Molecular biology
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2008-06-30T01:17:12Z
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Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/78.184.1.227|78.184.1.227]] to last version by TimVickers (using [[WP:HG|Huggle]])
'''Molecular biology''' is the study of [[biology]] at a [[molecule|molecular]] level. The field overlaps with other areas of [[biology]] and [[chemistry]], particularly [[genetics]] and [[biochemistry]]. Molecular biology chiefly concerns itself with understanding the interactions between the various systems of a [[cell]], including the interactions between [[DNA]], [[RNA]] and [[protein biosynthesis]] and learning how these interactions are regulated.
Writing in ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'', [[William Astbury]] described molecular biology as:
<blockquote>
"... not so much a technique as an approach, an approach from the viewpoint of the so-called basic sciences with the leading idea of searching below the large-scale manifestations of classical biology for the corresponding molecular plan. It is concerned particularly with the forms of biological molecules and ..... is predominantly three-dimensional and structural - which does not mean, however, that it is merely a refinement of morphology - it must at the same time inquire into genesis and function." <ref name="fn_1">W.T. Astbury, [[Nature (journal)|''Nature'']] '''190''', 1124 (1961)</ref></blockquote>
==Relationship to other "molecular-scale" biological sciences==
[[Image:Schematic relationship between biochemistry, genetics and molecular biology.svg|thumb|250px|right|''Schematic relationship between biochemistry, genetics and molecular biology'']]
Researchers in molecular biology use specific techniques native to molecular biology (see ''Techniques'' section later in article), but increasingly combine these with techniques and ideas from [[genetics]] and [[biochemistry]]. There is not a defined line between these disciplines. The following figure is a schematic that depicts one possible view of the relationship between the fields:
*''Biochemistry'' is the study of the chemical substances and vital processes occurring in living [[organism]]s. [[Biochemist]]s focus heavily on the role, function, and structure of [[biomolecule]]s. The study of the chemistry behind biological processes and the synthesis of biologically active molecules are examples of [[biochemistry]].
*''Genetics'' is the study of the effect of genetic differences on organisms. Often this can be inferred by the absence of a normal component (e.g. one [[gene]]). The study of "[[mutant]]s" – organisms which lack one or more functional components with respect to the so-called "[[wild type]]" or normal [[phenotype]]. Genetic interactions ([[epistasis]]) can often confound simple interpretations of such "knock-out" studies.
*''Molecular biology'' is the study of molecular underpinnings of the process of [[DNA replication|replication]], [[transcription (genetics)|transcription]] and [[translation (biology)|translation]] of the [[genetic material]]. The [[central dogma of molecular biology]] where genetic material is transcribed into RNA and then translated into protein, despite being an oversimplified picture of molecular biology, still provides a good starting point for understanding the field. This picture, however, is undergoing revision in light of emerging novel roles for [[RNA]].
Much of the work in molecular biology is quantitative, and recently much work has been done at the interface of molecular biology and computer science in [[bioinformatics]] and [[computational biology]]. As of the early 2000s, the study of gene structure and function, [[molecular genetics]], has been amongst the most prominent sub-field of molecular biology.
Increasingly many other fields of biology focus on molecules, either directly studying their interactions in their own right such as in [[cell biology]] and [[developmental biology]], or indirectly, where the techniques of molecular biology are used to infer historical attributes of [[population]]s or [[species]], as in fields in [[evolution]]ary biology such as [[population genetics]] and [[phylogenetics]]. There is also a long tradition of studying [[biomolecule]]s "from the ground up" in [[biophysics]].
==Techniques of molecular biology==
Since the late 1950s and early 1960s, molecular biologists have learned to characterize, isolate, and manipulate the molecular components of cells and organisms. These components include [[DNA]], the repository of genetic information; [[RNA]], a close relative of DNA whose functions range from serving as a temporary working copy of DNA to actual structural and enzymatic functions as well as a functional and structural part of the translational apparatus; and [[protein]]s, the major structural and enzymatic type of [[molecule]] in [[cell (biology)|cell]]s.
{{for|more extensive list on protein methods|protein methods}}
{{for|more extensive list on nucleic acid methods|nucleic acid methods}}
===Expression cloning===
{{main|Expression cloning}}
One of the most basic techniques of molecular biology to study protein function is expression cloning. In this technique, DNA coding for a protein of interest is [[clone (genetics)|clone]]d (using [[PCR]] and/or [[restriction enzyme]]s) into a [[plasmid]] (known as an [[expression vector]]). This plasmid may have special [[promoter|promoter elements]] to drive production of the protein of interest, and may also have [[antibiotic resistance]] [[selectable markers|markers]] to help follow the plasmid.
This plasmid can be inserted into either bacterial or animal cells. Introducing DNA into bacterial cells can be done by [[transformation (genetics)|transformation]] (via uptake of naked DNA), [[bacterial conjugation|conjugation]] (via cell-cell contact) or by [[transduction (genetics)|transduction]] (via viral vector). Introducing DNA into [[Eukaryote|eukaryotic]] cells, such as animal cells, by physical or chemical means is called [[transfection]]. Several different transfection techniques are available, such as calcium phosphate transfection,[[electroporation]], [[microinjection]] and [[liposome transfection]]. DNA can also be introduced into eukaryotic cells using viruses or bacteria as carriers, the latter is sometimes called [[bactofection]] and in particular uses [[Agrobacterium tumefaciens]]. The plasmid may be integrated into the genome, resulting in a stable transfection, or may remain independent of the genome, called transient transfection.
In either case, DNA coding for a protein of interest is now inside a cell, and the protein can now be expressed. A variety of systems, such as inducible promoters and specific cell-signaling factors, are available to help express the protein of interest at high levels. Large quantities of a protein can then be extracted from the bacterial or eukaryotic cell. The protein can be tested for enzymatic activity under a variety of situations, the protein may be crystallized so its [[tertiary structure]] can be studied, or, in the pharmaceutical industry, the activity of new drugs against the protein can be studied.
===Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)===
{{main|Polymerase chain reaction}}
The [[polymerase chain reaction]] is an extremely versatile technique for copying DNA. In brief, PCR allows a single DNA sequence to be copied (millions of times), or altered in predetermined ways. For example, PCR can be used to introduce restriction enzyme sites, or to mutate (change) particular bases of DNA, the latter is a method referred to as "Quick change". PCR can also be used to determine whether a particular DNA fragment is found in a [[cDNA]] [[library (biology)|library]]. PCR has many variations, like reverse transcription PCR ([[RT-PCR]]) for amplification of RNA, and, more recently, real-time PCR ([[QPCR]]) which allow for quantitative measurement of DNA or RNA molecules.
===Gel electrophoresis===
{{main|Gel electrophoresis}}
Gel electrophoresis is one of the principal tools of molecular biology. The basic principle is that DNA, RNA, and proteins can all be separated by means of an electric field. In [[agarose gel electrophoresis]], DNA and RNA can be separated on the basis of size by running the DNA through an agarose gel. Proteins can be separated on the basis of size by using an [[SDS-PAGE]] gel, or on the basis of size and their [[electric charge]] by using what is known as a [[Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis|2D gel electrophoresis]].
===Southern blotting===
{{main|Southern blot}}
Named after its inventor, biologist [[Edwin Southern]], the [[Southern blot]] is a method for probing for the presence of a specific DNA sequence within a DNA sample. DNA samples before or after [[restriction enzyme]] digestion are separated by gel electrophoresis and then transferred to a membrane by blotting via [[capillary action]]. The membrane is then exposed to a labeled DNA probe that has a complement base sequence to the sequence on the DNA of interest. Most original protocols used radioactive labels, however non-radioactive alternatives are now available. Southern blotting is less commonly used in laboratory science due to the capacity of other techniques, such as [[PCR]], to detect specific DNA sequences from DNA samples. These blots are still used for some applications, however, such as measuring [[transgene]] copy number in [[Genetically modified organism|transgenic mice]], or in the engineering of [[gene knockout]] [[Stem cell line|embryonic stem cell lines]].
===Northern blotting===
{{main|northern blot}}
The [[northern blot]] is used to study the expression patterns a specific type of RNA molecule as relative comparison among of a set of different samples of RNA. It is essentially a combination of [[denaturing gel|denaturing RNA gel electrophoresis]], and a [[blot (biology)|blot]]. In this process RNA is separated based on size and is then transferred to a membrane that is then probed with a labeled [[complementarity (molecular biology)|complement]] of a sequence of interest. The results may be visualized through a variety of ways depending on the label used; however, most result in the revelation of bands representing the sizes of the RNA detected in sample. The intensity of these bands is related to the amount of the target RNA in the samples analyzed. The procedure is commonly used to study when and how much gene expression is occurring by measuring how much of that RNA is present in different samples. It is one of the most basic tools for determining at what time, and under what conditions, certain genes are expressed in living tissues.
===Western blotting===
{{main|western blot}}
[[Antibodies]] to most [[protein]]s can be created by injecting small amounts of the protein into an animal such as a mouse, rabbit, sheep, or donkey ([[polyclonal antibodies]])or produced in cell culture ([[monoclonal antibody|monoclonal antibodies]]). These antibodies can be used for a variety of analytical and preparative techniques.
In [[western blot]]ting, proteins are first separated by size, in a thin gel sandwiched between two glass plates in a technique known as [[SDS-PAGE]] ([[sodium dodecyl sulfate]] polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis). The proteins in the gel are then transferred to a PVDF, nitrocellulose, nylon or other support membrane. This membrane can then be probed with solutions of antibodies. Antibodies that specifically bind to the protein of interest can then be visualized by a variety of techniques, including colored products, [[chemiluminescence]], or [[autoradiography]]. Often, the antibodies are labeled with an enzymes. When a [[chemiluminescent]] [[substrate]] is exposed to the [[enzyme]] it allows detection. Using western blotting techniques allows not only detection but also quantitative analysis.
Analogous methods to western blotting can be used to directly stain specific proteins in live [[cell (biology)|cell]]s or [[biological tissue|tissue]] sections. However, these ''[[immunostaining]]'' methods, such as [[Fluorescent in situ hybridization|FISH]], are used more often in [[cell biology]] research.
===Blotting Jokes===
The terms "western" and "northern" are molecular biology jokes that play on the term southern blot. The first blots were with DNA, and since they were done by Ed Southern, they came to be known as Southerns. Patricia Thomas, inventor of the RNA blot, which became known as a "northern", actually didn't use the term. <ref> Patricia S. Thomas,
Hybridization of Denatured RNA and Small DNA Fragments Transferred to Nitrocellulose
[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|PNAS]] 1980; 77: 5201-5205</ref>. To carry the joke further, one can find reference in the [[Pubmed|literature]] to "southwesterns" (Protein-DNA interactions) and "farwesterns" (Protein-Protein interactions).
===Arrays===
{{main|DNA microarray }}
A [[DNA]] array is a collection of spots attached to a solid support such as a [[microscope slide]] where each spot contains one or more single-stranded DNA [[oligonucleotide]] fragment. Arrays make it possible to put down a large quantity of very small (100 micrometre diameter) spots on a single slide. Each spot has a DNA fragment molecule that is complementary to a single DNA sequence (similar to Southern blotting). A variation of this technique allows the [[gene expression]] of an organism at a particular stage in development to be qualified ([[expression profiling]]). In this technique the RNA in a tissue is isolated and converted to labeled [[cDNA]]. This cDNA is then hybridized to the fragments on the array and visualization of the hybridization can be done. Since multiple arrays can be made with the exact same position of fragments they are particularly useful for comparing the gene expression of two different tissues, such as a healthy and cancerous tissue. Also, one can measure what genes are expressed and how that expression changes with time or with other factors. For instance, the common baker's [[yeast]], ''[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]'', contains about 7000 genes; with a microarray, one can measure qualitatively how each gene is expressed, and how that expression changes, for example, with a change in temperature.
There are many different ways to fabricate microarrays; the most common are silicon chips, microscope slides with spots of ~ 100 micrometre diameter, custom arrays, and arrays with larger spots on porous membranes (macroarrays). There can be anywhere from 100 spots to more than 10,000 on a given array.
Arrays can also be made with molecules other than DNA. For example, an [[antibody]] array can be used to determine what [[protein]]s or [[bacteria]] are present in a blood sample.
===Allele Specific Oligonucleotide===
[[Allele specific oligonucleotide]] (ASO) is a technique that allows detection of single base mutations without the need for PCR or gel electrophoresis. Short (20-25 nucleotides in length), labeled probes are exposed to the non-fragmented target DNA. Hybridization occurs with high specificity due to the short length of the probes and even a single base change will hinder hybridization. The target DNA is then washed and the labeled probes that didn't hybridize are removed. The target DNA is then analyzed for the presence of the probe via radioactivity or fluorescence. In this experiment, as in most molecular biology techniques, a control must be used to ensure successful experimentation.
===Abandoned technology===
As new procedures and technology become available, the older technology is rapidly abandoned. A good example is methods for determining the size of DNA molecules. Prior to [[gel electrophoresis]] ([[agarose gel electrophoresis|agarose]] or [[SDS-PAGE|polyacrylamide]]) DNA was sized with rate [[sedimentation]] in [[sucrose gradient centrifugation|sucrose gradients]], a slow and labor intensive technology requiring expensive instrumentation; prior to sucrose gradients, [[viscometry]] was used.
Aside from their historical interest, it is worth knowing about older technology as it may be useful to solve a particular problem.
==History==
{{main|History of molecular biology}}
Molecular biology was established in the 1930s, the term was first coined by [[Warren Weaver]] in 1938 however. Warren was director of Natural Sciences for the [[Rockefeller Foundation]] at the time and believed that biology was about to undergo a period of significant change given recent advances in fields such as [[X-ray crystallography]]. He therefore channeled significant amounts of (Rockefeller Institute) money into biological fields.
==See also==
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:3; column-count:3;">
* [[History of molecular biology]]
* [[Central dogma of molecular biology]]
* [[Cell biology]] (structures and components of the cell)
* [[DNA]] and [[chromosome]] structure
* [[Protein biosynthesis]] (transcription from DNA to [[RNA]], translation from RNA into [[protein]])
* Protein structure and diversity
* [[Genome]]
* [[Metabolism]]
* [[List of publications in biology#Molecular biology|Important publications in molecular biology]]
* [[List of molecular biology topics]]
* [[Proteome]]
* Because of the expense, large instrumentation is usually gathered into a [[Molecular Biology Core Facilities (MBCF)|Molecular Biology Core Facility]]
* [[inborn errors of metabolism]]
* [[Molecular microbiology]]
* [[Radioactivity in biological research]]
* [[Quantification of nucleic acids]]
* [[Nucleic acid methods]] and [[Protein methods]]
* [[Lab-on-a-chip]]
</div>
===Notable molecular biologists===
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:3; column-count:3;">
* [[Francis Crick]] (see also [[James D. Watson]])
* [[Erwin Chargaff]]
* [[Rosalind Franklin]]
* [[Francois Jacob]]
* [[Matthew Meselson]]
* [[Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard]]
* [[Linus Pauling]]
* [[Max Perutz]]
* [[Frederick Sanger]]
* [[Frank stahl|Frank Stahl]]
* [[Susumu Tonegawa]]
* [[James D. Watson]] (see also [[Francis Crick]])
* [[Maurice Wilkins]]
* [[Alexander Rich]]
* [[Reiji Okazaki]]
* [[Günter Blobel]]
</div>
==Notes==
{{reflist}}
==References==
*Cohen, S.N., Chang, A.C.Y., Boyer, H. & Heling, R.B. Construction of biologically functional bacterial plasmids ''in vitro''. [[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|''Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci'']]. '''70''', 3240 – 3244 (1973).
*Rodgers, M. The Pandora's box congress. ''Rolling Stone'' '''189''', 37 – 77 (1975).
==Further reading==
* Keith Roberts, Martin Raff, Bruce Alberts, Peter Walter, Julian Lewis and Alexander Johnson, ''Molecular Biology of the Cell''
*4th Edition, Routledge, March, 2002, hardcover, 1616 pages, 7.6 pounds, ISBN 0-8153-3218-1
*3th Edition, Garland, 1994, ISBN 0-8153-1620-8
*2nd Edition, Garland, 1989, ISBN 0-8240-3695-6
==External links==
* [http://www.biologynews.net/archives/molecular_cell_biology/ Latest molecular biology news articles at Biologynews.net]
* [http://www.ebiologynews.com/ Latest Biology news articles]
* [http://www.dnai.org/ DNA Interactive]
* [http://www.dnaftb.org/ DNA From The Beginning]
* [http://www.vega.org.uk/video/programme/18 Frederick Sanger] Freeview Video Interview/Documentary by the Vega Science Trust.
* [http://www.vega.org.uk/video/programme/1 Max Perutz] Freeview Video interview with Max Perutz by the Vega Science Trust.
* [http://www.vega.org.uk/video/programme/41 Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard] Freeview interview by the Vega Science Trust.
* [http://www.biostatsresearch.com/repository/ The Collection of Biostatistics Research Archive]
* [http://www.bepress.com/sagmb/ Statistical Applications in Genetics and Molecular Biology]
* [http://www.bepress.com/ijb/ The International Journal of Biostatistics]
* [http://www.biolsci.org The International Journal of Biological Sciences]
*[http://www.imcb.a-star.edu.sg/ Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology]
*''[[Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology]]'' ([http://www.nature.com/nrm/index.html journal home])
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/molecular-biology/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]
*[http://www.biochemweb.org/ The Virtual Library of Biochemistry and Cell Biology]
*[http://www.creatingtechnology.org/biomed/dna.htm A brief history of molecular biology]
*[http://www.scq.ubc.ca/?p=263 A Monk's Flourishing Garden: the Basics of Molecular Biology Explained] - a review from the Science Creative Quarterly
*[http://www.horizonpress.com/gateway/ The Molecular Biology Gateway]
*[http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&articleID=0002F40E-3D61-1056-BD6183414B7F0104 Scientific American Magazine (April 2004 Issue) Evolution Encoded]
*[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ National Center for Biotechnology Information]
*[http://www.cimb.org/ Current Issues in Molecular Biology]
*[http://aimediaserver.com/studiodaily/videoplayer/?src=harvard/harvard.swf&width=640&height=520 Multimedia-video showwing the complexity of the molecular structur of the life molecules and Organelles]
*[http://www.springerprotocols.com/ Springer Protocols] - protocols using Methods in Molecular Biology
*http://www.cellbio.com/recommend.html
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