Mongolia 19271 226149647 2008-07-17T01:20:18Z Gantuya eng 4783883 Please don't undo it. Read my article [[Mongolian nobility]] to understand the differences {{pp-semi|small=yes}} {{other|Mongolia (disambiguation)}} {{Infobox Country |native_name = [[Image:Monggol ulus.svg|50px]]<br/>Монгол улс <br/>''Mongol uls'' |conventional_long_name = Mongolia |common_name = Mongolia |image_flag = Flag_of_Mongolia.svg |image_coat = Mongolia coa.gif |image_map = LocationMongolia.png |national_motto = |national_anthem = ''"[[National Anthem of Mongolia|Монгол улсын төрийн дуулал]]"''<br>''National anthem of Mongolia'' |official_languages = [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]] |demonym = Mongolian<ref>"Mongol" is often used almost synonymously, but is usually not understood to include minorities like Kazakhs or Tuvans.</ref><br> |capital = [[Ulan Bator]] |latd=47|latm=55|latNS=N|longd=106|longm=53|longEW=E |largest_city = capital |government_type = [[Parliamentary republic]] |leader_title1 = [[President of Mongolia|President]] |leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister of Mongolia|Prime Minister]] |leader_name1 = [[Nambaryn Enkhbayar]] |leader_name2 = [[Sanjaagiin Bayar]] |area_rank = 19th |area_magnitude = 1 E12 |area_km2 = 1,564,116 |area_sq_mi = 603,909 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |percent_water = 0.6 |population_estimate = 2,951,786<ref>[http://202.131.5.91/bull/2006/bulletin_2006_dec.pdf Mongolian National Statistical Office Bulletin December 2006]</ref> |population_estimate_year = July 2007 |population_estimate_rank = 139th |population_census = 2,407,500<ref>[http://www.nso.mn/yearbook/2002/yearbook2002.pdf Mongolian National Statistical Office Yearbook 2002]</ref> |population_census_year = 2000 |population_density_km2 = 1.7 |population_density_sq_mi = 4.4 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |population_density_rank = 238th |GDP_PPP_year = 2007 |GDP_PPP = $8.448 billion <!--IMF 2007 --> |GDP_PPP_rank = 143th |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $2,900 |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 130th |HDI_year = 2007 |HDI = {{increase}} 0.700 |HDI_rank = 114th |HDI_category = <font color="#ffcc00">medium</font> |Gini = 32.8 |Gini_year = 2002 |Gini_category = <font color="#ffcc00">medium</font> |sovereignty_type = [[History of Mongolia|Formation]] |established_event1 = Formation of the Mongol Empire |established_event2 = Independence from [[Qing Dynasty]] declared |established_event4 = |established_date1 = 1206 |established_date2 = [[December 29]] [[1911]] |established_date4 = |currency = [[Mongolian tögrög|Tögrög]] |currency_code = MNT |time_zone = |utc_offset = +7 to +8<ref>{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | title ="Mongolia Standard Time is GMT (UTC) +8, some areas of Mongolia use GMT (UTC) + 7" | work = | publisher = | date =Time Temperature.com | url =http://www.timetemperature.com/asia/mongolia_time_zone.shtml | format = | doi = | accessdate =2007-09-30 }} </ref><ref>{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | title ="The Mongolian government has chosen not to move to Summer Time" | work = | publisher = | date =World Time Zone.com | url =http://www.worldtimezone.com/dst_news/dst_news_mongolia01.html | format = | doi = | accessdate =2007-09-30 }} </ref> |time_zone_DST = |utc_offset_DST = |cctld = [[.mn]] |calling_code = 976 |footnotes = }} '''Mongolia''' ({{pronEng|mɒŋˈɡoʊliə}}; {{lang-mn|{{Audio|Mongoluls.ogg|Монгол улс}}, [[Image:Monggol ulus.svg|30px]] <!--unicode:ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ-->}}) is a [[landlocked]] [[country]] in [[East Asia|East]]-[[Central Asia]]. It borders [[Russia]] to the north and [[People's Republic of China|China]] to the south. [[Ulan Bator]], the [[capital]] and largest city, is home to about 38% of the population. Mongolia's [[political system]] is a [[parliamentary republic]]. At 1,564,116&nbsp;[[square kilometre]]s, Mongolia is the [[List of countries and outlying territories by area|nineteenth largest]], and the [[List of countries by population density|most sparsely populated]] independent country in the world with a population of around 2.9 million people. It is also the world's second-largest [[landlocked country]] after [[Kazakhstan]]. The country contains very little [[arable land]], as much of its area is covered by arid and unproductive [[steppes]], with mountains to the north and west and the [[Gobi Desert]] to the south. Approximately thirty percent of the country's 2.9&nbsp;[[million]] people are [[nomad]]ic or semi-nomadic. The predominant religion in Mongolia is [[Tibetan Buddhism]], and the majority of the state's citizens are of the [[Mongol]] [[ethnicity]], though [[Kazakhs]], [[Tuvans]], and other minorities also live in the country, especially in the west. == History == {{main|History of Mongolia}} [[Image:Gengis Khaan empire-fr.svg|300px|thumb|left|Genghis Khaan's conquests]] === Early history === Mongolia, since prehistoric times, has been inhabited by nomads who, from time to time, formed great confederations that rose to prominence. The first of these, the [[Xiongnu]], were brought together to form a confederation by [[Modu Shanyu]] in 209 BC. Soon they emerged as the greatest threat to the [[Qin Dynasty]], forcing the latter to construct the [[Great Wall of China]], itself being guarded by up to almost 300,000 soldiers during marshal [[Meng Tian]]'s tenure, as a means of defense against the destructive Xiongnu raids. After the decline of the Xiongnu, the [[Rouran]], a close relative of the [[Mongols]], came to power before being defeated by the [[Göktürks]], who then dominated Mongolia for centuries. During the [[7th century|seventh]] and [[8th century|eighth centuries]], they were succeeded by [[Uyghur people|Uyghurs]] and then by the [[Khitan people|Khitans]] and [[Jurchen]]s. By the [[10th century|tenth century]], the country was divided into numerous [[tribe]]s linked through transient alliances and involved in the old patterns of internal strife. === Mongol Empire === {{Main|Mongol Empire}} [[Image:Mongol Empire map 2.gif|thumb|right|The expansion and division of the [[Mongol Empire]]]] In the chaos of the late [[12th century|twelfth century]], a chieftain named Temüjin finally succeeded in uniting the Mongol tribes between [[Manchuria]] and the [[Altai Mountains]]. In 1206, he took the title [[Genghis Khaan]], and waged a series of military campaigns - renowned for their brutality and ferocity - sweeping through much of [[Asia]], and forming the [[Mongol Empire]], the largest contiguous land [[empire]] in world history. Under his successors it stretched from present-day [[Poland]] in the west to [[Korea]] in the east, and from [[Siberia]] in the north to the [[Gulf of Oman]] and [[Vietnam]] in the south, covering some 33,000,000 km² (12,741,000 sq mi),<ref name ="EarthRule">http://www.hostkingdom.net/earthrul.html</ref> (22% of Earth's total land area) and having a population of over 100 million people. [[Image:Genghis Khaan.jpg|180px|thumb|left|Portrait of [[Genghis Khaan]], implemented in the traditions of the fine arts of the [[Khitan]] epoch]] After Genghis Khaan's death, the empire had been subdivided into four kingdoms or [[Khanate]]s which eventually split-up after [[Möngke Khan|Möngke]]'s death in 1259. One of the khanates, the "Great Khaanate", consisting of the Mongol homeland and [[China]], became the [[Yuan Dynasty]] under Kublai Khaan, grandson of Genghis Khaan. He set up his capital in present day [[Beijing]] but after more than a century of power, the Yuan was replaced by the [[Ming Dynasty]] in 1368, with the Mongol court fleeing to the north. As the Ming armies pursued the Mongols into their homeland, they successfully sacked and destroyed the Mongol capital Karakorum among other cities, wiping out the cultural progress that was achieved during the imperial period and thus throwing Mongolia back to anarchy. === Post-Imperial period === [[Image:Altan Khan.jpg|180px|thumb|right|[[Altan Khan]], of the Tümed, a grandson of [[Batumöngke]] founder of [[Hohhot]]]] The next centuries were marked by violent power struggles between various factions, notably the Genghisids and the non-Genghisid [[Oirats|Oirads]] and numerous Chinese invasions (like the five expeditions led by the [[Yongle Emperor]]). In the early 15th century, the Oirads under [[Esen Tayisi]] gained the upper hand, and even raided China in 1449 in a [[Tumu Crisis|conflict]] over Esen's right to pay tribute, capturing the Chinese [[Zhengtong Emperor|emperor]] in the process. However, Esen was murdered in 1454, and the Genghisids recovered. In the mid-16th century, [[Altan Khan]] of the Tümed, a grandson of [[Dayan Khan|Batumöngke]] - but no legitimate Khaan himself - became powerful. He founded [[Hohhot]] in 1557 and his meeting with the [[Dalai Lama]] in 1578 sparked the second introduction of [[Tibetan Buddhism]] to Mongolia. Abtai Khan of the [[Khalkha]] converted to buddhism in 1585 and founded the [[Erdene Zuu]] monastery in 1586. His grandson [[Zanabazar]] became the first [[Jebtsundamba Khutughtu]] in 1640. [[Image:Qing china.jpg|200px|thumb|left|The extent of the [[Qing dynasty]]]] The last Mongol Khaan was [[Ligden Khan|Ligden Khaan]] in the early 17th century. He got into conflicts with the [[Manchu]] over the looting of Chinese cities, and managed to alienate most Mongol tribes. He died in 1634 on his way to Tibet, in an attempt to evade the Manchu and destroy the [[Gelugpa|Yellow Church]]. By 1636, most [[Inner Mongolia]]n tribes had submitted to the [[Manchu]]. The [[Khalkha]] eventually submitted to the [[Qing Dynasty|Qing]] in 1691, thus bringing all but the west of today's Mongolia under [[Beijing]]'s rule. After several wars, the [[Dzungars]] were virtually annihilated in 1757. Until 1911, the Manchu maintained control of Mongolia with a series of alliances and intermarriages, as well as military and economic measures. [[Amban]]s, Manchu "high officials", were installed in [[Ulaanbaatar|Khüree]], [[Uliastai]], and [[Khovd]], and the country was subdivided into ever more feudal and ecclesiastical fiefdoms. Over the course of the 19th century, the feudal lords attached more importance to representation and less importance to the responsibilities towards their subjects. In addition the [[usury|usurous]] practices of the Chinese traders, along with the collection of imperial taxes in silver instead of animals, resulted in poverty becoming rampant. === Independence === [[Image:BogdKhan.jpg|180px|thumb|right|The eighth [[Jebtsundamba Khutughtu]]]] With the fall of the Qing Dynasty, Mongolia declared independence in 1911. The new country's territory was approximately that of the former Outer Mongolia. The 49 hoshuns of Inner Mongolia as well as the Mongolians of the Alashan and Qinghai regions expressed their willingness to join the nascent state, to no avail. In 1919, after the [[October Revolution]] in Russia, Chinese troops led by [[Xu Shuzheng]] occupied the capital but their dominance was short-lived. The notorious Russian adventurer "Bloody" [[Roman Ungern von Sternberg|Baron Ungern]] who had fought with the "[[White movement|Whites]]" against the [[Red Army]] in [[Siberia]], led his troops into Mongolia, triumphing over Chinese in [[Ulan Bator|Niislel Khüree]]. He ruled briefly, under the blessing of religious leader [[Bogd Khan|Boghda Khaan]] before he was captured and executed by the [[Red Army]] assisted by Mongolian units led by [[Damdin Sükhbaatar]]. These events led to abolition of the [[feudalism|feudal system]] and ensured the country's political alignment with [[Bolshevik|Bolshevik Russia]]. === Mongolian People's Republic === {{Main|Mongolian People's Republic}} [[Image:Sukhe-bator.jpg|thumb|left|Damdin Sükhbaatar, ca 1920-1922]] In 1924, after the death of the religious leader and king Boghda Khaan, a [[Mongolian People's Republic]] was proclaimed with support from the Soviets. In 1928, [[Khorloogiin Choibalsan]] rose to power. He instituted [[collectivisation]] of livestock, the destruction of [[Tibetan Buddhism|Buddhist]] [[monastery|monasteries]] and the [[Mongolia's enemies of the people persecution]] resulting in the murder of [[monks]] and other people. The [[Great Purge|Stalinist purges]] beginning in 1937, affected the Republic as it left more than 30,000 people dead. Japanese imperialism became even more alarming after the [[Invasion of Manchuria|invasion of neighboring Manchuria]] in 1931. During the [[Battle of Khalkhin Gol|Soviet-Japanese Border War]] of 1939, the [[USSR]] successfully defended Mongolia against [[Japan]]ese expansionism. In August 1945 Mongolian forces also took part in the Soviet [[Operation August Storm|offensive]] in Inner Mongolia . The Soviet threat of seizing parts of [[Inner Mongolia]] induced the [[Republic of China]] to recognize Outer Mongolia's independence, provided that a referendum was held. The referendum took place on [[October 20]] [[1945]], with (according to official numbers) 100% of the electorate voting for independence. After the establishment of the [[People's Republic of China]], both countries recognized each other again on [[October 6]], [[1949]]. In [[January 26]], [[1952]], [[Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal]] took power. In 1956 and again in 1962, Choibalsan's [[personality cult]] was condemned. Mongolia continued to align itself closely with the Soviet Union, especially after the [[Sino-Soviet split]] of the late 1950s. While Tsedenbal was visiting Moscow in August 1984, his severe illness prompted the parliament to announce his retirement and replace him with [[Jambyn Batmönkh]]. === Democracy === {{Main|1990 Democratic Revolution in Mongolia}} The introduction of [[perestroika]] and [[glasnost]] in the USSR by [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] strongly influenced Mongolian politics leading to the [[1990 Mongolian democratic revolution|peaceful Democratic Revolution]] and the introduction of a multi-party system and market economy. A new [[constitution]] was introduced in 1992, and the "People's Republic" was dropped from the country's name. The transition to market economy was often rocky, the early 1990s saw high inflation and food shortages. The first election wins for non-communist parties came in 1993 (presidential elections) and 1996 (parliamentary elections). == Government and politics == {{main|Politics of Mongolia}} [[Image:GovtBldgMgl.jpg|thumb|[[Sukhbaatar Square]] with the parliament building and the offices of the prime minister and president]] Mongolia is a [[parliamentary]] [[republic]]. The parliament is elected by the people and in turn elects the government. The president is elected directly. Mongolia's [[Constitution of Mongolia|constitution]] guarantees full [[freedom of expression]], religion, and others. Mongolia has a number of political parties, the biggest ones being the [[Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party]] (MPRP) and the [[Democratic Party (Mongolia)|Democratic Party]] (DP). The MPRP formed the government of the country from 1921 to 1996 (until 1990 in a one-party system) and from 2000 to 2004. From 2004 to 2006, it was part of a coalition with the DP and two other parties, and since 2006 it has been the dominant party in two other coalitions. Both changes of government after 2004 were initiated by the MPRP. The DP was the dominant force in the ruling coalition between 1996 and 2000, and also an approximately equal partner with the MPRP in the 2004-2006 coalition. The next parliamentary elections are set for June 2008. ===President=== {{main|President of Mongolia}} [[Image:Nambaryn Enkhbayar 2005.jpg|thumb|[[President of Mongolia|President]] [[Nambaryn Enkhbayar]]]] Mongolia's [[president]] has a symbolic role, but can block the parliament's decisions, who can then overrule the veto by a 2/3 majority. Mongolia's [[Constitution]] provides three requirements for taking office as [[President]]: the individual must be a native-born Mongolian, be at least 45 years of age, and have resided in Mongolia for five years prior to taking office. The current President is [[Nambaryn Enkhbayar]]. ===The State Great Khural=== {{main|State Great Khural}} Mongolia uses a [[unicameral]] [[parliamentary system]] in which the [[president]] has a symbolic role and the government chosen by the legislature exercises executive power. The legislative arm, the State Great Khural, has one chamber with 76 seats and is chaired by the speaker of the house. It elects its members every four years by general elections. The State Great Khural is powerful in the Mongolian government with the president being largely symbolic and the prime minister being confirmed from the parliament. ===Prime Minister and the Cabinet=== {{main|Prime Minister of Mongolia}} The [[Prime Minister of Mongolia]] is elected by the State Great Khural. The current prime minister is [[Sanjaagiin Bayar]], who was elected by sixty-seven votes to two on [[November 22]] [[2007]]<ref>[http://www.mongolmessenger.mn/issue/071149.php the Mongol Messenger: Mongolia’s 25th Prime Minister, Sanjiin Bayar promises he will tackle high priority issues]</ref>. The deputy prime minister is [[Miyeegombyn Enkhbold]] (since [[December 5]], [[2007]])<ref>[http://ubpost.mongolnews.mn/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=967&Itemid=37 UBPost: Government Ministers approved]</ref>. There are ministers of each department (finance, defense, labor, agriculture, etc.) and those offices constitute the prime minister's cabinet. The [[cabinet]] is nominated by the [[prime minister]] in consultation with the president and confirmed by the [[State Great Khural]]. == Foreign relations and military == {{Main|Foreign relations of Mongolia|Military of Mongolia}} Mongolia maintains positive relations and has diplomatic missions with many countries such as the [[United States]], [[Russia]], [[North Korea|North]] and [[South Korea]], [[Japan]], and the [[People's Republic of China]]. The government has focused a great deal on encouraging foreign investments and trade. Mongolia supported the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]], and has sent several successive contingents of 103 to 180 troops each to [[Iraq]]. Smaller contingents were also sent to [[Afghanistan]]. 200 Mongolian troops are serving in [[Sierra Leone]] on a UN mandate to protect the UN's [[Special Court for Sierra Leone|special court]] set up there. From 2005 to 2006, about 40 troops were deployed with the Belgian and Luxembourgish contingent in [[Kosovo]]. On November 21, 2005, [[George W. Bush]] became the first-ever sitting U.S. President to visit Mongolia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mongolia.usembassy.gov/potus_visit.html |title=President George W. Bush Visits Mongolia |publisher=US embassy in Mongolia, 2005 }}</ref> In 2004, under the Bulgarian chairmanship, The Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), invited Mongolia as its newest Asian Partner. Mongolia has embassies in [[Almaty]], [[Ankara]], [[Bangkok]], [[Berlin]], [[Beijing]], [[Brussels]], [[Budapest]], [[Cairo]], [[Warsaw]], [[Washington, D.C.]], [[Vienna]], [[Vientiane]], [[Havana]], [[Delhi]], [[London]], [[Moscow]], [[Ottawa]], [[Paris]], [[Prague]], [[Pyongyang]], [[Seoul]], [[Sofia]], [[Tokyo]], [[Hanoi]], and [[Singapore]], a consulate in [[Irkutsk]] and [[Ulan-Ude]], and a diplomatic mission to the [[United Nations]] in [[New York City]] and to the [[European Union]] in [[Geneva]].<ref>[http://www.ulanbator.mn/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=241&Itemid=941 Ulanbator<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> == Geography and climate == {{main|Geography of Mongolia}} [[Image:Mongolia 1996 CIA map.jpg|thumb|The southern portion of Mongolia is taken up by the [[Gobi Desert]], while the northern and western portions are mountainous]] [[Image:Mongolia Landscape.jpg|thumb|Mongolian landscape]] [[Image:Mongolia aimags 2007.png|thumb|Aimags of Mongolia]] At 1,564,116&nbsp;km²<ref>CIA World Factbook [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html ''countries by area''] </ref> (603,909&nbsp;mi²), Mongolia is the world's nineteenth-largest country (after [[Iran]]). It is significantly larger than the next-largest country, [[Peru]]. It is more than two times larger than the U.S. state of [[Texas]], and slightly larger than [[Spain]], [[France]], and [[Germany]], combined. The geography of Mongolia is varied with the Gobi desert to the south and with cold and mountainous regions to the north and west. Mongolia consists of relatively flat [[steppe]]s. The highest point in Mongolia is the [[Khüiten Peak]] in the ''Tavan bogd'' massif in the far west at 4,374&nbsp;m (14,350 ft). The basin of the lake [[Uvs Nuur]], shared with [[Tuva Republic]] in [[Russia]], is a natural [[World Heritage Site]]. Most of the country is hot in the summer and extremely cold in the winter, with January averages dropping as low as -30°C (-22°F).<ref>{{cite web |author= |year=2004 |url=http://www.imcg.net/gpd/asia/mongolia.pdf |title=Republic of Mongolia |publisher= |accessdate=2008-02-10 }} </ref> The country is also subject to occasional harsh climatic conditions known as ''[[zud]]''. Ulan Bator has the lowest average temperature of any national capital in the world. Mongolia is high, cold, and windy. It has an extreme continental climate with long, cold winters and short summers, during which most of its annual precipitation falls. The country averages 257 cloudless days a year, and it is usually at the center of a region of high atmospheric pressure. Precipitation is highest in the north (average of 20 to 35 centimeters per year) and lowest in the south, which receives 10 to 20 centimeters annually. The extreme south is the Gobi, some regions of which receive no precipitation at all in most years. The name "Gobi" is a Mongol term for a desert steppe, which usually refers to a category of arid rangeland with insufficient vegetation to support [[marmot]]s but with enough to support camels. Mongols distinguish Gobi from desert proper, although the distinction is not always apparent to outsiders unfamiliar with the Mongolian landscape. Gobi rangelands are fragile and are easily destroyed by overgrazing, which results in expansion of the true desert, a stony waste where not even [[Bactrian camel]]s can survive. == Aimags and sums == {{main|Aimags of Mongolia|Sums of Mongolia}} Mongolia is divided into 21 [[aimag]]s ([[province]]s), which are in turn divided into 315 [[sum]]s ([[district]]s). The capital [[Ulan Bator]] is administrated separately as a ''khot'' ([[municipality]]) with provincial status. The ''aimags'' are: : {{columns |col1 = * [[Arkhangai Province|Arkhangai]] * [[Bayan-Ölgii Province|Bayan-Ölgii]] * [[Bayankhongor Province|Bayankhongor]] * [[Bulgan Province|Bulgan]] * [[Darkhan-Uul Province|Darkhan-Uul]] * [[Dornod Province|Dornod]] * [[Dornogovi Province|Dornogovi]] * [[Dundgovi Province|Dundgovi]] * [[Govi-Altai Province|Govi-Altai]] * [[Govisümber Province|Govisümber]] * [[Khentii Province|Khentii]] |col2 = * [[Khovd Province|Khovd]] * [[Khövsgöl Province|Khövsgöl]] * [[Ömnögovi Province|Ömnögovi]] * [[Orkhon Province|Orkhon]] * [[Övörkhangai Province|Övörkhangai]] * [[Selenge Province|Selenge]] * [[Sükhbaatar Province|Sükhbaatar]] * [[Töv Province|Töv]] * [[Uvs Province|Uvs]] * [[Zavkhan Province|Zavkhan]] }} == Economy == {{main|Economy of Mongolia}} [[Image:1000 Tugriks - Recto.jpg|thumb|1,000 [[Mongolian tugrug|tugrug]]]] Mongolia's economy is centered on [[Agriculture in Mongolia|agriculture]] and mining. Mongolia has rich mineral resources, and [[copper]], [[coal]], [[molybdenum]], [[tin]], [[tungsten]], and [[gold]] account for a large part of industrial production. There are currently over 30,000 independent businesses in Mongolia, chiefly centered around the capital city {{Fact|date=February 2007}}. The majority of the population outside urban areas participate in subsistence [[herding]]; livestock typically consists of [[sheep]], [[goats]], [[cattle]], [[horses]], and [[Bactrian camels]]. Agricultural crops include [[wheat]], [[barley]], [[potato]], vegetables, [[tomato]], [[watermelon]], [[sea-buckthorn]] and fodder crops. GDP per capita in 2006 was $2,100.<ref name="factbook-mn">CIA World Factbook: [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/mg.html ''Mongolia''] </ref> Although GDP has risen steadily since 2002 at the rate of 7.5% in an official 2006 estimate, the state is still working to overcome a sizable trade deficit. A massive ($11 billion) foreign debt to Russia was settled by the Mongolian government in 2004 with a $250 million payment. Despite growth, the proportion of the population below the poverty line is estimated to be 35.6% in 1998, 36.1% in 2002–2003, 32.2% in 2006<ref name="Yearbook2007"> Statistical Yearbook of Mongolia 2006, National Statistical Office, Ulaanbaatar, 2007 </ref>, and both the unemployment rate and inflation rate are relatively high at 3.2% and 6.0%, respectively (in 2006)<ref name="Yearbook2007" /ref> Mongolia's largest trading partner is [[PRC|China]]. As of 2006, 68.4% of Mongolia's exports went to China, and China supplied 29.8% of Mongolia's imports.<ref>Morris Rossabi, [http://www.jamestown.org/publications_details.php?volume_id=408&issue_id=3322&article_id=2369703 ''Beijing's growing politico-economic leverage over Ulaanbaatar''], The Jamestown Foundation, 2005-05-05, (retrieved 2007-05-29)</ref> The [[Mongolian Stock Exchange]], established in 1991 in Ulan Bator, is the world's smallest [[stock exchange]] by [[market capitalisation]].<ref name="Jeffs">{{cite news|url=http://www.efinancialnews.com/content/1047180747|title=Mongolia earns a sporting chance with fledgling operation |last=Jeffs |first=Luke |date=2007-02-12 |accessdate=2007-09-11 |work=Dow Jones Financial News Online}}</ref><ref name="IHT">{{cite news |url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/09/19/bloomberg/bxmongol.php|date=2006-09-19 |accessdate=2007-09-11 |title=Mongolian bourse seeks foreign investment |last=Cheng |first=Patricia |work=International Herald-Tribune}}</ref> ===Industrial sector=== Industry currently accounts for 21.4% of GDP, approximately equal to the weight of the agriculture sector (20.4%). These industries include construction materials, mining (coal, copper, molybdenum, fluorspar, tin, tungsten, and gold), oil, food and beverages, processing of animal products, and cashmere and natural fiber manufacturing. The industrial production growth rate is estimated to be 4.1% in 2002. Mining is continuing to rise as a major industry of Mongolia as evidenced by number of Chinese, Russian and Canadian firms opening and starting mining business in Mongolia.<ref name="factbook-mn" /> Domestic food production, especially packaged food production has been increasingly coming up with speed with investments from foreign companies. ===Science and technology=== Some technology companies from nearby countries, such as South Korea and the People's Republic of China, have started to open offices in Mongolia. Those companies have tended to focus on software development rather than hardware production{{Fact|date=June 2008}}. A number of [[telecommunications]] companies and [[internet service provider]]s have been established resulting in greater competition in the internet and phone market, especially in cell phones. ===Service sector=== [[Image:TsetserlegMarket.jpg|thumb|An open-air market in [[Tsetserleg]]. Open-air markets are a common place for trade in Mongolia]] After the transition shocks of the early 1990s, Mongolian domestic production has picked up again. According to the CIA World Factbook, in 2003, the service sector accounted for 58% of the GDP, with 29% of the labor force of 1.488 million involved. Foreign investment from other countries (including [[China]], [[Japan]], [[South Korea]], [[Germany]]{{Fact|date=June 2008}} and [[Russia]]) has helped to add more paved roads. The most important is a 1000 km north-south road leading from the Russian border at [[Sükhbaatar (city)|Sükhbaatar]] to the Chinese border at [[Zamyn-Üüd]]. There are several air transport companies in Mongolia, including [[MIAT]], [[Aero Mongolia]], and [[Eznis Airways]]. [[Petroleum]] products are mainly (80%) imported from Russia, which makes Mongolia vulnerable to supply side shocks. This is one strong example of the influence of Mongolia's neighbors on its economy. == Demographics == <!-- please add other images to Commons --> {{main|Demographics of Mongolia}} [[Image:Mongolia-demography.png|thumb|Demographics of Mongolia (2005 [[FAO]] data; number of inhabitants in thousands)]] Mongolia's total population as of July 2007 is estimated by [[U.S. Census Bureau]]<ref name="US Census">[http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/idb/country/mgportal.html U.S. Census Bureau International Data Base]</ref> at 2,951,786 people ranking at around 138th in the world in terms of population. But the [[U.S. Department of State]] [[Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs]] uses the [[U.N.]] estimations <ref>[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2779.htm U.S. Department of State. Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs. Background Note:Mongolia]</ref> instead of the [[U.S. Census Bureau]] estimations . [[United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs]] Population Division<ref name="UN DESA PD">[http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2006/WPP2006_Highlights_rev.pdf World Population Prospects] The 2006 Revision Highlights</ref> estimates Mongolia's total population (mid. 2007) as 2,629,000 (11% less then [[U.S. Census Bureau]]). But UN estimations are very close to those made by Mongolian National Statistical Office - 2,612,900 (end of June 2007). It has a very small population relative to its two border neighbors, China and Russia. Though the majority of Mongolian citizens are of [[Mongol]] descent there are small populations of [[Kazakhs|Kazakh]], [[Tuvans|Tuvan]], and [[Tungus]] peoples. Mongolia's population growth rate is estimated at 1.2% (2007 est.).<ref name="UN DESA PD" /> About 59% of the total population is under age 30, 27% of whom are under 14. This relatively young and growing population has, as in many developing countries, placed strains on Mongolia's economy. Since the end of socialism, Mongolia has experienced a decline of [[total fertility rate]] (children per woman) that is steeper than in any other country in the world, according to recent [[UN]] estimations<ref name="UN DESA PD" />: in 1970-1975, fertility was estimated to be 7.33 children per woman, but 2005-2010 prospects are 1.87 (4 times less). [[Image:Enfant de Mongolie.jpg|thumb|A young Mongolian boy in front of a [[yurt]] in the countryside]] Mongolia has become more urbanized. About 40 percent of the population live in [[Ulaanbaatar]] alone, and in 2002 a further 23% lived in [[Darkhan]], [[Erdenet]], the [[aimags of Mongolia|aimag]] centers and [[sums of Mongolia|sum]]-level permanent settlements<ref>[http://202.131.5.91/yearbook/2002/yearbook2002.pdf National Statistical Office: Statistical Yearbook 2002], p. 39. "Villages" in this case refers to settlements that are not part of a sum, see p. 37</ref>. Another share of the population lives in the sum centers. In 2002, about 30 percent of all households in Mongolia lived from breeding lifestock<ref>[http://202.131.5.91/yearbook/2002/yearbook2002.pdf National Statistical Office: Statistical Yearbook 2002], pp. 43, 151</ref>. Most herders in Mongolia follow a pattern of [[nomads|nomadic]] or semi-nomadic [[pastoralism]]. Ethnic Mongols account for about 85% of the population and consist of Khalkha and other groups, all distinguished primarily by dialects of the Mongol language. The [[Khalkha]] make up 90% of the ethnic Mongol population. The remaining 10% include Buryats, Durbet Mongols and others in the north and Dariganga Mongols in the east. [[Turkic people]]s ([[Kazakhs]], [[Tuvans]], and Chantuu ([[Uzbeks|Uzbek]]) constitute 7% of Mongolia's population, and the rest are Tungusic peoples, [[Ethnic Chinese in Mongolia|Chinese]], and [[Russians]]. Most, but not all, Russians left the country following the withdrawal of economic aid and collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. === Languages === The official language of Mongolia is [[Mongolian language|Khalkha Mongolian]], which uses the [[Cyrillic alphabet]], and is spoken by 90% of the population. A variety of different [[dialect]]s are spoken across the country. In the west the [[Kazakh language|Kazakh]] and [[Tuvan language]]s, among others, are also spoken. The [[Russian language]] is the most frequently spoken foreign language in Mongolia, followed by [[English language|English]], though English has been gradually replacing Russian as the second language.{{Fact|date=September 2007}} [[Korean language|Korean]] has gained a popularity as tens of thousands of [[Mongolians in South Korea|Mongolians work in South Korea]].<ref>{{cite news|publisher=Office of the President, Republic of Korea|url=http://english.president.go.kr/cwd/en/archive/archive_view.php?meta_id=en_dip_2006&category=164&id=923b8c655856408486c7764f|date=[[2006]]-[[05-05]]|accessdate=2007-08-17|title=Today in Mongolia: Everyone can speak a few words of Korean|last=Han|first=Jae-hyuck}}</ref> Interest in [[Standard Mandarin|Chinese]], as the language of the second neighbouring power, has been growing. [[Japanese language|Japanese]] is also popular among the younger people. A number of older educated Mongolians speak some [[German language|German]], as they studied in the former [[East Germany]], while a few speak other languages from the former [[Eastern Bloc]]. Besides that, many younger Mongolians are fluent in the Western European languages as they study or work in foreign countries including [[Germany]], [[France]] and [[Italy]]. Mongolian is one of the [[Mongolic language]]s. Mongolic is frequently included in the [[Altaic languages]], a [[language family|group of languages]] named after the [[Altay Mountains]] that also includes the [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] and [[Tungusic languages]]. ===Religion=== [[Image:Gandantegchinlen Khiid Monastery.JPG|thumb|Gandantegchinlen Khiid, Buddhist monastery in [[Ulan Bator]]]] According to the CIA World Factbook;<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/mg.html CIA Factbook - Mongolia]</ref> 50% of Mongolia's population follow the [[Tibetan Buddhism]], 40% is listed as having no religion, 6% is [[Shamanist]] and [[Christian]], and 4% is [[Muslim]]. But according to the other latest sources from U.S. Department of State, 94% practice Tibetan Buddhism, followed by Islam (6%), and [[Shamanism]].<ref>[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2779.htm Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs - Mongolia]</ref> The differences between the CIA World Factbook and the U.S. Department of States estimates for religion are mostly that the nonreligious in the CIA World Factbook estimate are in the Tibetan Buddhism category in the U.S. Department of State estimate. A possible explanation for this is that the flexibility of Buddhism makes it difficult to discern what constitutes a Buddhist, since Buddhism can be embraced in varying degrees, unlike some other religions which clearly demarcate their followers. Various forms of [[Tengriism]] and [[Shamanism]] have been widely practiced throughout the history of what is now modern day Mongolia, as such beliefs were common among nomadic people in Asian history. Such beliefs mostly gradually gave way to [[Tibetan Buddhism]], but Shamanism has left a mark on Mongolian religious culture. Indeed, it continues to be practised. Throughout much of the twentieth century, the [[communist]] government ensured that the religious practices of the Mongolian people were largely repressed. [[Khorloogiin Choibalsan]] complied with the orders of [[Joseph Stalin]], destroying almost all of Mongolia's over 700 Buddhist monasteries and killing thousands of monks. [[Image:Kloster zezerleg.JPG|thumb|A [[Buddhist]] monastery in [[Tsetserleg]]]] The fall of communism in 1991 restored the legality of public religious practice, and Tibetan Buddhism, which had been the predominant religion in the region before the rise of Communism, again rose to become the most widely practiced religion in Mongolia. The end of religious repression in the 1990s also allowed for other religions, such as Islam and Christianity, to spread in the country. According to the [[Barnabas Fund]], the number of Christians grew from just 4 in 1989 to around 40,000 as of 2008. ''See also: [[Buddhism in Mongolia]], [[Islam in Mongolia]]'' ===Education=== During the state socialist period, education was one of the areas of significant achievement in Mongolia. Illiteracy was virtually eliminated, in part through the use of seasonal boarding schools for children of nomadic families. Funding to these boarding schools was cut in the 1990s, contributing to slightly increased illiteracy. Primary and secondary education formerly lasted ten years, but has been expanded to eleven years recently and is set to be expanded further to twelve years. Mongolian national universities are all spin-offs from the [[National University of Mongolia]] and the [[Mongolian University of Science and Technology]] [http://www.must.edu.mn]. The broad liberalization of the 1990s led to a boom in private institutions of higher education, although many of these establishments have difficulty living up to their name of "college" or "university". ===Health=== Health care in Mongolia is rapidly improving{{Fact|date=January 2008}}, leading to a higher life expectancy and a drop in [[infant mortality|infant]] and [[child mortality]]. Average childbirth ([[fertility rate]]) is around 2.25<ref name="US Census" /> - 1.87<ref name="UN DESA PD" /> per woman (2007) and average [[life expectancy]] is 67<ref name="US Census" />-68<ref name="UN DESA PD" /> years. Infant mortality is at 1.9%<ref name="NMH Yearbook 2006">[http://www.nchd.mn/pdf/uzuulelt/2006.pdf National Ministry of Health Yearbook 2006]</ref>-4%<ref>[http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/mongolia.html UNICEF - At a glance: Mongolia]</ref> and child mortality is at 4.3%.<ref>[http://ubpost.mongolnews.mn/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1244&Itemid=1 UBPost: Child Mortality Rate Has Decreased, UNICEF Says]</ref> The health sector comprises 17 specialized hospitals and centers, 4 regional diagnostic and treatment centers, 9 district and 21 aimag general hospitals, 323 soum hospitals, 18 feldsher posts, 233 family group practices, and 536 private hospitals and 57 drug supply companies/pharmacies. In 2002 the total number of health workers was 33273, of which 6823 were doctors, 788 pharmacists, 7802-nurses and 14091 mid-level personnel. At present, there are 27.7 physicians and 75.7 hospital beds per 10,000 inhabitants. == Culture == {{main|Culture of Mongolia}} [[Image:Naadam.jpg|thumb|Horse men during [[Naadam]] [[festival]] in July.]] The main festival is [[Naadam]], which has been organised for centuries, consists of three Mongolian traditional sports, [[archery]], horse-racing (over long stretches of open country, not the short racing around a track practiced in the West), and wrestling. Nowadays it is held on July 11 to July 13 in the honour of the anniversaries of the National Democratic Revolution and foundation of the Great Mongol State. Another very popular activity called Shagaa is the "flicking" of sheep ankle bones at a target several feet away, using a flicking motion of the finger to send the small bone flying at targets and trying to knock the target bones off the platform. This contest at Naadam is very popular and develops a serious audience among older Mongolians. In Mongolia, the khoomii, or [[throat singing]], style of music is popular, particularly in parts of Western Mongolia. The ornate symbol in the leftmost bar of the national flag is a Buddhist icon called soyombo. It represents the sun, moon, stars, and heavens per standard cosmological symbology abstracted from that seen in traditional [[thangka]] paintings. ===Sports and recreation=== Mongolia's [[Naadam]] festival takes place over three days in the summer and includes [[horse racing]], [[archery]], and [[Mongolian wrestling]]. These three sports, traditionally recognized as the three primary masculine activities, are the most widely watched and practiced sports throughout the country. [[Image:WrestlingHouse.JPG|thumb|[[Bökhiin Örgöö]], main arena of the [[Mongolian wrestling]] in [[Ulan Bator]]]] [[Horse riding]] is especially central to Mongolian culture. The long-distance races that are showcased during Naadam festivals are one aspect of this, as is the popularity of trick riding. One example of trick riding is the legend that the Mongolian military hero [[Damdin Sükhbaatar]] scattered coins on the ground and then picked them up while riding a horse at full gallop. Other sports such as table tennis, basketball, and soccer are increasingly getting popular. More Mongolian table tennis players are competing internationally. Wrestling is the most popular of all Mongol sports. It is the highlight of the Three Manly Games of Naadam. Historians claim that Mongol-style wrestling originated some seven thousand years ago. Hundreds of wrestlers from different cities and aimags around the country take part in the national wrestling competition. There are no weight categories or age limits. Each wrestler has his own attendant herald. The aim of the sport is to knock one's opponent off balance and throw him down, making him touch the ground with his elbow and knee. The winners are honored with ancient titles: the winner of the fifth round gets the honorary title of nachin (falcon), of the seventh and eighth rounds zaan (elephant), and of the tenth and eleventh rounds arslan (lion). The wrestler who becomes the absolute champion is awarded the title of avarga (Titan). Every subsequent victory at the national Naadam-festival will add an epithet to the avarga title, like "Invincible Titan to be remembered by all". Beginning in 2003, the Mongolian parliament adopted a new law on Naadam, making amendments to some of the wrestling titles. The titles of iarudi and Khartsaga (Hawk) were added to the existing above-mentioned rules. The traditional wrestling costume includes an open-fronted jacket, tied around the waist with a string. This is said to have come into use after the champion of a wrestling competition many years ago was discovered to be a woman. The jacket was introduced to ensure that only men could compete. Mongolia's traditional wrestlers have made the transition to Japanese [[sumo wrestling]] with great success. [[Asashōryū Akinori]] was the first Mongolian to be promoted to the top sumo rank of ''[[yokozuna (sumo)|yokozuna]]'' in 2003 and was followed by his countryman [[Hakuhō Shō]] in 2007. [[Football (soccer)|Football]] is also played in Mongolia. The [[Mongolia national football team]] began playing again in the 1990s; it has yet to qualify for a major tournament. The [[Mongolia Premier League]] is the top domestic competition. Several Mongolian women have excelled in [[shooting sports|pistol shooting]]: [[Munkhbayar Dorjsuren]] is a double world champion and Olympic bronze medal winner (now representing [[Germany]]), while [[Otryad Gundegmaa]] and [[Tsogbadrakh Munkhzul]] are, as of May 2007 ranked second and third in the world in the [[25 m Pistol]] event.<ref>{{cite web | title = World ranking: 25 m Pistol Women | url = http://www.issf-shooting.org/update/worldranking.asp?mode=allbyevent&event=SP | publisher = [[International Shooting Sport Federation]] | date = [[2007-05-29]] | accessdate = 2007-06-04 }}</ref> === Architecture === [[Image:Dashichoiling 01.jpg|thumb|A temple in the Dashichoiling ensemble in Ulan Bator]] The traditional Mongolian dwelling is known as a [[yurt]] (Mongolian: ''ger''). According to Mongolian artist and art critic [[N. Chultem]], yurts and tents were the basis for development of the traditional Mongolian architecture. In the 16th ad 17th centuries, lamaseries were built throughout the country. Many of them started as yurt-temples. When they needed to be enlarged to accommodate the growing number of worshippers, the Mongolian architects used structures with 6 and 12 angles with pyramidal roofs to approximate to the round shape of a yurt. Further enlargement led to a quadratic shape of the temples. The roofs were made in the shape of marquees.<ref name="Chultem">{{cite book | authorlink = N. Chultem | title = Искусство Монголии | date= 1984 | location = Moscow }}</ref> The trellis walls, roof poles and layers of felt were replaced by stone, brick, beams and planks, and became permanent.<ref>{{cite web | title = Cultural Heritage of Mongolia | url = http://www.indiana.edu/~mongsoc/mong/heritage.htm | publisher = [[Indiana University]] | accessdate = 2007-07-07 }}</ref> [[Image:Gurvger.jpg|thumb|A [[yurt]] in front of the [[Gurvansaikhan Mountains]]]] Chultem distinguished three styles in traditional Mongolian architecture: Mongolian, [[Tibet]]an and Chinese as well as combinations of the three. Among the first quadratic temples was Batu-Tsagaan (1654) designed by [[Zanabazar]]. An example of the yurt-style architecture is the lamasery Dashi-Choiling in Ulan Bator. The temple Lavrin (XVIII century) in the [[Erdene Zuu]] lamasery was built in the Tibetan tradition. An example of a temple built in the Chinese tradition is the lamasery Choijing Lamiin Sume (1904), which is a museum today. The quadratic temple Tsogchin in lamasery Gandan in Ulan Bator is a combination of the Mongolian and Chinese tradition. The temple of Maitreya (disassembled in 1938) is an example of the Tibeto-Mongolian architecture.<ref name="Chultem" /> Dashi-Choiling monastery has commenced a project to restore the temple and the {{convert|80|ft|m}} sculpture of Maitreya. === Music === {{Main|Music of Mongolia}} The music of Mongolia is strongly influenced by Tibetan Buddhism and nomadism. The natives dance the "tsam" to keep away evil spirits and it was seen the reminiscences of shamaning. The traditional music includes a variety of instruments and songs, including the song "koomi": delicately trained male voices, from the most serious tone to the highest, which are combined in full harmony. ==== Popular music ==== The first rock band of Mongolia was Soyol-Erdene, founded in the 1960s. Their Beatles-like manner was severely criticised by the Communist censorship. It was followed by Mungunhurhree, Ineemseglel, Urgoo, etc., carving out the path for the genre in the harsh environment of Communist ideology. Mungunhurhree and Haranga were to become the pioneers in the Mongolia's heavy rock music. Haranga approached its zenith in the late 1980s and 1990s. The leader of Haranga, famous guitarist Enh-Manlai, generously helped the growth of their following generations of rockers. Among the followers of Haranga was the band Hurd. In the early 1990s group Har-Chono put the beginning for Mongolia's folk-rock merging the elements of the Mongolian tenuto song (poorly described as "long" song) into the genre. By that time, the environment for development of artistic thought had become largely liberal thanks to the new democratic society in the country. The 1990s saw development of rap, techno, hip-hop and also boy bands and girl bands flourish at the turn of the millennium. == See also == * [[Architecture of Mongolia]] * [[Communications in Mongolia]] * [[Culture of Mongolia]] * [[Foreign relations of Mongolia]] * [[Goyol Fashion Festival]] * [[Greater Mongolia|Greater Mongolia region]] * [[Military of Mongolia]] * [[Mongolyn Skautyn Kholboo]] (Mongolian Scouts Association) * [[Public holidays in Mongolia]] * [[Transportation in Mongolia]] == References == {{reflist|2}} == Further reading == * [http://www.britannica.com/nations/Mongolia ''Mongolia''], Encyclopaedia Britannica * {{CIA World Factbook link|mg|Mongolia}} * [http://www.state.gov/p/eap/ci/mg/ ''Background notes on Mongolia''], US Department of State * {{Loc}} == External links == <!-- NO TRAVEL BUSINESS LINKS, PLEASE! --> {{portal|Mongolia|Flag of Mongolia.svg}} {{sisterlinks}} * [http://www.president.mn/index.php The President of Mongolia] {{mn icon}} * [http://www.mongoliatourism.gov.mn/ Official Tourism Website of Mongolia] * {{wikiatlas|Mongolia}} * {{dmoz|Regional/Asia/Mongolia/|Mongolia}} * {{wikitravel}} * {{wikia|world:Mongolia|Mongolia}} *{{wikia|internationalbusiness|International Business|Mongolia|Mongolia}} <!-- These links are enough. 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