Mosquito 37789 225984648 2008-07-16T09:33:24Z Sean.hoyland 4670924 which flutter 50 times a second while flying...no they don't {{otheruses}} {{Taxobox | name = Mosquito | status = secure<!--, unfortunately [LOL! *Please* don't delete the annotation. --Dysmorodrepanis] --> | image = Mosquito 2007-2.jpg | image_width = 240px | image_caption = A female ''Culiseta longiareolata'' | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Arthropod]]a | subphylum = [[Hexapoda]] | classis = [[Insect]]a | subclassis = [[Pterygota]] | infraclassis = [[Neoptera]] | superordo = [[Endopterygota]]| | ordo = [[Diptera]] | subordo = [[Nematocera]] | infraordo = [[Culicomorpha]] | superfamilia = [[Culicoidea]] | familia = '''Culicidae''' | familia_authority = | diversity_link = Culicidae#Systematics | subdivision_ranks = Subfamilies | subdivision = | [[Anophelinae]]<br/> | [[Culicinae]]<br/> | [[Toxorhynchitinae]]<br/> | diversity = 41 genera | subdivision_ranks = [[Genus|Genera]] | subdivision = See text. }} '''Mosquitoes''' are [[insect]]s which are part of the [[family (biology)|family]] '''Culicidae'''. They have a pair of scaled wings, a pair of [[halteres]], a slender body, and long legs. The females of most mosquito [[species]] suck blood ([[hematophagy]]) from other animals, which has made them the most deadly [[Vector (biology)|disease vectors]] known, killing millions of people over thousands of years and continuing to kill millions per year by the spread of diseases.<ref>{{cite news |first=Afshin |last=Molavi |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Africa's Malaria Death Toll Still "Outrageously High" |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/06/0612_030612_malaria.html |work= |publisher=National Geographic |date=2003-06-12 |accessdate=2007-07-27 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://thegreenguide.com/reports/product.mhtml?id=16 |title=Pest Control—Mosquitoes |accessdate=2007-07-27 |work= }}</ref> Length varies but is rarely greater than 16 mm (0.6 [[inch]])<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ext.vt.edu/departments/entomology/factsheets/mosquito.html |title=Mosquito |accessdate=2007-05-19}}</ref>, and weight up to 2.5 [[milligram|mg]] (0.04 [[Grain (measure)|grain]]). A mosquito can fly for 1 to 4 hours continuously at up to 1–2 km/h<ref>http://www.sove.org/Journal%20PDF/journal%202004%20pdfs/Kaufmann.pdf</ref> travelling up to 10 km in a night. Most species are [[nocturnal]] or [[crepuscular]] ([[dawn]] or [[dusk]]) feeders. During the heat of the day most mosquitoes rest in a cool place and wait for the evenings. They may still bite if disturbed.<ref>[http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~insects/restbox.htm Rest boxes as mosquito surveillance tools<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> __TOC__ ==Feeding habits== Both male and female mosquitoes are [[Nectar source|nectar]] [[Fluid feeder|feeders]], but the female of many species is also capable of [[haematophagy]] (drinking blood). Females do not require blood for survival, but they do need supplemental substances (like protein and iron) to develop eggs. Prior to and during blood feeding, they inject saliva. The ''[[Toxorhynchites]]'' species of mosquito never drink blood.<ref>[http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~insects/sp2.htm The carnivores, Toxorhynchites<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> This [[genus]] includes the largest of the extant mosquitoes, the larvae of which are predatory on the larvae of other mosquitoes. These mosquito eaters have been used in the past as mosquito control agents with varying success.<ref>http://www.pestscience.com/PDF/BNIra56.PDF</ref> Female mosquitoes hunt their blood host by detecting [[carbon dioxide]] (CO<sub>2</sub>) and [[1-octen-3-ol]] from a distance. ===Mosquito Saliva=== In order for a mosquito to obtain a blood meal it must surmount the [[vertebrate]] physiological responses. The mosquito, as with all blood-feeding [[arthropods]], has evolved mechanisms to effectively block the [[hemostasis]] system with their saliva which contains a complex mixture of secreted proteins. Mosquito saliva affects [[vascular constriction]], [[blood clotting]], [[platelet]] aggregation, [[inflammation]], [[immunity]], and [[angiogenesis]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ribeiro JM, Francischetti IM |title=Role of arthropod saliva in blood feeding: sialome and post-sialome perspectives |journal=Annu. Rev. Entomol. |volume=48 |issue= |pages=73–88 |year=2003 |pmid=12194906 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ento.48.060402.102812}}</ref> Universally, hematophagous arthropod saliva contains at least one anticlotting, one anti-platelet, and one vasodilatory substance. Mosquito saliva also contains enzymes that aid in sugar feeding<ref>{{cite journal |author=Grossman GL, James AA |title=The salivary glands of the vector mosquito, Aedes aegypti, express a novel member of the amylase gene family |journal=Insect Mol. Biol. |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=223–32 |year=1993 |pmid=7505701| doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2583.1993.tb00095.x <!--Retrieved from CrossRef by DOI bot-->}}</ref> and [[antimicrobial agents]] to control bacterial growth in the sugar meal.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rossignol PA, Lueders AM |title=Bacteriolytic factor in the salivary glands of Aedes aegypti |journal=Comp. Biochem. Physiol., B |volume=83 |issue=4 |pages=819–22 |year=1986 |pmid=3519067| doi = 10.1016/0305-0491(86)90153-7 <!--Retrieved from CrossRef by DOI bot-->}}</ref> The composition of mosquito saliva is relatively simple as it usually contains fewer than 20 dominant [[proteins]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Valenzuela JG, Pham VM, Garfield MK, Francischetti IM, Ribeiro JM |title=Toward a description of the sialome of the adult female mosquito Aedes aegypti |journal=Insect Biochem. Mol. Biol. |volume=32 |issue=9 |pages=1101–22 |year=2002 |pmid=12213246 | doi = 10.1016/S0965-1748(02)00047-4 <!--Retrieved from CrossRef by DOI bot-->}}</ref> Despite the great strides in knowledge of these molecules and their role in bloodfeeding achieved recently, scientists still cannot ascribe functions to more than half of the molecules found in [[arthropod]] saliva.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Valenzuela JG, Pham VM, Garfield MK, Francischetti IM, Ribeiro JM |title=Toward a description of the sialome of the adult female mosquito Aedes aegypti |journal=Insect Biochem. Mol. Biol. |volume=32 |issue=9 |pages=1101–22 |year=2002 |pmid=12213246 | doi = 10.1016/S0965-1748(02)00047-4 <!--Retrieved from CrossRef by DOI bot-->}}</ref> It is now well recognized that the feeding ticks, sandflies, and, more recently, mosquitoes have an ability to modulate the [[immune response]] of the animals (hosts) they feed on.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ribeiro JM, Francischetti IM |title=Role of arthropod saliva in blood feeding: sialome and post-sialome perspectives |journal=Annu. Rev. Entomol. |volume=48 |issue= |pages=73–88 |year=2003 |pmid=12194906 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ento.48.060402.102812}}</ref> The presence of this activity in vector saliva is a reflection of the inherent overlapping and interconnected nature of the host [[hemostatic]] and [[inflammatory]]/[[immunological]] responses and the intrinsic need to prevent these host defenses from disrupting successful feeding. The mechanism for mosquito saliva-induced alteration of the host immune response is unclear, but the data has become increasingly convincing that such an effect occurs. Early work described a factor in saliva that directly suppresses [[TNF-α]] release, but not antigen-induced [[histamine]] secretion, from activated [[mast cells]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bissonnette EY, Rossignol PA, Befus AD |title=Extracts of mosquito salivary gland inhibit tumour necrosis factor alpha release from mast cells |journal=Parasite Immunol. |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=27–33 |year=1993 |pmid=7679483| doi = 10.1111/j.1365-3024.1993.tb00569.x <!--Retrieved from CrossRef by DOI bot-->}}</ref> Experiments by Cross et al. (1994) demonstrated that the inclusion of ''Ae. aegypti'' mosquito saliva into naïve cultures led to a suppression of [[interleukin]] (IL)-2 and [[IFN-γ]] production, while the cytokines [[IL-4]] and [[IL-5]] are unaffected by mosquito saliva.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Cross ML, Cupp EW, Enriquez FJ |title=Differential modulation of murine cellular immune responses by salivary gland extract of Aedes aegypti |journal=Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. |volume=51 |issue=5 |pages=690–6 |year=1994 |pmid=7985763 |doi=}}</ref> Cellular proliferation in response to IL-2 is clearly reduced by prior treatment of cells with SGE.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Cross ML, Cupp EW, Enriquez FJ |title=Differential modulation of murine cellular immune responses by salivary gland extract of Aedes aegypti |journal=Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. |volume=51 |issue=5 |pages=690–6 |year=1994 |pmid=7985763 |doi=}}</ref> Correspondingly, activated splenocytes isolated from mice fed upon by either'' Ae. aegypti'' or ''Cx. pipiens'' mosquitoes produce markedly higher levels of IL-4 and [[IL-10]] concurrent with suppressed IFN-γ production.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Zeidner NS, Higgs S, Happ CM, Beaty BJ, Miller BR |title=Mosquito feeding modulates Th1 and Th2 cytokines in flavivirus susceptible mice: an effect mimicked by injection of sialokinins, but not demonstrated in flavivirus resistant mice |journal=Parasite Immunol. |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=35–44 |year=1999 |pmid=10081770 | doi = 10.1046/j.1365-3024.1999.00199.x <!--Retrieved from CrossRef by DOI bot-->}}</ref> Unexpectedly, this shift in cytokine expression is observed in [[splenocytes]] up to 10 days after mosquito exposure, suggesting that natural feeding of mosquitoes can have a profound, enduring, and systemic effect on the immune response.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Zeidner NS, Higgs S, Happ CM, Beaty BJ, Miller BR |title=Mosquito feeding modulates Th1 and Th2 cytokines in flavivirus susceptible mice: an effect mimicked by injection of sialokinins, but not demonstrated in flavivirus resistant mice |journal=Parasite Immunol. |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=35–44 |year=1999 |pmid=10081770 | doi = 10.1046/j.1365-3024.1999.00199.x <!--Retrieved from CrossRef by DOI bot-->}}</ref> [[T cell]] populations are decidedly susceptible to the suppressive effect of mosquito saliva, showing enhanced mortality and decreased division rates.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Wanasen N, Nussenzveig RH, Champagne DE, Soong L, Higgs S |title=Differential modulation of murine host immune response by salivary gland extracts from the mosquitoes Aedes aegypti and Culex quinquefasciatus |journal=Med. Vet. Entomol. |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=191–9 |year=2004 |pmid=15189245 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2915.2004.00498.x}}</ref> Parallel work by Wasserman et al. (2004) demonstrated that T- and [[B-cell]] proliferation was inhibited in a dose dependent manner with concentrations as low as 1/7th of the saliva in a single mosquito.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Wasserman HA, Singh S, Champagne DE |title=Saliva of the Yellow Fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti, modulates murine lymphocyte function |journal=Parasite Immunol. |volume=26 |issue=6-7 |pages=295–306 |year=2004 |pmid=15541033 |doi=10.1111/j.0141-9838.2004.00712.x}}</ref> Depinay et al. (2005) observed a suppression of antibody-specific T cell responses mediated by mosquito saliva and dependent on mast cells and IL-10 expression.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Depinay N, Hacini F, Beghdadi W, Peronet R, Mécheri S |title=Mast cell-dependent down-regulation of antigen-specific immune responses by mosquito bites |journal=J. Immunol. |volume=176 |issue=7 |pages=4141–6 |year=2006 |pmid=16547250 |doi=}}</ref> A recent study suggests that mosquito saliva can also decrease expression of [[interferon]]−α/β during early mosquito-borne virus infection.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Schneider BS, Soong L, Zeidner NS, Higgs S |title=Aedes aegypti salivary gland extracts modulate anti-viral and TH1/TH2 cytokine responses to sindbis virus infection |journal=Viral Immunol. |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=565–73 |year=2004 |pmid=15671753 |doi=10.1089/vim.2004.17.565}}</ref> The contribution of type I interferons (IFN) in recovery from infection with viruses has been demonstrated ''in vivo'' by the therapeutic and prophylactic effects of administration of IFN-inducers or IFN,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Taylor JL, Schoenherr C, Grossberg SE |title=Protection against Japanese encephalitis virus in mice and hamsters by treatment with carboxymethylacridanone, a potent interferon inducer |journal=J. Infect. Dis. |volume=142 |issue=3 |pages=394–9 |year=1980 |pmid=6255036 |doi=}}</ref> and recent research suggests that mosquito saliva exacerbates [[West Nile virus]] infection,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Schneider BS, Soong L, Girard YA, Campbell G, Mason P, Higgs S |title=Potentiation of West Nile encephalitis by mosquito feeding |journal=Viral Immunol. |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=74–82 |year=2006 |pmid=16553552 |doi=10.1089/vim.2006.19.74}}</ref> as well as other mosquito-transmitted viruses.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Schneider BS, Higgs S |title=The enhancement of arbovirus transmission and disease by mosquito saliva is associated with modulation of the host immune response |journal=Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. |volume= 102|issue= | pages = 400|year=2008 |pmid=18342898 |doi=10.1016/j.trstmh.2008.01.024}}</ref> ''' ==Mosquitoes and humans== ===Mosquitoes and health=== [[Image:Yellow fever Africa 2005.png|right|thumb|Endemic range of [[yellow fever]] in Africa (2005)]][[Image:Yellow fever South America 2005.png|right|thumb|Endemic range of [[yellow fever]] in South America (2005)]] Mosquitoes are a [[vector (biology)|vector]] agent that carries disease-causing [[virus]]es and [[parasite]]s from person to person without catching the disease themselves. Female mosquitoes suck blood from people and other animals as part of their eating and breeding habits. When a mosquito bites, she also injects saliva and anti-coagulants into the blood which may also contain disease-causing viruses or other parasites. This cycle can be interrupted by killing the mosquitoes, isolating infected people from all mosquitoes while they are infectious or vaccinating the exposed population. All three techniques have been used, often in combination, to control mosquito transmitted diseases. [[Window screen]]s, introduced in the 1880s, were called "the most humane contribution the 19th century made to the preservation of sanity and good temper."<ref>[http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~insects/hisreas.htm History/reason of mosquito control in nj<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Mosquitoes are estimated to transmit disease to more than 700 million people annually in [[Africa]], [[South America]], [[Central America]], [[Mexico]] and much of [[Asia]] with millions of resulting deaths. In [[Europe]], [[Russia]], [[Greenland]], [[Canada]], the [[United States]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[Japan]] and other temperate and developed countries, mosquito bites are now mostly an irritating nuisance; but still cause some deaths each year.<ref>[http://www.slu.edu/colleges/sph/csbei/emerginginfections/wnv/key_ref/acp_asim_1.pdf Mosquitoes and Mosquito Repellents: A Clinician's Guide] by Mark S. Fradin: '''Annals of Internal Medicine''', 1 June 1998. 128:931-940. Retrieved 10 July 2006.</ref> Historically, before mosquito transmitted diseases were brought under control, they caused tens of thousands of deaths in these countries and hundreds of thousands of infections.<ref> ''The American Plague'', by Molly Caldwell Crosby, pg 12, Berkley Books, New York, 2005, ISBN 0-425-21202-5</ref> Mosquitoes were shown to be the method by which yellow fever and malaria were transmitted from person to person by [[Walter Reed]], [[William C. Gorgas]] and associates in the U.S. Army Medical Corps first in [[Cuba]] and then around the [[Panama Canal]] in the early 1900s.<ref> '''The Path Between the Seas: the Creation of the Panama Canal 1870-1914''', by David McCullough,1977, Simon and Shuster, ISBN 0-971-22563-4 </REF><ref> ''The American Plague'', by Molly Caldwell Crosby, pg 100-202, Berkley Books, New York, 2005, ISBN 0-425-21202-5</ref> Since then other diseases have been shown to be transmitted the same way. The mosquito genus ''[[Anopheles]]'' carries the [[malaria]] [[parasite]] (see ''[[Plasmodium]]''). Worldwide, [[malaria]] is a leading cause of premature mortality, particularly in children under the age of five, with around 5.3 million deaths annually, according to the Centers for Disease Control. Some species of mosquito can carry the [[filariasis]] worm, a parasite that causes a disfiguring condition (often referred to as [[elephantiasis]]) characterized by a great swelling of several parts of the body; worldwide, around 40 million people are living with a filariasis disability. The viral diseases [[yellow fever]] and [[dengue fever]] are transmitted mostly by ''[[Aedes aegypti]]'' mosquitoes. Other viral diseases like [[polyarthritis|epidemic polyarthritis]], [[Rift Valley fever]], [[Ross River Fever]], [[St. Louis encephalitis]], [[West Nile virus]] (WNV), [[Japanese encephalitis]], [[La Crosse encephalitis]] and several other [[encephalitis]] type diseases are carried by several different mosquitoes. [[Eastern equine encephalitis]] (EEE) and [[Western equine encephalitis]] (WEE) occurs in the United States where it causes disease in humans, horses, and some bird species. Because of the high mortality rate, EEE and WEE are regarded as two of the most serious mosquito-borne diseases in the United States. Symptoms range from mild flu-like illness to encephalitis, coma and death.<ref>[http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/diseases/list_mosquitoborne.htm Mosquito-borne diseases, infectious disease information, NCID, CDC<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Viruses carried by [[arthropod]]s such as mosquitoes or ticks are known collectively as [[arbovirus]]es. [[West Nile virus]] was accidentally introduced into the United States in 1999 and by 2003 had spread to almost every state with over 3,000 cases in 2006. A mosquito's period of feeding is often undetected; the bite only becomes apparent because of the immune reaction it provokes. When a mosquito bites a human, she injects saliva and [[anti-coagulant]]s. For any given individual, with the initial bite there is no reaction but with subsequent bites the body's [[immune system]] develops [[antibodies]] and a bite becomes inflamed and itchy within 24 hours. This is the usual reaction in young children. With more bites, the sensitivity of the human immune system increases, and an itchy red [[Urticaria|hive]] appears in minutes where the immune response has broken capillary blood vessels and fluid has collected under the skin. This type of reaction is common in older children and adults. Some adults can become desensitized to mosquitoes and have little or no reaction to their bites, while others can become hyper-sensitive with bites causing blistering, bruising, and large inflammatory reactions, a response known as [[Skeeter Syndrome]]. ===Mosquito control and integrated mosquito management=== {{main|Mosquito control}} There are two kinds of mosquito control: large, organized programs to reduce mosquito populations over a wide area, and actions individuals can take to control or exclude mosquitoes with respect to themselves and their own property. Organized mosquito control programs today draw on the principles of [[integrated pest management]]. An integrated mosquito control program typically includes the following measures, all guided by surveillance of mosquito populations and knowledge of the mosquito life cycle:<ref>[http://vector.ifas.ufl.edu/chap03.pdf C:\MyFiles\Dame\Chap-3\Chap03-pdf.wpd<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> * source reduction - the removal of mosquito breeding habitats * [[Habitat (ecology)|habitat]] modification - manipulating habitats to reduce breeding or access * [[biocontrol]] - introducing natural predators of mosquitoes * [[larvicide]] - using pesticides to reduce larval populations * adulticide - using pesticides to reduce adult populations Some solutions for malaria control efforts in the [[third world]] are: [[mosquito net]]s ([[Wiktionary:Transwiki:Klamboe|klamboe]]), mosquito nets treated with insecticide (often [[permethrin]]), and [[DDT]].<ref>[http://www.cdc.gov/malaria/control_prevention/vector_control.htm Vector Control | CDC Malaria<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Nets are treated with insecticide because mosquitoes can sometimes get past an imperfect net. Insecticide-treated nets (ITN) are estimated to be twice as effective as untreated nets in preventing mosquito bites.<ref>[http://www.wgbh.org:81/cgi-bin/nph-algs.cgi/000000A/http/www.wgbh.org/schedules/program-info?program_id=2682027&episode_id=2682029 Hull, Kevin. (2006) "Malaria: Fever Wars". PBS Documentary]</ref> Untreated mosquito nets are less expensive, and they are effective in protecting humans when the nets do not have any holes and are tightly sealed around the edges. Insecticide free nets do not adversely affect the health of natural predators such as [[dragonfly|dragonflies]]. The role of DDT in combating mosquitoes has been the subject of considerable controversy. While some argue that DDT deeply damages biodiversity, others argue that DDT is the most effective weapon in combating mosquitoes and hence malaria. While some of this disagreement is based on differences in the extent to which disease control is valued as opposed to the value of biodiversity, there is also genuine disagreement amongst experts about the costs and benefits of using DDT. Moreover, DDT-resistant mosquitoes have started to increase in numbers, especially in tropics due to mutations, reducing the effectiveness of this chemical. ===Mosquito repellents and personal mosquito control=== [[Image:Mosquito Netting.jpg|right|thumb|A mosquito net]] {{main|Insect repellent}} One of the main, non-chemical ways to prevent mosquito bites is the mosquito net. Mosquito netting if properly used and maintained (no holes), provides the maximum possible personal protection against biting insects. In many areas of the world, mosquitoes are not only a nuisance, but also pose a serious health threat. Sleeping under a bednet is highly recommended by the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO)<ref>http://www.who.int/malaria/docs/healthworkers/healthworkers.pdf |pg. 19 </ref> and the U.S. Center for Disease Control (CDC)<ref>[http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dpd/parasites/trypanosomiasis/factsht_wa_trypanosomiasis.htm Division of Parasitic Diseases - West African trypanosomiasis Fact Sheet<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> if staying in these areas. One of the most popular chemical skin treatments is ''N'',''N''-diethyl-''meta''-toluamide, commonly known as [[DEET]]. It has been used widely since its invention by the U.S. Department of Agriculture in 1945. DEET products have been widely used for many years but these products have occasionally been associated with some minor to moderate adverse reactions. DEET concentrations in repellents range from 5% up to 100%. Other less commonly used mosquito repellents include: [[catnip]] oil extract, [[nepetalactone]] (no known credible tests), [[citronella]] 10% solution (84% effective for about 1 hour), or [[eucalyptus]] oil extract.<ref>Fradin M S, Day J F. "Comparative efficacy of insect repellents against mosquito bites." ''New England Journal of Medicine'' 2002; 347: 13-18.</ref> A [[soybean oil]]-based product worked for about 1.5 hours{{Fact|date=May 2008}} and a [[lemon eucalyptus]]-based solution worked for about 3 hours{{Fact|date=May 2008}}. [[Picaridin]], first used in Europe in 2001, has been reported to be effective by Consumer Reports (7% solution)<ref>[http://www.consumerreports.org/cro/cu-press-room/pressroom/archive/2005/07/eng0507det.htm?resultPageIndex=2&resultIndex=15&searchTerm=mosquito Consumerreports.Org - Consumer Reports Confirms Effectiveness Of New Alternative To Deet<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> and the Australian Army (20% solution).<ref>http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&issn=0022-2585&volume=041&issue=03&page=0414</ref> Consumer Report retests in 2006 show that a 7% solution of picaridin now has a protection time of about 0 minutes{{Fact|date=March 2008}} and a 15% solution was only good for about one hour.<ref> Consumer Report magazine, June 2006|Bug Repellents </ref> So far [[DEET]] is the champion effective repellent against mosquitoes, especially when worn in conjunction with light coloured clothing, long sleeved pants and shirts and a hat. Mosquitoes use [[carbon dioxide]] (CO<sub>2</sub>) and [[1-octen-3-ol]] from human and animal breath and sweat as [[odor]] cues and DEET inhibits the detection of the latter in insects.<ref> {{cite journal | author = Mathias Ditzen, Maurizio Pellegrino, Leslie B. Vosshall | year = 2008 | title = Insect Odorant Receptors Are Molecular Targets of the Insect Repellent DEET | journal = Sciencexpress | volume =319 | issue = | pages = 1838 | pmid =18339904 | doi = 10.1126/science.1153121 | url = }}</ref> Other potent body and breath odor cues include [[lactic acid]], [[dimethyldisulfide]],and [[acetone]]<ref>PMID 17939508</ref>. Other commercial products offered for household mosquito "control" include small electrical mats, mosquito repellent vapor, DEET-impregnated wrist bands, and mosquito coils containing a form of the chemical [[allethrin]]. Mosquito-repellent candles containing citronella oil are sold widely in the U.S. All of these have been used with mixed reports of success and failure. Some claim that plants like [[wormwood]] or sagewort, [[lemon balm]], [[lemon grass]], [[thyme|lemon thyme]] and the [[Pelargonium|mosquito plant (Pelargonium)]] will act against mosquitoes. However, scientists have determined that these plants are “effective” for a limited time only when the leaves are crushed and applied directly to the skin.<ref>[http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/438257_2 Page Error<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> There are several, widespread, unproven theories about mosquito control such as the assertion that [[Vitamin B]], in particular B1 [[Thiamine]], [[garlic]], [[ultrasonic]] devices, [[incense]], can be used to repel or control mosquitoes.<ref>[http://dermnetnz.org/arthropods/bites.html Insect bites and stings. DermNet NZ<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> <ref>http://www.vnh.org/NHB/HW9421Mosquito2.html {{Dead link|date=May 2008}}</ref> Moreover, some manufacturers of "mosquito repelling" ultrasonic devices have been found to be fraudulent,<ref>[http://www.ftc.gov/opa/2002/08/lentek.htm Lentek International-08/28/02<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> and their devices were deemed "useless" in tests by the UK Consumer magazine ''[[Which?]]''<ref name="Which">{{cite web|url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/health/healthmain.html?in_article_id=361429&in_page_id=1774|title=The great mosquito sting|year=6 Sept 2005|accessdate=2007-08-09}}</ref> [[Bug zapper]]s kill a wide range of flying insects including many beneficial insects that eat mosquitoes as well as some mosquitoes. Bug zappers have not been proven effective at controlling overall mosquito population. Some newer mosquito traps or known mosquito attractants emit a plume of [[carbon dioxide]] together with other mosquito attractants such as sugary scents, [[lactic acid]], [[octenol]], warmth, water vapor and sounds. By mimicking a mammal’s scent and outputs, female mosquitoes are drawn toward the trap, where they are typically sucked into a net or holder by an electric fan where they are collected. According to the American Mosquito Control Association,<ref>[http://www.mosquito.org/mosquito-information/traps.aspx Traps - AMCA<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> "these devices will, indeed, trap and kill measurable numbers of mosquitoes," but their effectiveness in any particular case will depend on a number of factors such as the size and species of the mosquito population and the type and location of the breeding habitat. They are useful in specimen collection studies to determine the types of mosquitoes prevalent in an area but are typically far too inefficient to be useful in reducing mosquito populations. == Natural Predators == [[Image:Aeshnid-ovipositing-800x600.jpg|right|thumb|[[Dragonfly|Dragonflies]] are natural predators of mosquitoes.]] The [[dragonfly]] eats mosquitoes at all stages of development and is quite effective in controlling populations<ref>{{cite journal | last = Singh SP | first = Singh RK | title = Laboratory studies on the predatory potential of dragon-fly nymphs on mosquito larvae | journal = J Commun Dis | volume = 35 | pages = 96–101}}</ref>. Although [[bat]]s and [[Purple Martin]]s can be prodigious consumers of insects, many of which are pests, less than 1% of their diet typically consists of mosquitoes. Neither bats nor Purple Martins are known to control or even significantly reduce mosquito populations<ref>{{cite journal | last = Fradin MS | title = Mosquitoes and mosquito repellents: a clinician's guide | journal = Ann Intern Med | volume = 128 | pages = 931–40}}</ref>. === Treatment of mosquito bites === Visible, irritating bites are due to an [[immune system|immune response]] from the binding of [[IgG]] and [[IgE]] [[antibodies]] to [[antigens]] in the mosquito's [[saliva]]. Some of the sensitizing antigens are common to all mosquito species, whereas others are specific to certain species. There are both immediate hypersensitivity reactions ([[Hypersensitivity#Type 1 - immediate (or atopic, or anaphylactic)|Types I]] & [[Hypersensitivity#Type 3 - immune complex|III]]) and delayed hypersensitivity reactions ([[Hypersensitit.vity#Type 4 - cell-mediated (or delayed)|Type IV]]) to mosquito bites (see Clements, 2000). There are several commercially available [[antipruritic|anti-itch]] medications. These are usually orally or topically applied [[antihistamine]]s and, for more severe cases, [[corticosteroids]] such as [[hydrocortisone]] and [[triamcinolone]]. Many [[home remedy]] and recipes exist, most of which are effective against itching, including [[calamine lotion]], [[baking soda]], [[rubbing alcohol]], [[vinegar]]. Ammonia has been clinically demonstrated to be an effective treatment<ref>{{cite journal | last = Maibach | first = Howard I | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Mosquito Bite Therapy: Evidenced-Based | journal = Exogenous Dermatology | volume = 3 | issue = 6 | pages = 332–338 | publisher = | date = | url = http://karger.yakeworld.ddns.info/ProdukteDB/produkte.asp?Aktion=ShowPDF&ProduktNr=227090&Ausgabe=231745&ArtikelNr=93650&filename=93650.pdf | format = | accessdate = 2007-10-08 | doi = 10.1159/000093650 | unused_data = |location }}</ref>. Scratching, cooling, and heat are effective but bring relief only during the application, although scratching a mosquito bite usually serves to irritate and inflame the area further and increase the risk of infection and scarring. Applying streaming hot water to bitten areas can immediately eliminate itching if carried out for several minutes. However, this method is only a home remedy and not proven to work on every bite. ===Cultural views=== According to the “Mosquitoes” chapter in ''[[Kwaidan: Stories and Studies of Strange Things]]'', by [[Lafcadio Hearn]] (1850–1904), mosquitoes are seen as reincarnations of the dead, condemned by the errors of their former lives to the condition of ''Jiki-ketsu-gaki'', or "blood-drinking [[Hungry ghost#In Japan|pretas]]".<ref>[[Lafcadio Hearn|Hearn, Lafcadio]]. ''Kwaidan: Stories and Studies of Strange Things''. Dover Publications, Inc., 1968 (ISBN 0-486-21901-1)</ref> The [[Babylonian Talmud]] ([[Gittin]] 56b) asserts that the Roman Emperor [[Titus]] was punished by God for having destroyed the Temple in [[Jerusalem]] by having a mosquito fly into Titus' nose, picking at his brain, ceaselessly buzzing, driving him crazy and eventually causing his death. No such account appears in any Roman source. Titus died prematurely from unclear causes after only two years in power. ==Systematics== * Subfamily [[Anophelinae]] :* ''[[Anopheles]]'' :* ''[[Cellia]]'' :* ''[[Bironella]]'' :* ''[[Chagasia]]'' * Subfamily [[Culicinae]] <div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;"> :* ''[[Aedeomyia]]'' :* ''[[Aedes]]'' (sometimes divided with ''[[Ochlerotatus]]''). :* ''[[Armigeres]]'' :* ''[[Ayurakitia]]'' :* ''[[Coquillettidia]]'' :* ''[[Culex]]'' :* ''[[Culiseta]]'' :* ''[[Deinocerites]]'' :* ''[[Eretmapodites]]'' :* ''[[Ficalbia]]'' :* ''[[Galindomyia]]'' :* ''[[Haemagogus]]'' :* ''[[Heizmannia]]'' :* ''[[Hodgesia]]'' :* ''[[Isostomyia]]'' :* ''[[Johnbelkinia]]'' :* ''[[Limatus]]'' :* ''[[Lutzia]]'' :* ''[[Malaya (insect)|Malaya]]'' :* ''[[Mansonia]]'' :* ''[[Maorigoeldia]]'' :* ''[[Mimomyia]]'' :* ''[[Onirion]]'' :* ''[[Opifex (insect)|Opifex]]'' :* ''[[Orthopodomyia]]'' :* ''[[Psorophora]]'' :* ''[[Runchomyia]]'' :* ''[[Sabethes]]'' :* ''[[Shannoniana]]'' :* ''[[Topomyia]]'' :* ''[[Trichoprosopon]]'' :* ''[[Tripteroides]]'' :* ''[[Udaya (insect)|Udaya]]'' :* ''[[Uranotaenia]]'' :* ''[[Verrallina]]'' :* ''[[Wyeomyia]]'' :* ''[[Zeugnomyia]]'' </div> * Subfamily [[Toxorhynchitinae]] :* ''[[Toxorhynchites]]'' ==Identification== *Brunhes, J.; Rhaim, A.; Geoffroy, B. Angel G. Hervy P. ''Les Moustiques de l'Afrique mediterranéenne'' French/English. Interactive identification guide to mosquitoes of North Africa, with database of information on morphology, ecology, epidemiology, and control. Mac/PC Numerous illustrations. IRD/IPT [12640] 2000 CD-ROM. ISBN 2-7099-1446-8 Mosquito species can also be identified through their DNA, however this is relatively expensive so it is not commonly performed. See the [[Use of DNA in forensic entomology]]. ==See also== * [[Insect repellent]] * [[Cymbopogon]] * [[Anti-itch drug]] ==References== {{reflist|2}} <div class="references-small"> *Clements, A.N. 2000. ''The Biology of Mosquitoes. Volume 1: Development, Nutrition and Reproduction.'' CABI Publishing, Oxon. ISBN 0-85199-374-5 *Davidson, E. (ed.) 1981. Pathogenesis of Invertebrate Micorobial Diseases. Allanheld, Osmun & Co. Publishers, Inc., Totowa, New Jersey, USA. 562 pages. *Jahn, G. C., Hall, D.W., and Zam, S. G. 1986. A comparison of the life cycles of two ''Amblyospora'' (Microspora: Amblyosporidae) in the mosquitoes ''Culex salinarius'' and ''Culex tarsalis'' Coquillett. J. Florida Anti-Mosquito Assoc. 57, 24–27. *Kale, H.W., II. 1968. The relationship of purple martins to mosquito control. The Auk 85: 654-661. </div> ==External links== {{external links}} {{commonscat|Culicidae}} *{{dmoz|Science/Biology/Flora_and_Fauna/Animalia/Arthropoda/Insecta/Diptera/Mosquitoes/}} *[http://npic.orst.edu/pest2.htm#mosquitoes Mosquito Pest Control Information - National Pesticide Information Center] *[http://npic.orst.edu/wnv/ West Nile Virus Resource Guide - National Pesticide Information Center] *[http://insects.entomology.wisc.edu/Diptera/Culicidae/index.html Mosquitoes of Wisconsin ] *[http://www.anobase.org Biological Database for Anopheline Mosquitoes] *[http://www.vectorbase.org Database for Disease Vectors] *[http://www.cirrusimage.com/flies_Aedes_vexans_mosquito.htm Inland Floodwater mosquito ''Aedes vexans'' diagnostic photographs and taxonomy] *{{PDF|[http://www.slu.edu/colleges/sph/csbei/emerginginfections/wnv/key_ref/acp_asim_1.pdf Mosquitoes and mosquito repellents: a clinician’s guide]|151&nbsp;[[Kibibyte|KiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 154651 bytes -->}} *[http://vector.ifas.ufl.edu/chapter_03.htm University of Florida Public Health Pesticide Applicator Training Manual - Chapter on Mosquitoes] *[http://www2.hawaii.edu/~sakae/canmosquitoesflyhigh.htm Vertical Flight Capabilities of Mosquitoes] *[http://klab.agsci.colostate.edu/ Mosquito Genomics WWW Server] *[http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/artsep03/drmosq.html Mosquitoes - Micscape September 2003] *{{PDF|[http://www.cieh-npap.org.uk/documents/Human_biting_mosquito_species_of_the_British_Isles.pdf Mosquito Species of the British Isles]|31.9&nbsp;[[Kibibyte|KiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 32683 bytes -->}} *[http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/ CDC Division of Vector-Borne Infectious Diseases] - Information on West Nile virus as well as other mosquito- and tick- bourne diseases. *[http://fmel.ifas.ufl.edu/ Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory] - A mosquito identification key, along with other helpful information. *[http://www.health.nsw.gov.au/areas/arbovirus/mosquit/photos/mosquitophotos.htm Mosquito photographs from NSW (New South Wales, Australia) Arbovirus Surveillance] *[http://www.wrbu.org/ Walter Reed Biosystematics Unit.] - Links to the online mosquito catalog, keys for mosquito identification, images and information on medically important species and much more. *[http://pestalert.ifas.ufl.edu/arbovirus/arbovirus.htm#repell Repellents, Traps, Virus Information, Maps, etc] Florida and National information [[Category:Parasitology]] [[Category:Culicidae| ]] [[Category:Pest insects]] [[ar:بعوضة]] [[gn:Ñati'ũ]] [[ay:Ch'uspi]] [[zh-min-nan:Báng]] [[ca:Mosquit]] [[cs:Komár]] [[da:Stikmyg]] [[pdc:Moschgieder]] [[de:Stechmücken]] [[et:Pistesääsklased]] [[el:Κουνούπι]] [[es:Culicidae]] [[eo:Moskito]] [[fa:پشه]] [[fr:Culicidae]] [[hak:Mûn-é]] [[ko:모기]] [[hr:Komarci]] [[io:Moskito]] [[id:Nyamuk]] [[it:Culicidae]] [[he:יתושיים]] [[jv:Lemud]] [[ka:კოღოები]] [[ht:Marengwen]] [[la:Culicidae]] [[lt:Tikrieji uodai]] [[ml:കൊതുക്‌]] [[ms:Nyamuk]] [[cdo:Hŭng-muòng]] [[nah:Mōyōtl]] [[nl:Steekmuggen]] [[ja:カ]] [[no:Stikkemygg]] [[oc:Moissal]] [[pl:Komarowate]] [[pt:Mosquito]] [[ro:Ţânţar]] [[qu:Qhiti]] [[ru:Комар]] [[simple:Mosquito]] [[sl:Komarji]] [[sr:Комарац]] [[su:Reungit]] [[fi:Hyttyset]] [[ta:கொசு]] [[th:ยุง]] [[vi:Muỗi]] [[tr:Sivrisinek]] [[uk:Комарі]] [[zh-yue:蚊]] [[zh:蚊]]