Monk
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[[Image:StAnthony.jpg|thumb|200px|St. Anthony the Great, considered the Father of Christian Monasticism]]
A '''monk''' ({{lang-el|''μοναχός''}}, ''monachos''), derived from Greek ''monos'' (''alone''), in modern parlance also referred to as a ''monastic'', is a person who practices religious [[asceticism]], the conditioning of mind and body in favor of the spirit, and does so living either alone or with any number of like-minded people, whilst always maintaining some degree of physical separation from those not sharing the same purpose. The concept is ancient and can be seen in many religions and in philosophy.
In the Greek language the term can apply to men or women; but in modern English it is in use only for men, while [[nun]] is used for female monastics.
Although the term ''monachos''-“monk” is of Christian origin, in the English language it tends to be used analogously or loosely also for ascetics from other religious or philosophical backgrounds.
The term ''monk'' is [[generic]]. In some religious or philosophical traditions it therefore may be considered interchangeable with other [[generic]] terms such as [[ascetic]]. However, being generic, it is not interchangeable with terms that denote particular kinds of monk, such as [[cenobite]], [[hermit]], [[anchorite]], [[Hesychasm|hesychast]], solitary.
==Etymology==
A monk (Old English ''munuc'' < Latin ''monachus'' < Ancient Greek ''μοναχός'' - monachos, "single, solitary" < ''μόνος'' (monos) "alone") is a general term for a person who leads the "monastic life" in a "[[monastery]]".
Nowadays it is often wrongly assumed that it signifies a monk living in community, who is merely one kind of monk, namely a [[Cenobium|''cenobite'']] (greek: κοινοβιακός).
From early Church times there has been a lively discussion of the meaning of the term ''monk'' (derived from Greek: ''monos'', alone), namely whether it denotes someone living alone/away from the rest of society, or someone celibate/focused on God alone. The Western rule giver [[Benedict|Benedict of Nursia]] understood it as meaning the latter, namely a celibate dedicated to God. This is evident from the fact that his list of the four kinds of monks includes [[hermit]]s.
The four kinds of monks identified by [[Benedict of Nursia]] in chapter 1 of his ''[[Rule of St Benedict|Rule for Monks]]'' as well as in the ''[[Rule of the Master]]'' are the following:
# The [[Cenobium|cenobites]] live in community in a monastery, serve God under a religious rule and do so under the leadership of an abbot (or in the case of a community of women, an abbess). Benedict points out in ch. 1.13 that they are the "strong kind", which by logic of the context must mean the larger number rather than the better kind.
# The [[hermit]]s and [[anchorite]]s have thorough experience as cenobites in a monastery. "They have built up their strength and go from the battle line in the ranks of their brothers to the single combat of the desert; self-reliant now, without the support of another, they are ready with God's help to grapple single-handed with the vices of body and mind". Benedict himself twice lived for prolonged periods as a hermit, which may account for the comparative length of the characteristics of their life in this list.
# The [[sarabaites]], censured by Benedict as the most detestable kind of monks, are pretenders that have no cenobitic experience, follow no rule and have no superior.
# The [[gyrovagues]], censured by Benedict as worse than ''loubski'', are wandering monks without stability in a particular monastery.
In the English language, but not in German and French, a distinction is made between monks and [[friars]], the latter being members of [[mendicant orders]]. A distinction is also made between monks and [[Canons Regular]].
===Monastery===
:''Main article:'' [[Monastery]]
A monastery is the dwelling of one or more monks.
The term ''monastery'' is already used by the Jewish philosopher [[Philo]] (c. 20 BC - 50 AD, resident in [[Alexandria]], [[Egypt]]) in his description of the life of the [[Therapeutae|''Therapeutae'' and ''Therapeutides'']], people with common religious aspirations who then were dwelling on a low-lying hill above the [[Lake Mariout|Mareotic Lake]] near [[Alexandria]] in houses at a distance of each other that safeguarded both solitude and security (cf. ''On the Contemplative Life'' ch. III, in the Loeb Classical Library edition see §25).
<blockquote>
In each house there is
a consecrated room which is called a sanctuary or closet (''monastērion''), and closeted (''monoumenoi'') in this they are initiated into the mysteries of the sanctified life. They take nothing into it, either drink or food or any other of the things necessary for the needs of the body, but laws and oracles delivered through the mouth of prophets, and hymns and anything else which fosters and perfects knowledge and piety. They keep the memory of God alive and never forget it … Twice every day they pray, at dawn and at eventide … The interval between early morning and evening is spent entirely in spiritual exercise. They read the holy scriptures and seek wisdom from their ancestral philosophy … For six days they seek wisdom by themselves in solitude in the closets (''monastēriois'') mentioned above … But every seventh day they meet together as for a general assembly … (in a) common sanctuary … (Philo, ''On The Contemplative Life'', ch. III).
</blockquote>
==Christian monks==
{{main|Christian monasticism}}
===History of Christian monasticism===
Monasticism drew its origin from the examples of the Prophet [[Elijah|Elias]] and [[John the Baptist]] who both lived alone in the desert, the [[Desert of Zin|desert]] having been regarded throughout [[Old Testament]] times as a place of spiritual renewal and return to God, whether for the benefit of the individual and as a representative of the community. At the beginning of his public ministry [[Jesus|Jesus of Nazareth]] subjected himself for forty days to physical and spiritual testing in the desert; and the Gospels record other times in which he retired for periods of solitary prayer. In the [[early church]], individuals would live ascetic lives, though usually on the outskirts of civilization. Communities of virgins are also mentioned by early church authors, but again these communities were either located in towns, or near the edges of them.
The first famous Christian known to adopt the life in a desert was [[Anthony the Great|St. Anthony the Great]] (251-356), sometime in the latter part of the 3rd century. He lived alone as an [[anchorite]] in the [[Egypt]]ian desert until he attracted a circle of followers, after which he retired further into the desert to escape the adulation of men. In the beginning, St. Anthony had an experienced ascetic who gave him advice, but he also lived near the town. St. Anthony was the first to go out into the desert for the sole purpose of pursuing God in solitude. As the idea of devoting one's entire life to God grew, more and more monks joined him, even in the far desert. Under St. Anthony's system, they each lived in isolation. Later, loose-knit communities began to be formed, coming together only on Sundays and major [[Great Feasts|feast days]] for [[Holy Communion]]. These are referred to as [[skete]]s, named after the location in Egypt where this system began. The concept of monks all living together under one roof and under the rule of a single [[abbot]] is attributed to St [[Pachomius]] (c. 292-348), who lived in the beginning of the 4th century, and is referred to as [[cenobitic|coenobitic]] monasticism. At this same time, St. Pachomius' sister became the first [[abbess]] of a monastery of women ([[convent]]). Christian monasticism spread throughout the [[Byzantine Empire|Eastern Roman Empire]]. At its height it was not uncommon for coenobitic monasteries to house upwards of 30,000 monks.
As Christianity grew and diversified, so did the style of monasticism. In the East, monastic norms came to be regularized through the writings of [[Basil the Great|St. Basil the Great]] (c. 330-379) and [[Theodore the Studite|St. Theodore the Studite]] (c. 758-c. 826), coalescing more or less into the form in which it is still found today. In the West, there was initially some distrust of monasticism, due to fears of [[extremism]] previously observed in certain [[heresy|heretical]] groups, most notably [[Gnosticism]]. Largely through the writings of [[John Cassian|St. John Cassian]] (c. 360–433) monasticism came to be accepted in the West as well. [[Benedict of Nursia|St. Benedict of Nursia]] (c. 480–547) set forth the very first [[monastic rule]] in the west. In the beginning, Western monasticism followed much the same pattern as its Eastern forebears, but over time the traditions diversified.
===Monasticism in Eastern Christianity===
<!-- Commented out because image was deleted: [[Image:Img0007.jpg|right|300px|thumb|[[Xenofontos]], one of the 20 major [[monasteries]] on [[Mount Athos]], an independent monastic state in Greece]] -->
In the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]], [[Oriental Orthodox Churches|Oriental Orthodox]] and [[Eastern Catholic Churches]], monasticism is a far more common lifestyle than in the [[Roman Catholic]] Church and holds a very special and important place. The Orthodox Church measures its health by the quality of its monks and nuns. Orthodox monastics separate themselves from the [[world (theology)|world]] in order to pray unceasingly for the world. They do not, in general, have as their primary purpose the running of social services, as is common in Western Christianity, but instead are concerned with attaining [[theosis]], or union with God. However, care for the poor and needy has always been an obligation of monasticism, so Orthodox monasteries are not normally "cloistered" like some contemplative Western houses are, though the level of contact will vary from community to community. Orthodox hermits, on the other hand, have little or no contact with the outside world.
Orthodox monasticism does not have [[religious orders]] as are found in the West, nor do they have Rules in the same sense as the [[Rule of St. Benedict]]. Rather, Eastern monastics study and draw inspiration from the writings of the [[Desert Fathers]] as well as other [[Church Fathers]]; probably the most influential of which are the ''Greater Asketikon'' and ''Lesser Asketikon'' of St. Basil the Great and the ''[[Philokalia]]'', which was compiled by St. Nikodemos of the Holy Mountain and St. Makarios of Corinth. [[Hesychasm]] is of primary importance in the ascetical theology of the Orthodox Church.
Most communities are self-supporting, and the monastic’s daily life is usually divided into three parts: (a) communal worship in the [[catholicon]] (the monastery's main church); (b) hard manual labour; and (c) private prayer, spiritual study, and rest when necessary. Meals are usually taken in common in a sizable dining hall known as a [[refectory|trapeza]] (refectory), at elongated [[refectory table]]s. Food is usually simple and is eaten in silence while one of the brethren reads aloud from the spiritual writings of the [[Church Fathers|Holy Fathers]]. The monastic lifestyle takes a great deal of serious commitment and hard work, it forces the person to overcome their own flaws and weaknesses; those newcomers with romantic notions about this sort of lifestyle usually do not last more than a few days. Within the coenobitic community, all monks conform to a common way of living based on the traditions of that particular monastery. In struggling to attain this conformity, the monastic comes to realize his own shortcomings and is guided by his [[starets|spiritual father]] in how to deal honestly with them. Attaining this level of self-discipline is perhaps the most difficult and painful accomplishment any human being can make; but the end goal, to become like an angel on earth (an "earthly angel and a heavenly man", as the church [[hymn]]s put it), is the reason monastics are held in such high esteem. For this same reason, [[Bishop#Bishops in Catholic.2C Orthodox and Anglican churches|Bishops]] are almost always chosen from the ranks of monks.
Eastern monasticism is found in three distinct forms: [[anchorites|anchoritic]] (a solitary living in isolation), [[cenobitic|coenobitic]] (a community living and worshiping together under the direct rule of an abbot or abbess), and the "middle way" between the two, known as the [[skete]] (a community of individuals living separately but in close proximity to one another, who come together only on Sundays and feast days, working and praying the rest of the time in solitude, but under the direction of an elder). One normally enters a coenobitic community first, and only after testing and spiritual growth would one go on to the skete or, for the most advanced, become a solitary anchorite. However, one is not necessarily expected to join a skete or become a solitary; most monastics remain in the cenobuim the whole of their lives. The form of monastic life an individual embraces is considered to be his [[vocation]]; that is to say, it is dependent upon the will of God, and is revealed by [[Divine grace|grace]].
In general, Orthodox monastics have little or no contact with the outside world, including their own families. The purpose of the monastic life is union with God, the means is through leaving the world (i.e., the life of the passions). After tonsure, Orthodox monks and nuns are never permitted to cut their hair. The hair of the head and the beard remain uncut as a symbol of the vows they have taken, reminiscent of the [[Nazarite]]s from the [[Old Testament]]. The [[Tonsure]] of monks is the token of a consecrated life, and symbolizes the cutting off of their self-will.
====Degrees of Christian Orthodox monasticism====
{{main|Degrees of Eastern Orthodox monasticism}}
[[Image:megaloschema.jpg|thumb|200px|left|The Great Schema worn by Orthodox monks and nuns of the highest degree]]
The process of becoming a monk is intentionally slow, as the [[vows]] taken are considered to entail a life-long commitment to God, and are not to be entered into lightly. In Orthodox monasticism after completing the novitiate, there are three ranks of monasticism. There is only one [[religious habit|monastic habit]] in the Eastern Church (with certain slight regional variations), and it is the same for both monks and nuns. Each successive grade is given a portion of the habit, the full habit being worn only by those in the highest grade, known for that reason as the "Great Schema", or "Great Habit". One is free to enter any monastery of one's choice; but after being accepted by the abbot (or abbess) and making vows, one may not move from place to place without the blessing of one's ecclesiastical superior.
The various profession rites are normally performed by the Abbot, but if the abbot has not been ordained a priest, or if the monastic community is a convent, a [[hieromonk]] will perform the service. The abbot or hieromonk who performs a tonsure must be of at least the rank he is tonsuring into. In other words, only a hieromonk who has been tonsured into the Great Schema may himself tonsure a Schemamonk. A bishop, however, may tonsure into any rank, regardless of his own.
'''Novice''' (Slavonic: ''Poslushnik''), lit. "one under obedience"—Those wishing to join a monastery begin their lives as novices. After coming to the monastery and living as a guest for not less than three days, the abbot or abbess may bless the candidate to become a novice. There is no formal ceremony for the clothing of a novice, he or she simply receives permission to wear the clothing of a novice. In the Eastern monastic tradition, novices may or may not dress in the black [[Cassock#Eastern practice (Orthodox and Eastern Catholic)|inner cassock]] (Greek: ''Anterion'', ''Eisorasson''; [[Church Slavonic|Slavonic]]: ''Podriasnik'') and wear the soft monastic hat (Greek: ''[[Skoufos]]'', Slavonic: ''Skufia''), depending on the tradition of the local community, and in accordance to the abbot’s directives. The inner-cassock and the skoufos are the first part of the Orthodox monastic "habit. In some communities, the novice also wears the leather belt. He is also given a [[prayer rope]] and instructed in the use of the [[Jesus Prayer]]. If a novice chooses to leave during the period of the novitiate, no penalty is incurred. He may also be asked to leave at any time if his behaviour does not conform to the monastic life, or if the superior discerns that he is not called to monasticism. When the abbot or abbess deems the novice ready, he is asked if he wishes to join the monastery. Some, out of humility, will choose to remain novices all their lives. Every stage of the monastic life must be entered into voluntarily.
'''Rassaphore''', (Slavonic: '''Ryassophore'''), lit. "Robe-bearer"—If the novice continues on to become a monk, he is clothed in the first degree of monasticism at a formal service known as the [[Tonsure]]. Although there are no formal [[vows]] made at this point, the candidate is normally required to affirm his commitment to persevere in the monastic life. The abbot will then perform the tonsure, cutting a small amount of hair from four spots on the head, forming a cross. He is then given the outer cassock (Greek: ''Rasson'', ''Exorasson'', or ''Mandorrason''; Slavonic: ''Riassa'')—an outer robe with wide sleeves, something like the [[cowl]] used in the West, but without a hood—from which the name of Rassaphore is derived. He is also given a brimless hat with a veil, known as a [[klobuk]], and a leather belt is fastened around his waist. His habit is usually black, signifying that he is now dead to the world, and he receives a new name. Although the Rassaphore does not make formal vows, he is still morally obligated to continue in the monastic estate for the rest of his life. Some will remain Rassaphores permanently without going on to the higher degrees.
'''Stavrophore''', (Slavonic: '''Krestonosets'''), lit. "Cross-bearer"—The next level for Eastern monastics takes place some years after the first tonsure when the abbot feels the monk has reached an appropriate level of discipline, dedication, and humility. This degree is also known as the ''Little Schema'', and is considered to be a "betrothal" to the Great Schema. At this stage, the monk makes formal vows of stability, chastity, obedience and poverty. Then he is tonsured and clothed in the habit, which in addition to that worn by the Rassaphore, includes the ''paramandyas'' (Slavonic: ''paraman''), a piece of square cloth worn on the back, embroidered with the instruments of the [[Passion (Christianity)|Passion]], and connected by ties to a wooden cross worn over the heart. The paramandyas represents the yoke of Christ. Because of this addition he is now called ''Stavrophore'', or ''Cross-bearer''. He is also given a wooden hand cross (or "profession cross"), which he should keep in his [[icon corner]], and a beeswax candle, symbolic of monastic vigilance the sacrificing of himself for God. He will be buried holding the cross, and the candle will be burned at his funeral. In the Slavic practice, the Stavrophore also wears the monastic [[Mantle (vesture)|mantle]]. The rasson (outer robe) worn by the Stavrophore is more ample than that worn by the Rassaphore. The abbot increases the Stavrophore monk’s [[prayer rule]], allows a more strict personal ascetic practice, and gives the monk more responsibility.
'''Great Schema''' (Greek: ''Megaloschemos'', Slavonic: ''Skhimnik'')—Monks whose abbot feels they have reached a high level of spiritual excellence reach the final stage, called the [[Great Schema]]. The tonsure of a Schemamonk follows the same format as the Stavrophore, and he makes the same vows and is tonsured in the same manner. But in addition to all the garments worn by the Stavrophore, he is given the ''Analavos'' (Slavonic: ''Analav'') which is the article of monastic vesture emblematic of the Great Schema. For this reason, the analavos itself is sometimes called the "Great Schema" (see picture above). The analavos comes down in the front and the back, somewhat like the [[scapular]] in Western monasticism, although the two garments are probably not related. It is often intricately embroidered with the instruments of the Passion and the [[Trisagion]] (the angelic hymn). The Greek form does not have a hood, the Slavic form has a hood and lappets on the shoulders, so that the garment forms a large cross covering the monk's shoulders, chest, and back. Another piece added is the ''Polystavrion'' or "Many Crosses", which consists of a cord with a number of small crosses plaited into it. The polystavrion forms a yoke around the monk and serves to hold the analavos in place, and reminds the monastic that he is bound to Christ and that his arms are no longer fit for worldly activities, but that he must labor only for the [[Kingdom of Heaven]]. Among the Greeks, the mantle is added at this stage. The paramandyas of the Megaloschemos is larger than that of the Stavrophore, and if he wears the klobuk, it is of a distinctive thimble shape, called a ''[[cowl|koukoulion]]'', the veil of which is usually embroidered with crosses. In some monastic traditions the Great Schema is only given to monks and nuns on their death bed, while in others they may be elevated after as little as 25 years of service.
Eastern Orthodox monks are addressed as "Father" even if they are not priests; but when conversing among themselves, monks will often address one another as "Brother." Novices are always referred to as "Brother." Among the Greeks, old monks are often called ''Gheronda'', or "Elder", out of respect for their dedication. In the Slavic tradition, the title of Elder (Slavonic: ''[[Starets]]'') is normally reserved for those who are of an advanced spiritual life, and who serve as guides to others.
For the Orthodox, ''Mother'' is the correct term for nuns who have been tonsured Stavrophore or higher. Novices and Rassophores are addressed as "Sister". Nuns live identical ascetic lives to their male counterparts and are therefore also called ''monachai'' (the feminine plural of ''monachos''), and their community is likewise called a monastery.
Many (but not all) Orthodox [[seminary|seminaries]] are attached to monasteries, combining academic preparation for [[ordination]] with participation in the community's life of prayer, and hopefully benefiting from the example and wise counsel of the monks. Bishops are required by the [[canon law|sacred canons]] of the Orthodox Church to be chosen from among the monastic clergy. It should be noted that the requirement is specifically that they be monastics, not simply celibate (see [[clerical celibacy]]). Monks who have been ordained to the priesthood are called [[hieromonk]]s (priest-monks); monks who have been ordained to the [[diaconate]] are called [[hierodeacon]]s (deacon-monks). A Schemamonk who is a priest is called a Hieroschemamonk. Most monks are not ordained; a community will normally only present as many candidates for ordination to the bishop as the liturgical needs of the community require.
=== Monasticism in Western Christianity ===
====Roman Catholic Monks====
[[Image:Kovelklein.JPG|thumb|100px|right|A Roman Catholic monk]]
Within [[Roman Catholicism]], a monk is a member of a [[religious order]] who lives a communal life in a [[monastery]], [[abbey]], or [[priory]] under a monastic rule of life (such as the [[Rule of St. Benedict]]) and under the vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience. [[St. Benedict of Nursia]] is considered to be the founder of western monasticism. He established the first monastic community in the west and authored the [[Rule of St. Benedict]], which is the foundation for the [[Order of St. Benedict]] and all of its reforms such as the [[Cistercians]] and the [[Trappists]].
The religious [[vows]] taken in the West were first developed by [[Benedict of Nursia|St. Benedict]]. These vows were three in number: obedience, conversion of life, and stability. Among later Western [[religious orders]], these developed into the [[solemn vows]] of obedience, poverty, and chastity. Obedience requires that monks are willing obey the Catholic Church, as represented by the superior. Chastity requires that since they were willing to dedicate their lives to God, they sacrificed the love between men and women and would not marry. Poverty requires they renounced any ownership of property or assets, to only those possess items that were allowed to them by their superior (such as a [[religious habit]], [[shoes]], a [[cloak]], etc.), and to live meekly, sharing whatever they might have with the poor.
To become a monk, one first must become a [[postulant]], during which time the man lives at the monastery to evaluate whether he is called to become a monk. As a postulant, the man is not bound by any vows, and is free to leave the [[monastery]] at any time. If the postulant and the community agree that the postulant should become a monk, the man is received as a [[novice]], at which time he is given his [[religious habit]], and begins to participate more fully in the life of the monastery. Following a period as a novice, usually six months to a year, the novice is given the option to take the [[solemn vows]], which can be renewed annually for a period of years. After a few years, the monk can make permanent vows, which are binding for life.
The monastic life generally consists of prayer in the form of the [[Liturgy of the Hours]] (also known as the [[Divine Office]]) and divine reading (''[[lectio divina]]'') and manual labor. Among most [[religious orders]], monks live in simple, austere rooms called cells and come together daily to celebrate the [[Conventual Mass]] and to recite the [[Liturgy of the Hours]]. In most communities, the monks take their meals together in the [[refectory]]. While there is no vow of silence, many communities have a period of silence lasting from evening until the next morning and some others restrict talking to only when it is necessary for the monks to perform their work and during weekly recreation.
[[Image:Germany München Monks.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Munich]]'s city symbol celebrates its founding by [[Benedictine]] monks—and the origin of its name]]
Monks who have been or will be [[Ordination#Eastern.2C_Roman.2C_and_Anglican_Christianity|ordained]] into [[Holy Orders]] as [[Priesthood (Catholic Church)|priests]] or [[deacons]], are referred to as ''choir monks'', as they have the obligation to recite the entire [[Liturgy of the Hours|Divine Office]] daily in [[Choir (architecture)|choir]]. Those monks who are not [[Ordination#Eastern.2C_Roman.2C_and_Anglican_Christianity|ordained]] into [[Holy Orders]] are referred to as [[lay brothers]]. In most monastic communities today, little distinction exists between the lay brothers and the choir monks. However, historically, the roles of the two groups of monks within the monastery differed. The work of the choir monks was considered to be prayer, chanting the seven hours of the [[Liturgy of the Hours|Divine Office]] and celebrating the [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] daily whereas the lay brothers provided for the material needs of the community by growing food, preparing meals, maintaining the monastery and the grounds. This distinction arose historically because generally those monks who could read [[Latin]] typically became choir monks, while those monks who were illiterate or could not read [[Latin]] became [[lay brothers]]. Since the lay brothers could not recite the Divine Office in Latin, they would instead pray easily memorizable prayers such as the [[Our Father]] or the [[Hail Mary]] as many as 150 times per day. Since the [[Second Vatican Council]], the distinction between choir monks and lay brothers have become less important, as the council allowed the [[Divine Office]] to be said in the vernacular language, effectively opening participation to all of the monks.
Within western monasticism, it is important to differentiate between monks and [[friars]]. Monks generally live a contemplative life of prayer confined within a [[cloistered]] monastery while [[friars]] usually engage in an active ministry of service to the outside community. The monastic orders include all [[Benedictines]], the [[Order of Saint Benedict]] and its later reforms including the [[Cistercians]], and the [[Trappists]]. The [[Carthusian]]s are also a monastic order, although they do not follow the [[Rule of St. Benedict]]. Orders of [[friars]] include the [[Franciscan]]s, [[Dominican]]s, [[Carmelite]]s, and [[Augustinian]]s. Although the [[Canons Regular]], such as the [[Norbertines]], live in community, they are neither monks nor friars as they are characterized by their [[cleric|clerical state]] and not by any monastic vows.
====Anglican Monks====
Monastic life in [[England]] came to an abrupt end when [[King Henry VIII]] broke from the [[Roman Catholic Church]] establishing the [[Church of England]]. He initiated the [[Dissolution of the Monasteries]], during which all of the [[monastery|monasteries]] within [[England]] were destroyed. While many monks were executed, many fled to continental [[Europe]]an monasteries where they were able to continue their monastic life.
Shortly after the beginning of the revival of the [[Anglo-Catholicism|Catholic Movement]] in the Church of England, there was felt to be a need for a restoration of the monastic life. In the 1840s, Anglican priest [[John Henry Newman]] established a community of men at [[Littlemore]] near [[Oxford]]. From then on, there have been (re-)established many communities of monks, [[friar]]s and other religious communities for men in the [[Anglican Communion]]. There are Anglican [[Benedictine]]s, [[Franciscan]]s, [[Cistercian]]s, and in the [[Episcopal Church]] in the USA, [[Dominican Order|Dominican]]s), as well as other monastic orders such as the [[Society of Saint John the Evangelist]].
Some Anglican religious communities are contemplative, some active, but a distinguishing feature of the monastic life among Anglicans is that most practice the so-called "mixed life." Anglican monks recite the [[Divine Office]] in choir daily, either the full eight services of the [[Breviary]] or the four offices found in the [[Book of Common Prayer]] and celebrate the [[Eucharist]] daily. Many orders take on external works such as service to the poor, giving religious retreats, or other active ministries within their immediate communities. Like [[Roman Catholic]] monks, Anglican monks also take the monastic vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience.
In the early 20th century when the [[Anglo-Catholicism|Catholic Movement]] was at its height, the [[Anglican Communion]] had hundreds of orders and communities, and thousands of religious followers. However, since the 1960s there has been a sharp falling off in the numbers of religious in many parts of the Anglican Communion. Many, once large and international communities have been reduced to a single convent or monastery comprised of elderly men or women. In the last few decades of the 20th century, novices have for most communities been few and far between. Some orders and communities have already become extinct.
There are however, still several thousand Anglican monks working today in approximately 200 communities around the world. The most surprising growth has been in the [[Melanesian]] countries of the [[Solomon Islands]], [[Vanuatu]] and [[Papua New Guinea]]. The [[Melanesian Brotherhood]], founded at [[Tabalia]], [[Guadalcanal]], in 1925 by [[Ini Kopuria]], is now the largest Anglican Community in the world with over 450 brothers in the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Papua New Guinea, the [[Philippines]] and the [[United Kingdom]].
==Buddhist monks==
:''Main article at [[Bhikkhu]]''
{{peoplepalicanon}}
[[Image:Monk is training.jpg|thumb|left|The abbot of a Buddhist monastery instructing novices, [[Uttaradit]], [[Thailand]].]]
Although the European term "monk" is often applied to [[Buddhism]], the situation of Buddhist asceticism is different.
There is often a trial period prior to ordination, to see if a candidate wishes to become a Buddhist monk. If he does, he remains in the monastery; otherwise, he is free to leave.
In [[Theravada]] Buddhism, ''[[bhikkhu]]'' is the term for monk. Their disciplinary code is called the ''[[patimokkha]]'', which is part of the larger ''[[Vinaya]]''. They live lives of [[mendicancy]], and go on a morning almsround ([[Pali]]: ''pindapata'') every day. The local people give food for the monks to eat, though the monks are not permitted to positively ask for anything. The monks live in monasteries, and have an important function in traditional Asian society. Young boys can be ordained as [[samanera]]s. Both bhikkhus and samaneras eat only in the morning, and are not supposed to lead a luxurious life. Their rules forbid the use of money, although this rule is nowadays not kept by all monks. The monks are part of the ''[[Sangha]]'', the third of the [[Triple Gem]] of [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]], [[Dhamma]], Sangha.
<!--deleted image [[Image:Beijingmonk.jpg|thumb|left|Chinese monk lighting incense in [[Beijing]] temple.]]-->
In [[Mahayana]] Buddhism, the term 'Sangha' is in principle restricted to those who have achieved certain levels of understanding. They are therefore called 'community of the excellent ones' ([[Tibetan language|Tibetan]]: ''mchog kyi tshogs''); however, these in turn need not be monks (i.e., hold such [[religious vows|vows]]).
Several Mahayana orders accept female practitioners as monks, instead of using the normal title of "nun", and they are considered equal to male ascetics in all respects.
The [[Bhikkhus]] are only allowed 4 items: a [[razor]], a [[needle]], an alms bowl and a water strainer.
In [[Vajrayana]] Buddhism, monkhood is part of the system of 'vows of individual liberation'; these vows are taken in order to develop one's own personal ethical discipline. The monks and nuns form the (ordinary) ''sangha''. As for the Vajrayana vows of individual liberation, there are four steps: A lay person may take the 5 vows called 'approaching virtue' (in Tibetan <nowiki>'</nowiki>''genyen''<nowiki>'</nowiki> <''dge snyan''>). The next step is to enter the monastic way of life (Tib. ''rabjung'') which includes wearing monk's or nun's [[robes]]. After that, one can become a 'novice' (Pali ''[[samanera]]'', Tib. ''getshül''); the last and final step is to take all vows of the 'fully ordained monk' (''gelong''). This term 'gelong' (Tib. <''dge long''>, in the female form ''gelongma'') is the translation of Skt. ''bikshu'' (for women ''bikshuni'') which is the equivalent of the Pali term ''[[bhikkhuni]]''; ''[[bhikkhu]]'' is the word used in Theravada Buddhism (Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand).
[[China|Chinese]] Buddhist monks have been traditionally and stereotypically linked with the practice of the [[Chinese martial arts]] or ''Kung fu'', and monks are frequently important characters in [[martial arts film]]s. This association is focused around the [[Shaolin Monastery]]. The Buddhist monk [[Bodhidharma]], traditionally credited as the founder of [[Zen]] Buddhism in China, is also claimed to have introduced Kung fu to the country. This latter claim has however been a source of much controversy (see [[Bodhidharma, the martial arts, and the disputed India connection]]).
In [[Thailand]], it is common for boys to spend some time living as a monk in a monastery. Most stay for only a few years and then leave, but a number continue on in the ascetic life for the rest of their lives.
==Vaishnava monks==
{{main|Hare Krishna}}
Similar in appearance to Buddhist monks, monks from the [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness]] ([[ISKCON]]), or [[Hare Krishna]]s as they are popularly known, are the best known [[Vaishnava]] monks outside India. They are a common sight in many places around the world. Their appearance—simple [[saffron]] ''[[dhoti]]'', shaved head with ''[[sikha]]'', ''[[Tulasi]]'' neckbeads and ''[[tilaka]]'' markings—and social customs (''[[sadhana]]'') date back many thousands of years to the [[Vedic civilization|Vedic]] era with its ''[[varnasrama]]'' society. This social scheme includes both monastic and lay stages meant for various persons in various stages of life as per their characteristics (''[[guna]]'') and work (''[[karma]]'').
ISKCON started as a predominantly monastic group but nowadays the majority of members live as lay persons. Many of them, however, spent some time as monks. New persons joining ISKCON as full-time members (living in its centers) first undergo a three-month ''[[Bhakta]]'' training, which includes learning the basics of ''[[brahmacharya|brahmacari]]'' (monastic) life. After that they can decide if they prefer to continue as monks or as married ''[[Grihastha]]s''.
Brahmacari older than fifty years can become ''[[sannyasi]]''. ''[[Sannyasa]]'', a life of full dedication to spiritual pursuits, is the highest stage of life in the ''varnasrama'' society. It is permanent and one cannot give it up. A Sannyasi is given the title [[Swami]]. Older grihastha with grown-up children are traditionally expected to accept ''[[vanaprastha]]'' (celibate retired) life.
The role of monastic orders in [[India]]n and now also [[Western world|Western]] society has to some extent been adapted over the years in accordance with ever-changing social structures.
Madhvaacharya ([[Madhvacharya]]), the [[Dwaita]] philosopher, established ''[[ashta matha]]'' (Eight Monasteries). He appointed a monk (called ''swamiji'' or ''swamigalu'' in local parlance) for each ''matha'' or monastery who has the right to worship Lord [[Krishna]] by rotation. Each matha's swamiji gets a chance to worship after fourteen years. This ritual is called ''[[Paryaya]]''.
==See also==
*[[Hermit]]
*[[Lay brothers]]
*[[Monasticism]]
*[[Nun]]
*"[[Into Great Silence]]" — The award winning documentary on the [[hermit]] monks of the [[Roman Catholic]] [[Carthusian]] Order.
*[[Religious order]]
*[[Rule of St Benedict]]
*[[Sannyasi]]
*[[Sangha]]
==External links==
*[http://abbayesprovencales.free.fr Monastic life and Monastery of Provence in France]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10487b.htm "Monk"] article in ''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'' (1911)
*[http://www.oca.org/OCchapter.asp?SID=2&ID=59 Monasticism] Synopsis on [[Orthodox Church in America]]'s Website (www.oca.org)
*[http://www.valaam.ru/en/photos/lightval/624 An Orthodox novice] Photo from [[Valaam Monastery]], Russia
*[http://www.valaam.ru/en/photos/lightval/548 A monk praying in his cell] Photo from Valaam Monastery, Russia
*[http://www.valaam.ru/en/photos/lightval/590 Tonsure to Stavrophore] Photo from Valaam Monastery, Russia
*[http://www.valaam.ru/en/photos/lightval/541 Hieroschemamonk] Photo from Valaam Monastery, Russia
*[http://www.valaam.ru/en/photos/lightval/597 A hermit in the wilderness] Photo from Valaam Monastery, Russia
*[http://www.karmel.at/ics/edith/stein_9.html Contemplative spirituality in the tradition of the medieval hermits who settled on Mount Carmel.]
*[http://doc0mr.tripod.com/ Immaculate Heart of Mary's Hermitage] - Website of a Hermit of Saint Bruno
[[Category:Religious occupations]]
[[Category:Asceticism]]
[[Category:Monks| ]]
[[Category:Greek loanwords]]
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