore beds from the circulation of ground waters and rock fissures, two centuries before Georgius Agricola would come to similar conclusions.<ref name="needham volume 3 650">Needham, Volume 3, 650.</ref> In his ''Suo-Nan Wen Ji'', he applies this theory in describing the deposition of minerals by [[evaporation]] of (or precipitation from) ground waters in ore channels.<ref name="needham volume 3 651">Needham, Volume 3, 651.</ref> In addition to alchemical theory posed above, later Chinese writers such as the [[Ming Dynasty]] [[physician]] [[Li Shizhen]] ([[1518]]-[[1593]] AD) wrote of mineralogy in similar terms of Aristotle's metaphysical theory, as the latter wrote in his [[pharmaceutical]] treatise ''Běncǎo Gāngmù'' (本草綱目, ''[[Compendium of Materia Medica]]'', 1596).<ref name="needham volume 3 637"/> Another figure from the Ming era, the famous [[geographer]] [[Xu Xiake]] ([[1587]]-[[1641]]) wrote of mineral beds and mica schists in his treatise.<ref name="needham volume 3 645">Needham, Volume 3, 645.</ref> However, while European literature on mineralogy became wide and varied, the writers of the Ming and [[Qing Dynasty|Qing]] dynasties wrote little of the subject (even compared to Chinese of the earlier Song era). The only other works from these two eras worth mentioning were the ''Shi Pin'' (Hierarchy of Stones) of [[Yu Jun]] in 1617, the ''Guai Shi Lu'' (Strange Rocks) of [[Song Luo]] in 1665, and the ''Guan Shi Lu'' (On Looking at Stones) in 1668.<ref name="needham volume 3 645"/> However, one figure from the Song era that is worth mentioning above all is Shen Kuo. ====Theories of Shen Kuo==== [[Image:Shen Kua.JPG|thumb|[[Shen Kuo]] (沈括) ([[1031]]-[[1095]]))]] The medieval Chinese [[Song Dynasty]] statesman and scientist [[Shen Kuo]] ([[1031]]-[[1095]] AD) wrote of his land formation theory involving concepts of mineralogy. In his ''Meng Xi Bi Tan'' (梦溪笔谈; ''[[Dream Pool Essays]]'', 1088), Shen formulated a hypothesis for the process of land formation ([[geomorphology]]); based on his observation of [[Marine (ocean)|marine]] [[fossil]] shells in a geological stratum in the [[Taihang Mountains]] hundreds of miles from the [[Pacific Ocean]].<ref name="sivin III 23">Sivin, III, 23.</ref> He inferred that the land was formed by erosion of the mountains and by deposition of [[silt]], and described [[soil erosion]], [[sedimentation]] and uplift.<ref name="sivin III 23 24">Sivin, III, 23-24.</ref> In an earlier work of his (circa 1080), he wrote of a curious fossil of a sea-orientated creature found far inland.<ref name="needham volume 3 618">Needham, Volume 3, 618.</ref> It is also of interest to note that the contemporary author of the ''Xi Chi Cong Yu'' attributed the idea of particular places under the sea where serpents and crabs were petrified to one [[Wang Jinchen]]. With Shen Kuo's writing of the discovery of fossils, he formulated a hypothesis for the shifting of [[Climate change|geographical climate]]s throughout time.<ref name="needham volume 3 614">Needham, Volume 3, 614.</ref> This was due to hundreds of [[petrified]] [[bamboo]]s found underground in the dry climate of northern China, once an enormous landslide upon the bank of a river revealed them.<ref name="needham volume 3 614"/> Shen theorized that in pre-historic times, the climate of Yanzhou must have been very rainy and humid like southern China, where bamboos are suitable to grow.<ref name="needham volume 3 614"/> In a similar way, the historian [[Joseph Needham]] likened Shen's account with the [[Scottish people|Scottish]] scientist [[Roderick Murchison]] ([[1792]]-[[1871]]), who was inspired to become a geologist after observing a providential landslide. In addition, Shen's description of sedimentary deposition predated that of [[James Hutton]], who wrote his groundbreaking work in 1802 (considered the foundation of modern geology).<ref name="needham volume 3 604">Needham, Volume 3, 604</ref> The influential philosopher [[Zhu Xi]] ([[1130]]-[[1200]]) wrote of this curious natural phenomena of fossils as well, and was known to have read the works of Shen Kuo.<ref name="chan 15">Chan, 15.</ref> In comparison, the first mentioning of fossils found in the West was made nearly two centuries later with [[Louis IX of France]] in 1253 AD, who discovered fossils of marine animals (as recorded in Joinville's records of 1309 AD).<ref name="chan 14">Chan, 14.</ref> ==Modern mineralogy== [[Image:Chalcocite.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Chalcocite]], a copper ore mineral.]] Historically, mineralogy was heavily concerned with [[taxonomy]] of the rock-forming minerals; to this end, the [[International Mineralogical Association]] is an organization whose members represent mineralogists in individual countries. Its activities include managing the naming of minerals (via the Commission of New Minerals and Mineral Names), location of known minerals, etc. As of 2004 there are over [[List of minerals (complete)|4,000 species]] of mineral recognized by the IMA. Of these, perhaps 150 can be called "common," another 50 are "occasional," and the rest are "rare" to "extremely rare." More recently, driven by advances in experimental technique (such as [[neutron diffraction]]) and available computational power, the latter of which has enabled extremely accurate atomic-scale simulations of the behaviour of crystals, the science has branched out to consider more general problems in the fields of [[inorganic chemistry]] and [[solid-state physics]]. It, however, retains a focus on the crystal structures commonly encountered in rock-forming minerals (such as the [[perovskite]]s, [[clay minerals]] and [[Tectosilicate|framework silicates]]). In particular, the field has made great advances in the understanding of the relationship between the atomic-scale structure of minerals and their function; in nature, prominent examples would be accurate measurement and prediction of the elastic properties of minerals, which has led to new insight into [[seismology|seismological]] behaviour of rocks and depth-related discontinuities in seismograms of the [[Earth's mantle]]. To this end, in their focus on the connection between atomic-scale phenomena and macroscopic properties, the '''mineral sciences''' (as they are now commonly known) display perhaps more of an overlap with [[materials science]] than any other discipline. ===Physical mineralogy=== Physical mineralogy is the specific focus on physical attributes of minerals. Description of physical attributes is the simplest way to identify, classify, and categorize minerals, and they include:<ref name="ramsdell 164"/> *[[crystal structure]] *[[crystal habit]] *[[Crystal twinning|twinning]] *[[Cleavage (crystal)|cleavage]] *[[Lustre (mineralogy)|luster]] *color *[[Streak (mineralogy)|streak]] *[[Mohs scale|hardness]] *[[specific gravity]] ===Chemical mineralogy=== Chemical mineralogy focuses on the chemical composition of minerals in order to identify, classify, and categorize them, as well as a means to find beneficial uses from them. There are a few minerals which are classified as whole elements, including [[sulfur]], [[copper]], [[silver]], and [[gold]], yet the vast majority of minerals are comprised of chemical compounds, some more complex than others.<ref name="ramsdell 165">Ramsdell, 165.</ref> In terms of major chemical divisions of minerals, most are placed within the [[isomorphism|isomorphous]] groups, which are based on [[analogous]] chemical composition and similar crystal forms. A good example of isomorphism classification would be the [[calcite]] group, containing the minerals calcite, [[magnesite]], [[siderite]], [[rhodochrosite]], and [[smithsonite]].<ref name="ramsdell 166">Ramsdell, 166.</ref> ===Biomineralogy=== Biomineralogy is a cross-over field between mineralogy, [[paleontology]] and [[biology]]. It is the study of how plants and animals stabilize minerals under biological control, and the sequencing of mineral replacement of those minerals after deposition.<ref>[[Gordon Scurfield|Scurfield , Gordon]] (1979) "Wood Petrifaction: an aspect of biomineralogy" ''Australian Journal of Botany'' 27(4): pp. 377-390</ref> It uses techniques from chemical mineralogy, especially isotopic studies, to determine such things as growth forms in living plants and animals<ref>Christoffersen, M.R., Balic-Zunic, T., Pehrson, S., Christoffersen, J. (2001) "Kinetics of Growth of Columnar Triclinic Calcium Pyrophosphate Dihydrate Crystals" ''Crystal Growth & Design'' 1(6): pp. 463-466.</ref><ref>Chandrajith, R., Wijewardana, G., Dissanayake, C.B., Abeygunasekara, A. (2006) "Biomineralogy of human urinary calculi (kidney stones) from some geographic regions of Sri Lanka" ''Environmental Geochemistry and Health'' 28(4): pp. 393-399</ref> as well as things like the original mineral content of fossils.<ref>Lowenstam, Heitz A. (1954) "Environmental relations of modification compositions of certain carbonate secreting marine invertebrates" ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA)'' 40(1): pp. 39-48</ref> ===Optical mineralogy=== {{main|Optical mineralogy}} [[Optics|Optical]] mineralogy is a specific focus of mineralogy that applies sources of light as a means to identify and classify minerals. All minerals which are not part of the [[Cubic crystal system|cubic system]] are double [[refracting]], where ordinary light passing through them is broken up into two plane [[polarize]]d [[Ray (optics)|rays]] that travel at different [[velocities]] and refracted at different [[angle]]s. Mineral substances belonging to the cubic system pertain only one [[index of refraction]].<ref name="ramsdell 166"/> [[Hexagonal crystal system|Hexagonal]] and [[tetragonal]] mineral substances have two indices, while [[orthorhombic]], [[monoclinic]], and [[triclinic]] substances have three indices of refraction.<ref name="ramsdell 166"/> With [[Opacity (optics)|opaque]] ore minerals, reflected light from a microscope is needed for identification.<ref name="ramsdell 166"/> ===Crystal structure=== {{main|Crystallography}} [[X-ray]]s are used to determine the [[atomic]] arrangements of minerals and so to identify and classify them. The arrangements of atoms define the crystal structures of the minerals. Some very fine-grained minerals, such as [[clay]]s, commonly can be identified most readily by their crystal structures. The structure of a mineral also offers a precise way of establishing isomorphism.<ref name="ramsdell 166"/> With knowledge of atomic arrangements and compositions, one may deduce why minerals have specific physical properties <ref name="ramsdell 166"/>, and one may calculate how those properties change with pressure and temperature. ===Formation environments=== The environments of mineral formation and growth are highly varied, ranging from slow crystallization at the high temperature and pressures of [[igneous]] [[Magma|melts]] deep within the Earth's [[Crust (geology)|crust]] to the low temperature precipitation from a saline brine at the Earth's surface. Various possible methods of formation include:<ref name="ramsdell 166 167">Ramsdell, 166-167.</ref> *[[sublimation]] from [[volcanic]] gases *deposition from [[aqueous solution]]s and [[hydrothermal]] [[brine]]s *crystallization from an [[igneous]] [[magma]] or [[lava]] *recrystallization due to [[metamorphism|metamorphic]] processes and [[metasomatism]] *crystallization during [[diagenesis]] of sediments *formation by [[oxidation]] and [[weathering]] of rocks exposed to the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] or within the [[soil]] environment. ===Uses=== Minerals are essential to various needs within human society, such as minerals used for bettering [[health]] and [[Physical fitness|fitness]] (such as [[mineral water]] or commercially-sold [[vitamins]]), essential components of metal products used in various [[commodities]] and [[machinery]], essential components to building materials such as [[limestone]], [[marble]], [[granite]], [[gravel]], [[glass]], [[plaster]], [[cement]], [[plastics]], etc.<ref name="ramsdell 167">Ramsdell, 167.</ref> Minerals are also used in [[fertilizer]]s to enrich the growth of [[agricultural]] crops. ===Descriptive mineralogy=== Descriptive mineralogy summarizes results of studies performed on mineral substances. It is the scholarly and scientific method of recording the identification, classification, and categorization of minerals, their properties, and their uses. Classifications for descriptive mineralogy includes:<ref>http://www.minerals.net/mineral/sort-met.hod/dana/dana.htm Dana classification - Minerals.net</ref><ref>Klein, Cornelis and Cornelius Hurlbut, Jr. (1985) ''Manual of Mineralogy'', Wiley, 20th ed., ISBN 0-471-80580-7</ref> *[[Mineral#Element class|native elements]] *[[Sulfide mineral|sulfides]] *[[Mineral#Oxide class|oxides and hydroxides]] *[[Mineral#Halide class|halides]] *[[Carbonate minerals|carbonates, nitrates and borates]] *[[Mineral#Sulfate class|sulfates, chromates, molybdates and tungstates]] *[[Phosphate mineral|phosphates, arsenates and vanadates]] *[[Silicate minerals|silicates]] *[[Mineral#Organic class|organic minerals]] ===Determinative mineralogy=== Determinative mineralogy is the actual scientific process of identifying minerals, through data gathering and conclusion. When new minerals are discovered, a standard procedure of scientific analysis is followed, including measures to identify a mineral's formula, its crystallographic data, its optical data, as well as the general physical attributes determined and listed. == See also == * [[List of minerals]] - a simple list concentrating on minerals with Wikipedia articles. * [[List of minerals (complete)]] - a more complete list of IMA-approved minerals, regularly updated. * [[List of mineralogists]] * [[List of publications in geology#Mineralogy|List of publications in mineralogy]] ==Notes== {{reflist|3}} ==References== *Bandy, Mark Chance and Jean A. Bandy (1955). ''De Natura Fossilium''. New York: George Banta Publishing Company. *Chan, Alan Kam-leung and Gregory K. Clancey, Hui-Chieh Loy (2002).'' Historical Perspectives on East Asian Science, Technology and Medicine''. Singapore: Singapore University Press ISBN 9971692597 *Needham, Joseph (1986). ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3''. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. *Ramsdell, Lewis S. (1963). ''Encyclopedia Americana: International Edition: Volume 19''. New York: Americana Corporation. *Sivin, Nathan (1995). ''Science in Ancient China''. Brookfield, Vermont: VARIORUM, Ashgate Publishing. == External links == *[http://wwwobs.univ-bpclermont.fr/ima/ International Mineralogical Association] *[http://www.mindat.org/index.php mindat.org mineralogical database] *[http://www.minsocam.org/index.php Mineralogical Society of America] *[http://mineralogicalassociation.ca/ Mineralogical Association of Canada] *[http://www.mineralogy.be// Virtual Museum of the History of Mineralogy] *[http://www.farlang.com/gemstones/agricola_textbook_of_mineralogy/page_001 Georg Agricola's "Textbook on Mineralogy" on gemstones and minerals] Translated from Latin by Mark Bandy. 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