Modern evolutionary synthesis
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Ben Tillman
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{{Redirect|Evolutionary theory|the sociological theory|sociobiology}}
{{evolution3}}
The '''modern evolutionary synthesis''' is a union of ideas from several [[biology|biological]] specialties which forms a sound account of [[evolution]]. This synthesis has been generally accepted by most working biologists. The synthesis was produced over about a decade (1936–1947), and the development of [[population genetics]] (1918–1932) was the stimulus. This showed that Mendelian [[genetics]] was consistent with [[natural selection]] and gradual evolution. The synthesis is still, to a large extent, the current paradigm in evolutionary biology.
[[Julian Huxley]] invented the term, when he produced his book, ''[[Evolution: The Modern Synthesis]]'' (1942). Other major figures in the
modern synthesis include [[R. A. Fisher]], [[Theodosius Dobzhansky]], [[J.B.S. Haldane]], [[Sewall Wright]], [[E.B. Ford]], [[Ernst Mayr]], [[Bernhard Rensch]], [[Sergei Chetverikov]], [[George Gaylord Simpson]], and [[G. Ledyard Stebbins]].
The modern synthesis solved difficulties and confusions caused by the specialisation and poor communication between biologists in the early years of the twentieth century. Discoveries of early geneticists were difficult to reconcile with gradual evolution and the mechanism of natural selection. The synthesis reconciled the two schools of thought, while providing evidence that studies of populations in the field were crucial to evolutionary theory. It drew together ideas from several branches of biology that had become separated, particularly genetics, cytology, systematics, botany, morphology, ecology and paleontology.
Modern evolutionary synthesis is also referred to as the '''new synthesis''', the '''modern synthesis''', and the '''evolutionary synthesis'''.
==Developments leading up to the synthesis==
{{seealso|History of evolutionary thought}}
===1859–1899===
''The Origin of Species'' was successful in convincing most biologists that evolution had occurred, but was less successful in convincing them that natural selection was its primary mechanism. In the 19th and early 20th centuries variations of [[Lamarckism]], [[orthogenesis]] ('progressive' evolution), and [[saltationism]] (evolution by jumps) were discussed as alternatives.<ref> Bowler P.J. 2003. ''Evolution: the history of an idea''. pp236–256 </ref> Also, Darwin did not offer a precise explanation of how new species arise. As part of the disagreement about whether natural selection alone was sufficient to explain [[speciation]], [[George Romanes]] coined the term [[neo-Darwinism]] to refer to the version of evolution advocated by [[Alfred Russel Wallace]] and [[August Weismann]] with its heavy dependence on natural selection.<ref name="Gould216"> Gould The Structure of Evolutionary Theory p. 216</ref> Weismann and Wallace rejected the Lamarckian idea of inheritance of acquired characteristics, something that Darwin had not ruled out.<ref>[http://www.springerlink.com/content/f6131358k265g3u4/ Kutschera U. 2003. A comparative analysis of the Darwin-Wallace papers and the development of the concept of natural selection. ''Theory in Biosciences'' '''122''', 343-359]</ref>
Weismann's idea was that the relationship between the hereditary material, which he called the [[germ plasm]], and the rest of the body (the [[somatic|soma]]) was a one-way relationship: the germ-plasm formed the body, but the body did not influence the germ-plasm, except indirectly in its participation in a population subject to natural selection. Weismann was translated into English, and though he was influential, it took many years for the full significance of his work to be appreciated.<ref> Bowler pp. 253–256</ref> Later, after the completion of the modern synthesis, the term neo-Darwinism would come to be associated with its core concept of evolution being driven by natural selection acting on variation produced by genetic mutation and recombination (see [[Chromosomal crossover|crossing-over]]).<ref name="Gould216"/>
===1900–1915===
[[Gregor Mendel]]'s work was re-discovered by [[Hugo de Vries]] and [[Carl Correns]] in 1900. News of this reached [[William Bateson]] in England, who reported on the paper during a presentation to the Royal Horticultural Society in May 1900.<ref>{{cite web|title=Mendel's Peas|url=http://www.jic.ac.uk/germplas/pisum/zgs4f.htm|author=Mike Ambrose|publisher=Genetic Resources Unit, John Innes Centre, Norwich, UK|accessdate=2007-09-22}}</ref> It showed that the contributions of each parent retained their integrity rather than blending with the contribution of the other parent. However, the early Mendelians viewed hard inheritance as incompatible with natural selection and favored saltationism (large mutations or jumps) instead.<ref> Larson pp. 157–166</ref> The [[Biostatistics|biometric school]], led by [[Karl Pearson]] and [[Walter Weldon]], argued vigorously against it, saying that empirical evidence indicated that variation was continuous in most organisms not discrete as Mendelism predicted. The relevance of Mendelism to evolution was unclear and hotly debated, especially by Bateson, who opposed the biometric ideas of his former teacher Weldon. This debate between the biometricians and the Mendelians continued for some twenty years.
[[T. H. Morgan]] began his career in genetics as a saltationist, and started out trying to demonstrate that mutations could produce new species in fruit flies. However, the experimental work at his lab with ''[[Drosophila melanogaster]]'', which helped establish the link between Mendelian genetics and the chromosomal theory of inheritance, demonstrated that rather than creating new species in a single step, mutations increased the genetic variation in the population.<ref> Bowler pp. 271–272</ref>
===The foundation of population genetics===
The first step towards the synthesis was the development of [[population genetics]]. [[R.A. Fisher]], [[J.B.S. Haldane]], and [[Sewall Wright]] provided critical contributions. In 1918 Fisher produced the paper [[The Correlation Between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance]],<ref>Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 52:399–433</ref> which showed how the continuous variation measured by the biometricians could be the result of the action of many discrete [[locus (genetics)|genetic loci]]. In this and subsequent papers culminating in his 1930 book ''[[The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection]]'' Fisher was able to show how Mendelian genetics was, contrary to the thinking of many early geneticists, completely consistent with the idea of evolution driven by [[natural selection]].<ref name="Larson221-243">Larson ''Evolution: The Remarkable History of a Scientific Theory'' pp. 221–243</ref> During the 1920s a series of papers by J.B.S. Haldane applied mathematical analysis to real world examples of natural selection such as the [[Peppered moth evolution|evolution of industrial melanism in peppered moths]].<ref name=Larson221-243/> Haldane established that natural selection could work in the real world at a faster rate than even Fisher had assumed.<ref name="Bowler325-339">Bowler Evolution:The history of an Idea pp. 325–339</ref>
Sewall Wright focused on combinations of genes that interacted as complexes, and the effects of inbreeding on small relatively isolated populations, which could exhibit [[genetic drift]]. In a 1932 paper he introduced the concept of an [[adaptive landscape]] in which phenomena such as cross breeding and genetic drift in small populations could push them away from adaptive peaks, which would in turn allow [[natural selection]] to push them towards new adaptive peaks.<ref name=Larson221-243/> Wright's model would appeal to field naturalists such as Theodosius Dobzhansky and Ernst Mayr who were becoming aware of the importance of geographical isolation in real world populations.<ref name="Bowler325-339"/> The work of Fisher, Haldane and Wright founded the discipline of [[population genetics]]. This is the precursor of the modern synthesis, which is an even broader coalition of ideas.<ref name="Bowler325-339"/><ref name=Larson221-243/><ref name=Gould503-518> Gould ''The Structure of Evolutionary'' Theory pp. 503–518</ref>
==The modern synthesis==
[[Theodosius Dobzhansky]], a Russian émigré who had been a postdoctoral worker in Morgan's fruit fly lab, was one of the first to apply genetics to natural populations. He worked mostly with ''[[Drosophila pseudoobscura]]''. He says pointedly: "Russia has a variety of climates from the Arctic to sub-tropical... Exclusively laboratory workers who neither possess nor wish to have any knowledge of living beings in nature were and are in a minority".<ref> Mayr & Provine 1998 p. 231</ref> Not surprisingly, there were other Russian geneticists with similar ideas, though for some time their work was known to only a few in the West. His 1937 work ''[[Genetics and the Origin of Species]]'' was a key step in bridging the gap between population geneticists and field naturalists. It presented the conclusions reached by Fisher, Haldane, and especially Wright in their highly mathematical papers in a form that was easily accessible to others. It also emphasized that real world populations had far more genetic variability than the early population geneticists had assumed in their models, and that genetically distinct sub-populations were important. Dobzhansky argued that natural selection worked to maintain genetic diversity as well as driving change. Dobzhansky had been influenced by his exposure in the 1920s to the work of a Russian geneticist named [[Sergei Chetverikov]] who had looked at the role of recessive genes in maintaining a reservoir of genetic variability in a population before his work was shut down by the rise of [[Lysenkoism]] in the [[Soviet Union]].<ref name="Bowler325-339"/><ref name=Larson221-243/>
[[Edmund Brisco Ford]]'s work complemented that of Dobzhansky. It was as a result of Ford's work, as well as his own, that Dobzhansky changed the emphasis in the third edition of his famous text from drift to selection.<ref>Dobzhansky T. 1951. ''Genetics and the Origin of Species''. 3rd ed, Columbia University Press N.Y.</ref> Ford was an experimental naturalist who wanted to test natural selection in nature. He virtually invented the field of research known as [[ecological genetics]]. His work on natural selection in wild populations of butterflies and moths was the first to show that predictions made by R.A. Fisher were correct. He was the first to describe and define [[genetic polymorphism]], and to predict that [[Human blood group systems|human blood group polymorphisms]] might be maintained in the population by providing some protection against disease.<ref>Ford E.B. 1964, 4th edn 1975. ''Ecological genetics''. Chapman and Hall, London.</ref>
[[Ernst Mayr]]'s key contribution to the synthesis was ''[[Systematics and the Origin of Species]]'', published in 1942. Mayr emphasized the importance of [[allopatric speciation]], where geographically isolated sub-populations diverge so far that [[reproductive isolation]] occurs. He was sceptical of the reality of [[sympatric speciation]] believing that geographical isolation was a prerequisite for building up intrinsic (reproductive) isolating mechanisms. Mayr also introduced the [[biological species concept]] that defined a species as a group of interbreeding or potentially interbreeding populations that were reproductively isolated from all other populations.<ref name="Bowler325-339"/><ref name=Larson221-243/><ref> Mayr and Provine 1998 pp. 33–34</ref> Before he left [[Germany]] for the [[United States]] in 1930, Mayr had been influenced by the work of German biologist [[Bernhard Rensch]]. In the 1920s Rensch, who like Mayr did field work in [[Indonesia]], analyzed the geographic distribution of [[polytypic]] species and complexes of closely related species paying particular attention to how variations between different populations correlated with local environmental factors such as differences in climate. In 1947 Rensch would write a book, eventually translated into English under the title ''Evolution above the species level'', that looked at how the same evolutionary mechanisms involved in speciation might be extended to explain the origins of the differences between the higher level [[taxa]]. His writings contributed to the rapid acceptance of the synthesis in Germany.<ref>{{cite web|last=Smith|first=Charles H.|title=Rensch, Bernhard (Carl Emmanuel) (Germany 1900–1990)
|url=http://www.wku.edu/~smithch/chronob/RENS1900.htm|publisher=[[Western Kentucky University]]|accessdate=2007-09-22}}</ref><ref> Mayr and Provine 1998 pp. 298–299, 416</ref>
[[George Gaylord Simpson]] was responsible for showing that the modern synthesis was compatible with paleontology in his book ''[[Tempo and Mode in Evolution]]'' published in 1944. Simpson's work was crucial because so many paleontologists had disagreed, in some cases vigorously, with the idea that natural selection was the main mechanism of evolution. It showed that the trends of linear progression (in for example the [[evolution of the horse]]) that earlier paleontologists had used as support for [[neo-Lamarckism]] and [[orthogenesis]] did not hold up under careful examination. Instead the fossil record was consistent with the irregular, branching, and non-directional pattern predicted by the modern synthesis.<ref name="Bowler325-339"/><ref name=Larson221-243/>
The botanist [[G. Ledyard Stebbins]] was another major contributor to the synthesis. His major work, ''[[Variation and Evolution in Plants]]'', was published in 1950. It extended the synthesis to encompass botany including the important effects of hybridization and [[polyploidy]] in some kinds of plants.<ref name=Larson221-243/>
== Tenets of the modern synthesis ==
The modern synthesis bridged the gap between experimental geneticists and naturalists; and between both and palaeontologists, stating that:<ref>Huxley J.S. 1942. ''Evolution: the modern synthesis''. Allen & Unwin, London. 2nd ed 1963; 3rd ed 1974.</ref><ref> Mayr & Provine 1998</ref><ref>Mayr E. 1982. ''The growth of biological thought: diversity, evolution & inheritance''. Harvard, Cambs. p567 et seq.</ref>
#All evolutionary phenomena can be explained in a way consistent with known genetic mechanisms and the observational evidence of naturalists.
#Evolution is gradual: small genetic changes, recombination ordered by natural selection. Discontinuities amongst species (or other taxa) are explained as originating gradually through geographical separation and extinction (not saltation).
#[[Natural selection|Selection]] is overwhelmingly the main mechanism of change; even slight advantages are important when continued. The object of selection is the [[phenotype]] in its surrounding environment. The role of [[genetic drift]] is equivocal; though strongly supported initially by [[Dobzhansky]], it was downgraded later as results from ecological genetics were obtained.
#The primacy of population thinking: the genetic diversity carried in natural populations is a key factor in evolution. The strength of natural selection in the wild was greater than expected; the effect of ecological factors such as niche occupation and the significance of barriers to gene flow are all important.
#In palaeontology, the ability to explain historical observations by extrapolation from micro to macro-evolution is proposed. Historical contingency means explanations at different levels may exist. Gradualism does not mean constant rate of change.
The idea that [[speciation]] occurs after populations are reproductively isolated has been much debated. In plants, polyploidy must be included in any view of speciation. Formulations such as 'evolution consists primarily of changes in the [[allele frequency|frequencies of alleles]] between one generation and another' were proposed rather later. The traditional view is that developmental biology ('[[evo-devo]]') played little part in the synthesis, but an account of [[Gavin de Beer]]'s work by [[Stephen J. Gould|Gould]] suggests he may be an exception.<ref>Gould S.J. ''Ontogeny and phylogeny''. Harvard 1977. p221-2</ref>
Almost all aspects of the synthesis have been challenged at times, with varying degrees of success. There is no doubt, however, that the synthesis was a great landmark in evolutionary biology. It cleared up many confusions, and was directly responsible for stimulating a great deal of research in the post-[[WWII]] era.
== Further advances ==
The modern evolutionary synthesis continued to be developed and refined after the initial establishment in the 1930s and 1940s. The work of [[W. D. Hamilton]], [[George C. Williams]], [[John Maynard Smith]] and others led to the development of a [[gene-centric view of evolution]] in the 1960s. The synthesis as it exists now has extended the scope of the Darwinian idea of natural selection to include subsequent scientific discoveries and concepts unknown to Darwin, such as [[DNA]] and [[genetics]], which allow rigorous, in many cases mathematical, analyses of phenomena such as [[kin selection]], [[altruism]], and [[speciation]].
A particular interpretation most commonly associated with [[Richard Dawkins]], author of ''[[The Selfish Gene]]'', asserts that the gene is the only true [[unit of selection]].<ref> Bowler p.361 </ref> Dawkins further extended the Darwinian idea to include non-biological systems exhibiting the same type of selective behavior of the 'fittest' such as [[meme]]s in culture. The synthesis continues to undergo regular review.<ref> Pigliucci, Massimo 2007. Do we need an extended evolutionary synthesis?
''Evolution'' '''61''' 12, 2743–2749. [http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1558-5646.2007.00246.x?cookieSet=1&journalCode=evo </ref>
==See also==
* [[Evolution]]
* [[The Origin of Species]]
* [[History of evolutionary thought]]
* [[Gene-centered view of evolution]]
* [[Population genetics]]
* [[Symbiogenesis]]
* [[Developmental systems theory]]
* [[Polymorphism (biology)]]
==Footnotes==
{{reflist}}
==References==
*Allen, Garland. ''Thomas Hunt Morgan: The Man and His Science'', Princeton University Press, 1978 ISBN 0-691-08200-6
*{{cite book|last=Bowler|first=Peter J.|authorlink=Peter J. Bowler|title=Evolution:The History of an Idea|publisher=University of California Press|date=2003|isbn=0-52023693-9}}
*Dawkins, Richard. ''[[The Blind Watchmaker]]'', W.W. Norton and Company, Reissue Edition 1996 ISBN 0-393-31570-3
*Dobzhansky, T. ''[[Genetics and the Origin of Species]]'', Columbia University Press, 1937 ISBN 0-231-05475-0
*Fisher, R. A. ''[[The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection]]'', Clarendon Press, 1930 ISBN 0-19-850440-3
*Futuyma, D.J. ''Evolutionary Biology'', Sinauer Associates, 1986, p. 12 0-87-893189-9
*{{cite book|last=Gould|first=Stephen Jay|authorlink=Stephen Jay Gould|title=The Structure of Evolutionary Theory|publisher=Belknap Press of Harvard University Press|date=2002|isbn=0-674-00613-5}}
*Haldane, J. B. S. ''[[The Causes of Evolution]]'', Longman, Green and Co., 1932; Princeton University Press reprint, ISBN 0-691-02442-1
*Huxley, J. S., ed. ''The New Systematics'', Oxford University Press, 1940 ISBN 0-403-01786-6
*Huxley, J. S. ''Evolution: The Modern Synthesis'', Allen and Unwin, 1942 ISBN 0-02-846800-7
*{{cite book|last=Larson|first=Edward J.|authorlink=Edward Larson|title=Evolution:The Remarkable History of a Scientific Theory|publisher=Modern Library|date=2004|isbn=0-679-64288-9}}
*Margulis, Lynn and Dorion Sagan. "Acquiring Genomes: A Theory of the Origins of Species", Perseus Books Group, 2002 ISBN 0-465-04391-7
*Mayr, E. ''Systematics and the Origin of Species'', Columbia University Press, 1942; Harvard University Press reprint ISBN 0-674-86250-3
*Mayr, E. and W. B. Provine, eds. ''The Evolutionary Synthesis: Perspectives on the Unification of Biology'', Harvard University Press, 1998 ISBN 0-674-27225-0
*Simpson, G. G. ''Tempo and Mode in Evolution'', Columbia University Press, 1944 ISBN 0-231-05847-0
*Smocovitis, V. Betty. ''Unifying Biology: The Evolutionary Synthesis and Evolutionary Biology'', Princeton University Press, 1996 ISBN 0-691-27226-9
*Wright, S. 1931. "Evolution in Mendelian populations". ''[[Genetics (journal)|Genetics]]'' '''16''': 97–159.
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