Mount Tambora 152994 225173436 2008-07-12T07:53:30Z Jonathan Cardy 4071608 disambig Buffalo {{Infobox Mountain | Name = Mount Tambora | Photo = Sumbawa Topography.png | Caption = Sumbawa topography where Tambora's caldera is visible at the northern peninsula. | Elevation = {{convert|2850|m|ft|0}}<ref name="gvp">{{cite web|title=Tambora|url= http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0604-04=|work=Global Volcanism Program|publisher= [[Smithsonian Institution]]|accessdate=2006-10-07|}}</ref> | Location = [[Lesser Sunda Islands]], [[Indonesia]] | Prominence = | Coordinates = {{coord|8|15|S|118|0|E|type:mountain|display=inline,title}} | Topographic map = | Type = [[Stratovolcano]] | Age = | Last eruption = 1967<ref name="gvp"/> | First ascent = | Easiest route = }} '''Mount Tambora''' (or '''Tomboro''') is an active [[stratovolcano]], also known as a [[composite volcano]], on [[Sumbawa]] island, [[Indonesia]]. Sumbawa is flanked both to the north and south by [[oceanic crust]], and Tambora was formed by the active [[subduction zone]]s beneath it. This raised Mount Tambora as high as 4,300&nbsp;m (14,000&nbsp;ft),<ref name="Stothers1984">{{cite journal|last=Stothers|first=Richard B.| journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|title=The Great Tambora Eruption in 1815 and Its Aftermath| volume =224|issue=4654|date=1984|pages=1191–1198|doi= 10.1126/science.224.4654.1191|pmid=17819476}}</ref> making it one of the tallest peaks in the Indonesian archipelago, and drained off a large [[magma chamber]] inside the mountain. It took centuries to refill the magma chamber, its volcanic activity reaching its peak in April 1815.<ref name= "Degens1989">{{cite journal|last=Degens|first=E.T.|coauthors=Buch, B|title=Sedimentological events in Saleh Bay, off Mount Tambora|journal=Netherlands Journal of Sea Research|volume=24|issue=4|doi= 10.1016/0077-7579(89)90117-8|pages=399&ndash;404|date =1989}}</ref> Tambora erupted in [[1815]] with a rating of seven on the [[Volcanic Explosivity Index]], making it the largest eruption since the [[Lake Taupo]] eruption in [[181|AD&nbsp;181]].<ref name="Oppenheimer2003">{{cite journal|last=Oppenheimer|first=Clive|title=Climatic, environmental and human consequences of the largest known historic eruption: Tambora volcano (Indonesia) 1815|journal=Progress in Physical Geography|volume=27|issue=2|date=2003|pages=230–259|doi=10.1191/0309133303pp379ra}}</ref> The explosion was heard on [[Sumatra]] island (more than 2,000&nbsp;km or 1,200&nbsp;mi away). Heavy [[volcanic ash]] falls were observed as far away as [[Borneo]], [[Sulawesi]], [[Java]] and [[Maluku]] islands. The death toll was at least 71,000 people ([[List of natural disasters by death toll#Volcanic eruptions|perhaps the most deadly eruption in history]]), of whom 11,000&ndash;12,000 were killed directly by the eruption;<ref name="Oppenheimer2003"/> the often-cited figure of 92,000 people killed is believed to be an overestimate.<ref name="Tanguy1998">{{cite journal|title=Victims from volcanic eruptions: a revised database|last= Tanguy|first=J.-C.|coauthors=Scarth, A., Ribière, C., Tjetjep, W. S.|journal=Bulletin of Volcanology|pages=137–144|date=1998|doi=10.1007/s004450050222|volume=60|issue=2}}</ref> The eruption created global climate anomalies; [[1816]] became known as the ''[[Year Without a Summer]]'' because of the effect on North American and European weather. [[agriculture|Agricultural]] crops failed and [[livestock]] died in much of the [[Northern Hemisphere]], resulting in the worst [[famine]] of the [[19th century]].<ref name="Oppenheimer2003"/> During an [[excavation]] in 2004, a team of [[archaeology|archaeologists]] discovered cultural remains buried by the 1815 eruption.<ref name="URI">{{cite press release|title=URI volcanologist discovers lost kingdom of Tambora|publisher=[[University of Rhode Island]]|date=2006-02-27|url=http://www.uri.edu/news/releases/index.php?id=3467|accessdate=2006-10-06}}</ref> They were kept intact beneath the 3&nbsp;m (10&nbsp;ft) deep [[pyroclastic]] deposits. At the site, dubbed the ''[[Pompeii]] of the East'', the artifacts were preserved in the positions they had occupied in 1815. ==Geographical setting== [[Image:tambora volc.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Mt. Tambora and its surroundings as seen from space]] Mount Tambora is located on [[Sumbawa]] Island, part of the [[Lesser Sunda Islands]]. It is a segment of the [[Sunda Arc]], a string of [[Volcanic Islands#Volcanic|volcanic islands]] that form the southern chain of the Indonesian [[archipelago]].<ref name="Foden1986">{{cite journal|title=The petrology of Tambora volcano, Indonesia: A model for the 1815 eruption|last=Foden|first=J.|journal=Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research|volume=27|issue=1–2|date=1986|pages=1–41|doi=10.1016/0377-0273(86)90079-X}}</ref> Tambora forms its own [[peninsula]] on Sumbawa, known as the Sanggar peninsula. At the north of the peninsula is the [[Flores Sea]], and at the south is the 86&nbsp;km (53.5&nbsp;mi) long and 36&nbsp;km (22&nbsp;mi) wide Saleh Bay. At the mouth of Saleh Bay there is an islet called Mojo. Besides the [[seismology|seismologists]] and [[vulcanology|vulcanologists]] who monitor the mountain's activity, Mount Tambora is an area of scientific studies for archaeologists and [[biology|biologists]]. The mountain also attracts tourists for [[hiking]] and wildlife activities.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.sinarharapan.co.id/feature/hobi/2003/0430/hob1.html|title=Hobi Mendaki Gunung - Menyambangi Kawah Raksasa Gunung Tambora|publisher=Sinar Harapan|language=[[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]|date=2003|accessdate=2006-11-14}}</ref><ref name="prodant">{{cite press release|url=http://www.gtzpromis.or.id/Proda/documents/TS_Bima_Dompu.pdf|title=Potential Tourism as Factor of Economic Development in the Districts of Bima and Dompu|publisher=West and East Nusa Tenggara Local Governments|accessdate=2006-11-14}}</ref> The two nearest cities are Dompu and Bima. There are three concentrations of villages around the mountain slope. At the east is Sanggar village, to the northwest are Doro Peti and Pesanggrahan villages, and to the west is Calabai village. There are two ascent routes to reach the [[caldera]]. The first route starts from Doro Mboha village at the southeast of the mountain. This route follows a paved road through a [[cashew]] plantation until it reaches 1,150&nbsp;m (3,800&nbsp;ft) [[above sea level]]. The end of this route is the southern part of the caldera at 1,950&nbsp;m (6,400&nbsp;ft), reachable by means of a hiking track.<ref name="vsimain">{{cite web|url=http://merapi.vsi.esdm.go.id/?static/volcano/tambora/main.html|title=Tambora, Nusa Tenggara Barat|author=Aswanir Nasution|accessdate=2006-11-13|publisher=Directorate of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, Indonesia|language=in [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]}}</ref> This location is usually used as a base camp to monitor the volcanic activity, because it only takes one hour to reach the caldera. The second route starts from Pancasila village at the northwest of the mountain. Using the second route, the caldera is accessible only by foot.<ref name="vsimain"/> ==Geological history== ===Formation=== Tambora lies 340&nbsp;km (211&nbsp;mi) north of the [[Java Trench]] system and 180&ndash;190&nbsp;km (112&ndash;118&nbsp;mi) above the upper surface of the active north-dipping [[subduction zone]]. Sumbawa island is flanked to both the north and south by the [[oceanic crust]].<ref name="Foden1980">{{cite journal|title=The petrology and tectonic setting of Quaternary—Recent volcanic centres of Lombok and Sumbawa, Sunda arc|journal=Chemical Geology|last=Foden|first=J|coauthors=Varne, R.|volume=30|issue=3|doi=10.1016/0009-2541(80)90106-0|date=1980|pages=201&ndash;206}}</ref> The convergence rate is 7.8&nbsp;cm/year (3&nbsp;in/year).<ref name="Sigurdsson1989">{{cite journal|title=Plinian and co-ignimbrite tephra fall from the 1815 eruption of Tambora volcano|journal=Bulletin of Volcanology|last=Sigurdsson|first=H.|coauthors=Carey, S.|date=1983|volume=51|pages=243&ndash;270|doi=10.1007/BF01073515|issue=4}}</ref> The existence of Tambora is estimated to have begun around 57,000 years ago.<ref name="Degens1989"/> Its ascent has drained off a large [[magma chamber]] inside the mountain. The Mojo islet was formed as part of this geological process in which Saleh Bay, collapsing into the caldera of the drained magma chamber, first appeared as a [[sea basin]], about 25,000 years ago.<ref name="Degens1989"/> According to a geological survey, a high volcanic cone with a single central vent was formed before the 1815 eruption, which follows a [[stratovolcano]] shape.<ref name="VSI">{{cite web|title=Geology of Tambora Volcano|publisher=Vulcanological Survey of Indonesia|url=http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/volcanoes/tambora/geology.html|accessdate=2006-10-10}}</ref> The diameter at the base is 60&nbsp;km (37&nbsp;mi).<ref name="Foden1986"/> The central vent emitted lava frequently, which cascaded down a steep slope. Since the 1815 eruption, the lowermost portion contains deposits of interlayered sequences of [[lava]] and [[pyroclastic]] materials. Approximately 40% of the layers are represented in the 1&ndash;4&nbsp;m (3.3&ndash;13.1&nbsp;ft) thick lava flows.<ref name="VSI"/> Thick [[scoria]] beds were produced by the fragmentation of lava flows. Within the upper section, the lava is interbedded with scoria, [[tuff]]s and pyroclastic flows and falls.<ref name="VSI"/> There are at least 20 [[parasitic cone]]s.<ref name="Sigurdsson1989"/> Some of them have names: ''Tahe'' (877&nbsp;m), ''Molo'' (602&nbsp;m), ''Kadiendinae'', ''Kubah'' (1648&nbsp;m) and ''Doro Api Toi''. Most of these parasitic cones have produced [[basaltic]] [[lava]]s. ===Eruptive history=== Using [[radiocarbon dating]] technique, it has been established that Mount Tambora had erupted three times before the 1815 eruption, but the magnitudes of these eruptions are unknown.<ref name="EruptiveHistory">{{cite web|title=Tambora - Eruptive History|url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0604-04=&volpage=erupt|work=Global Volcanism Program|publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]]|accessdate=2006-11-13}}</ref> Their estimated dates are 3910&nbsp;BC ± 200 years, 3050&nbsp;BC and AD&nbsp;740 ± 150 years. They were all explosive central vent eruptions with similar characteristics, except the lattermost eruption had no [[pyroclastic flow]]s. In 1812, Mount Tambora became highly active, with its eruptive peak in the catastrophic explosive event of April 1815.<ref name="EruptiveHistory"/> The magnitude was seven on the [[Volcanic Explosivity Index]] (VEI) scale, with a total [[tephra]] ejecta volume of 1.6&nbsp;&times;&nbsp;10<sup>11</sup>&nbsp;cubic metres.<ref name="EruptiveHistory"/> It was an explosive central vent eruption with pyroclastic flows and a [[caldera]] collapse, causing [[tsunami]]s and extensive land and property damage. It created a long-term effect on global climate. This activity ceased on 15 July 1815.<ref name="EruptiveHistory"/> Follow-up activity was recorded in August 1819 consisting of a small eruption (VEI = 2) with flames and rumbling [[aftershock]]s, and was considered to be part of the 1815 eruption.<ref name="Oppenheimer2003"/> Around 1880&nbsp;±&nbsp;30 years, Tambora went into eruption again, but only inside the caldera.<ref name="EruptiveHistory"/> It created small lava flows and lava dome [[extrusive (geology)|extrusions]]. This eruption (VEI = 2) created the ''Doro Api Toi'' parasitic cone inside the caldera.<ref>{{cite web|title=Tambora Historic Eruptions and Recent Activities|publisher=Vulcanological Survey of Indonesia|url=http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/volcanoes/tambora/history.html|accessdate=2006-11-13}}</ref> Mount Tambora is still [[active volcano|active]]. Minor lava domes and flows have been extruded on the caldera floor during the 19th and 20th centuries.<ref name="gvp"/> The last eruption was recorded in 1967.<ref name="EruptiveHistory"/> However, it was a very small, non-explosive eruption (VEI = 0). ==1815 eruption== ===Chronology of the eruption=== [[Image:1815 tambora explosion.png|right|350px|thumb|The estimated volcanic ashfall regions during the 1815 eruption. The red areas show thickness of volcanic ashfall. The outermost region (1&nbsp;cm thickness) reached [[Borneo]] and the [[Sulawesi]] islands.]] Mount Tambora experienced several centuries of inactivity before 1815, known as [[dormant volcano|dormancy]], as the result of the gradual cooling of hydrous magma in a closed magma chamber.<ref name="Foden1986"/> Inside the chamber at depths between 1.5&ndash;4.5&nbsp;km (5,000&ndash;15,000&nbsp;ft), the [[exsolution]] of a high pressure magma fluid formed during cooling and [[crystallisation]] of the magma. Overpressure of the chamber of about 4&ndash;5 [[Bar (unit)|kbar]] was generated and the temperature ranged from 700&nbsp;°C&ndash;850&nbsp;°C (1,300&ndash;1,500&nbsp;°F).<ref name="Foden1986"/> In 1812, the caldera began to rumble and generated a dark cloud.<ref name="Stothers1984">{{cite journal|last=Stothers|first=Richard B.|journal=Science|title=The Great Tambora Eruption in 1815 and Its Aftermath|volume=224|issue=4654|date=1984|pages=1191–1198|doi=10.1126/science.224.4654.1191|pmid=17819476}}</ref> On [[April 5 ]] [[1815]], a moderate-sized eruption occurred, followed by [[thundering|thunderous]] detonation sounds, heard in [[Makassar]] on [[Sulawesi]] (380&nbsp;km or 236&nbsp;mi), Batavia (now [[Jakarta]]) on [[Java]] (1,260&nbsp;km or 783&nbsp;mi), and [[Ternate]] on the [[Molucca|Molucca Islands]] (1400&nbsp;km or 870&nbsp;mi). What was first thought to be sound of firing guns was heard on 10&ndash;11 April on [[Sumatra]] island (more than 2,600&nbsp;km or 1,615&nbsp;mi away).<ref name="Raffles1830">[[Stamford Raffles|Raffles, S]]. 1830: ''Memoir of the life and public services of Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, F.R.S. &c., particularly in the government of Java 1811&ndash;1816, and of Bencoolen and its dependencies 1817&ndash;1824: with details of the commerce and resources of the eastern archipelago, and selections from his correspondence.'' London: John Murray, cited by Oppenheimer (2003).</ref> On the morning of [[6 April]], [[volcanic ash]] began to fall in [[East Java]] with faint detonation sounds lasting until [[10 April]]. At about 7&nbsp;p.m. on [[10 April]], the eruptions intensified.<ref name="Stothers1984"/> Three columns of flame rose up and merged.<ref name="Raffles1830"/> The whole mountain was turned into a flowing mass of "liquid fire".<ref name="Raffles1830"/> [[Pumice]] stones of up to 20&nbsp;cm (8&nbsp;inches) in diameter started to rain down at approximately 8&nbsp;p.m., followed by ash at around 9&ndash;10&nbsp;p.m. Hot [[pyroclastic flow]]s cascaded down the mountain to the sea on all sides of the peninsula, wiping out the village of Tambora. Loud explosions were heard until the next evening, [[11 April]]. The ash veil had spread as far as [[West Java]] and [[South Sulawesi]]. A "nitrous" odor was noticeable in [[Jakarta|Batavia]] and heavy [[tephra]]-tinged rain fell, finally receding between 11 and 17 April.<ref name="Stothers1984"/> <blockquote class="toccolours" style="text-align:justify; width:40%; float:left; padding: 10px 15px 10px 15px; display:table;">The first explosions were heard on this Island in the evening of the 5th of April, they were noticed in every quarter, and continued at intervals until the following day. The noise was, in the first instance, almost universally attributed to distant cannon; so much so, that a detachment of troops were marched from [[Yogyakarta|Djocjocarta]], in the expectation that a neighbouring post was attacked, and along the coast boats were in two instances dispatched in quest of a supposed ship in distress. <p style="text-align: right;">—[[Thomas Stamford Raffles|Sir Thomas Raffles]]' memoir.<ref name="Raffles1830"/></blockquote> The explosion is estimated to have been at scale seven on the [[Volcanic Explosivity Index]].<ref name="Briffa1998">{{cite journal|last=Briffa|first=K.R.|coauthors=Jones, P.D., Schweingruber, F.H. and Osborn T.J.|title=Influence of volcanic eruptions on Northern Hemisphere summer temperature over 600 years|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|volume= 393|pages=450–455|doi=10.1038/30943|year=1998}}</ref> It had roughly four times the energy of the 1883 [[Krakatoa]] eruption. An estimated 100&nbsp;km³ (38.6&nbsp;mi³) of pyroclastic [[trachyandesite]] was ejected, weighing approximately 1.4×10<sup>14</sup>&nbsp;kg.<ref name="Oppenheimer2003"/> This has left a caldera measuring 6&ndash;7&nbsp;km (4–5&nbsp;mi) across and 600&ndash;700&nbsp;m (2,000&ndash;2,300&nbsp;ft) deep.<ref name="Stothers1984"/> The density of fallen ash in [[Makassar]] was 636&nbsp;kg/m².<ref name="Stothers2004">{{cite journal|last=Stothers|first=Richard B.|title=Density of fallen ash after the eruption of Tambora in 1815|journal=Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research|volume=134|date=2004|pages=343–345|doi=10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2004.03.010}}</ref> Before the explosion, Mount Tambora was approximately 4,300&nbsp;m (14,000&nbsp;ft) high,<ref name="Stothers1984"/> one of the tallest peaks in the Indonesian archipelago. After the explosion, it now measures only 2,851&nbsp;m (9,300&nbsp;ft).<ref name="Monk">{{cite book|last = Monk|first = K.A.|coauthors = Fretes, Y., Reksodiharjo-Lilley, G.|title = The Ecology of Nusa Tenggara and Maluku| publisher = Periplus Editions Ltd.| date = 1996| location = Hong Kong| pages = p. 60| id = ISBN 962-593-076-0}}</ref> The 1815 Tambora eruption is the largest observed eruption in recorded history (see Table I, for comparison).<ref name="Stothers1984"/><ref name="Oppenheimer2003"/> The explosion was heard 2,600&nbsp;km (1,600&nbsp;mi) away, and ash fell at least 1,300&nbsp;km (800&nbsp;mi) away.<ref name="Stothers1984"/> Pitch darkness was observed as far away as 600&nbsp;km (370&nbsp;mi) from the mountain summit for up to two days. Pyroclastic flows spread at least 20&nbsp;km (12.5&nbsp;mi) from the summit. ===Aftermath=== All vegetation on the island was destroyed. Uprooted trees, mixed with pumice ash, washed into the sea and formed rafts of up to 5&nbsp;km (3&nbsp;mi) across.<ref name="Stothers1984"/> One pumice raft was found in the [[Indian Ocean]], near [[Kolkata|Calcutta]] on 1 and 3 October 1815.<ref name="Oppenheimer2003"/> Clouds of thick ash still covered the summit on [[23 April]]. Explosions ceased on [[15 July]], although smoke emissions were still observed as late as [[23 August]]. Flames and rumbling aftershocks were reported in August 1819, four years after the event. <blockquote class="toccolours" style="text-align:justify; width:40%; float:right; padding: 10px 15px 10px 15px; display:table;">On my trip towards the western part of the island, I passed through nearly the whole of Dompo and a considerable part of Bima. The extreme misery to which the inhabitants have been reduced is shocking to behold. There were still on the road side the remains of several corpses, and the marks of where many others had been interred: the villages almost entirely deserted and the houses fallen down, the surviving inhabitants having dispersed in search of food.<br/>...<br/>Since the eruption, a violent [[diarrhea|diarrhoea]] has prevailed in Bima, Dompo, and Sang’ir, which has carried off a great number of people. It is supposed by the natives to have been caused by drinking water which has been impregnated with ashes; and horses have also died, in great numbers, from a similar complaint. <p style="text-align: right;">—Lt. Philips, ordered by [[Thomas Stamford Raffles|Sir Stamford Raffles]] to go to [[Sumbawa]].<ref name="Raffles1830"/></blockquote> A moderate-sized [[tsunami]] struck the shores of various islands in the Indonesian archipelago on [[10 April]], with a height of up to 4&nbsp;m (13&nbsp;ft) in Sanggar at around 10&nbsp;p.m.<ref name="Stothers1984"/> A tsunami of 1&ndash;2&nbsp;m (3&ndash;6&nbsp;ft) in height was reported in Besuki, [[East Java]], before midnight, and one of 2&nbsp;m (6&nbsp;ft) in height in the [[Molucca|Molucca Islands]]. The eruption column reached the [[stratosphere]], an altitude of more than 43&nbsp;km (140,000&nbsp;ft).<ref name="Oppenheimer2003"/> The coarser ash particles fell 1 to 2 weeks after the eruptions, but the finer ash particles stayed in the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] from a few months up to a few years at an altitude of 10&ndash;30&nbsp;km (33,000&ndash;100,000&nbsp;ft).<ref name="Stothers1984"/> Longitudinal winds spread these fine particles around the globe, creating optical phenomena. Prolonged and brilliantly colored sunsets and twilights were frequently seen in [[London]], [[England]] between [[28 June]] and [[2 July]] [[1815]] and [[3 September]] and [[7 October]] [[1815]].<ref name="Stothers1984"/> The glow of the twilight sky typically appeared orange or red near the horizon and purple or pink above. The estimated number of deaths varies depending on the source. Zollinger (1855) puts the number of direct deaths at 10,000, probably caused by pyroclastic flows. On Sumbawa island, there were 38,000 deaths due to starvation, and another 10,000 deaths occurred due to disease and hunger on [[Lombok]] island.<ref name="Zollinger1855">Zollinger (1855): ''Besteigung des Vulkans Tamboro auf der Insel Sumbawa und Schiderung der Eruption desselben im Jahren 1815'', Wintherthur: Zurcher and Fürber, Wurster and Co., cited by Oppenheimer (2003).</ref> Petroeschevsky (1949) estimated about 48,000 and 44,000 people were killed on Sumbawa and Lombok, respectively.<ref name="Petroeschevsky1949">Petroeschevsky (1949): A contribution to the knowledge of the Gunung Tambora (Sumbawa). ''Tijdschrift van het K. Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap'', Amsterdam Series 2 66, 688–703, cited by Oppenheimer (2003).</ref> Several authors use Petroeschevsky's figures, such as Stothers (1984), who cites 88,000 deaths in total.<ref name="Stothers1984"/> However, Tanguy ''et al''. (1998) claimed Petroeschevsky's figures to be unfounded and based on untraceable references.<ref name="Tanguy1998"/> Tanguy revised the number solely based on two credible sources, i.e., Zollinger, who himself spent several months on Sumbawa after the eruption, and [[Sir Thomas Raffles|Raffles]]'s notes.<ref name="Raffles1830"/> Tanguy pointed out that there may have been additional victims on [[Bali]] and [[East Java]] because of [[famine]] and disease. Their estimate was 11,000 deaths from direct volcanic effects and 49,000 by post-eruption famine and epidemic diseases.<ref name="Tanguy1998"/> Oppenheimer (2003) stated a modified number of at least 71,000 deaths in total, as seen in Table I below.<ref name="Oppenheimer2003"/> <div align="center" style="float:clear;"> {| class="wikitable" cellpadding=5 |+ <big>Table I. Comparison of selected volcanic eruptions</big> |- ! Eruptions !! Year !! Column<br/>height (km) !! &nbsp;[[Volcanic Explosivity Index|VEI]]&nbsp; !! N. hemisphere<br/>summer anomaly (°C) !! Fatalities |- | [[Mount Vesuvius]] || 79 || align="center" | 30 || align="center" | 5 || align="center" | ? || >2000 |- | [[Hatepe eruption|Taupo]] || 186 || align="center" | 51 || align="center" | 7 || align="center" | ? || |- | [[Baekdu Mountain|Baekdu]] || 969 || align="center" | 25 || align="center" | 6–7 || align="center" | ? || ? |- | [[Kuwae]] || 1452 || align="center" | ? || align="center" | 6 || align="center" | &minus;0.5 || ? |- | [[Huaynaputina]] || 1600 || align="center" | 46 || align="center" | 6 || align="center" | &minus;0.8 || ≈1400 |- | [[Mount Tambora|Tambora]] || align="center" | 1815 || align="center" | 43 || align="center" | 7 || align="center" | &minus;0.5 || > 71,000 |- | [[Krakatau]] || 1883 || align="center" | 25 || align="center" | 6 || align="center" | &minus;0.3 || 36,600 |- | [[Santamaría (volcano)|Santamaría]] || 1902 || align="center" | 34 || align="center" | 6 || align="center" | no anomaly || 7,000&ndash;13,000 |- | [[Mount Katmai|Katmai]] || 1912 || align="center" | 32 || align="center" | 6 || align="center" | &minus;0.4 || 2 |- | [[Mount St Helens|Mt. St. Helens]] || 1980 || align="center" | 19 || align="center" | 5 || align="center" | no anomaly || 57 |- | [[El Chichón]] || 1982 || align="center" | 32 || align="center" | 4–5 || align="center" | ? || > 2,000 |- | [[Nevado del Ruiz]] || 1985 || align="center" | 27 || align="center" | 3 || align="center" | no anomaly || 23,000 |- | [[Mount Pinatubo|Pinatubo]] || 1991 || align="center" | 34 || align="center" | 6 || align="center" | &minus;0.5 || 1202 |- | colspan=6 | <span style="font-size:smaller;">Source: Oppenheimer (2003),<ref name="Oppenheimer2003"/> and Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program for VEI.<ref>{{cite web|title=Large Holocene Eruptions|publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]]|work=Global Volcanism Program|accessdate=2006-11-07|url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/largeeruptions.cfm}}</ref></span> |} </div> ===Global effects=== {{see also|Year Without a Summer}} [[Image:Greenland sulfate.png|thumb|left|240px|[[Sulfate]] concentration in [[ice core]] from Central [[Greenland]], dated by counting [[oxygen isotope]] seasonal variations. There is an unknown eruption around 1810s. Source: Dai (1991).<ref name="Dai1991">{{cite journal|last=Dai|first=J.|coauthors=Mosley-Thompson and L.G. Thompson|date=1991|title=Ice core evidence for an explosive tropical volcanic eruption six years preceding Tambora|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research (Atmospheres)|volume=96|pages=17,361–17,366}}</ref>]] The 1815 eruption released [[sulfur]] into the [[stratosphere]], causing a global climate anomaly. Different methods have estimated the ejected sulfur mass during the eruption: the [[petrological]] method; an optical depth measurement based on [[anatomy|anatomical]] observations; and the [[Polar region|polar]] [[ice core]] sulfate concentration method, using cores from [[Greenland]] and [[Antarctica]]. The figures vary depending on the method, ranging from 10&nbsp;Tg&nbsp;S to 120&nbsp;Tg&nbsp;S.<ref name="Oppenheimer2003"/> In the spring and summer of 1816, a persistent ''dry fog'' was observed in the northeastern U.S. The fog reddened and dimmed the sunlight, such that sunspots were visible to the naked eye. Neither wind nor rainfall dispersed the "fog". It was identified as a ''stratospheric sulfate aerosol veil''.<ref name="Oppenheimer2003"/> In summer 1816, countries in the [[Northern Hemisphere]] suffered extreme weather conditions, dubbed the ''[[Year Without a Summer]]''. Average global temperatures decreased about 0.4&ndash;0.7&nbsp;°C (0.7&ndash;1.3&nbsp;°F),<ref name="Stothers1984"/> enough to cause significant agricultural problems around the globe. On [[4 June]] [[1816]], frosts were reported in [[Connecticut]], and by the following day, most of [[New England]] was gripped by the cold front. On [[6 June]] [[1816]], snow fell in [[Albany, New York]], and [[Dennysville, Maine]].<ref name="Oppenheimer2003"/> Such conditions occurred for at least three months and ruined most agricultural crops in North America. [[Canada]] experienced extreme cold during that summer. Snow 30&nbsp;cm (12&nbsp;in) deep accumulated near [[Quebec City]] from 6 to 10 June 1816. 1816 was the second coldest year in the northern hemisphere since AD 1400, after 1601 following the 1600 [[Huaynaputina]] eruption in [[Peru]].<ref name="Briffa1998"/> The 1810s are the coldest decade on record, a result of Tambora's 1815 eruption and other suspected eruptions somewhere between 1809 and 1810 (see sulfate concentration figure from [[ice core]] data). The surface temperature anomalies during the summer of 1816, 1817 and 1818 were &minus;0.51, &minus;0.44 and &minus;0.29&nbsp;°C, respectively.<ref name="Briffa1998"/> As well as a cooler summer, parts of Europe experienced a stormier winter. This pattern of climate anomaly has been blamed for the severity of [[typhus]] [[epidemic]] in southeast Europe and the eastern [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] between 1816 and 1819.<ref name="Oppenheimer2003"/> Much [[livestock]] died in New England during the winter of 1816&ndash;1817. Cool temperatures and heavy rains resulted in failed harvests in the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]]. Families in [[Wales]] traveled long distances as refugees, begging for food. Famine was prevalent in north and southwest [[Ireland]], following the failure of [[wheat]], [[oat]] and [[potato]] harvests. The crisis was severe in [[Germany]], where food prices rose sharply. Due to the unknown cause of the problems, demonstrations in front of grain markets and bakeries, followed by [[riot]]s, [[arson]] and [[looting]], took place in many European cities. It was the worst famine of the 19th century.<ref name="Oppenheimer2003"/> ==Archaeological evidence== In summer 2004, a team from the [[University of Rhode Island]], the [[University of North Carolina at Wilmington]], and the Indonesian Directorate of Volcanology, led by [[Haraldur Sigurdsson]], began an [[excavation|archaeological dig]] in Tambora.<ref name="URI"/> Over six weeks, the team unearthed the first evidence of [[Tambora (lost culture)|a lost culture]] that had been obliterated by the Tambora eruption. The site is located about 25&nbsp;km (15.5&nbsp;mi) west of the caldera, deep in the jungle, 5&nbsp;km (3&nbsp;mi) from the shore. The team had to cut through a deposit of volcanic pumice and ash 3&nbsp;m (10&nbsp;ft) thick. The team used a [[ground-penetrating radar]] to locate a small buried house. They excavated the house, where they found the remains of two adults, as well as bronze bowls, ceramic pots, iron tools and other artifacts. The design and decoration of the artifacts have similarities with artifacts from [[Vietnam]] and [[Cambodia]].<ref name="URI" /> Tests conducted using a carbonization technique revealed they were composed of [[charcoal]] formed by the heat of the [[magma]]. The people and the house are preserved as they were in 1815. Sigurdsson dubbed it the ''[[Pompeii]] of the East''.<ref>{{cite news|publisher=[[BBC News]]|title='Pompeii of the East' discovered|url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4748902.stm|date=28 February 2006|accessdate= 2006-10-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|publisher=Bloomberg Asia|title=Indonesian Volcano Site Reveals ‘Pompeii of the East’ (Update1)|url= http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=10000080&sid=agqrX3FIpeQU&refer=asia|date=28 February 2006| accessdate=2006-10-09}}</ref> Based on the artifacts found, which were mainly [[bronze]] objects, the team concluded that the people were not poor. Historical evidence indicates that people on Sumbawa island were known in the [[East Indies]] for their [[honey]], [[horses]]<ref>Jong Boers, B.D. de (2007), ‘The ‘Arab’ of the Indonesian Archipelago: The Famed Horse Breeds of Sumbawa’ in: Greg Bankoff and Sandra Swart (eds), Breeds of Empire: The ‘invention’ of the horse in Southern Africa and Maritime Southeast Asia, 1500-1950. Copenhagen: NIAS Press, pp 51-64. </ref>, [[sappan wood]] for producing red [[dye]]<ref>Jong Boers, B.D. de (1997), ‘Sustainability and time perspective in natural resource management: The exploitation of sappan trees in the forests of Sumbawa, Indonesia (1500-1875)’, in: Peter Boomgaard, Freek Colombijn en David Henley (eds), Paper landscapes; Explorations in the environmental history of Indonesia. Leiden: KITLV Press, pp. 260-281. </ref>, and [[sandalwood]] used for [[incense]] and medications.<ref name="URI"/> The area was thought to be highly productive agriculturally. The archaeological findings suggest that there was a culture on Sumbawa that was wiped out by the 1815 eruption. The title ''Lost Kingdom of Tambora'' was coined by media.<ref>{{cite news |publisher=National Geographic|title= ‘Lost Kingdom’ Discovered on Volcanic Island in Indonesia|url= http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/02/0227_060227_lost_kingdom.html |date=27 February 2006|accessdate=2006-10-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|publisher=[[International Herald Tribune]]|title='Lost kingdom' springs from the ashes|date=1 March 2006|accessdate=2006-10-09|url= http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/03/01/healthscience/snvolc.php}}</ref> With this discovery, Sigurdsson intends to return to Tambora in 2007 to search for the rest of the villages, and hopefully to find a palace.<ref name="URI"/> <!--{| align=center cellpadding="5" cellspacing=0 style="border: 1px solid #999966; clear: both; background: #ffffff; margin-top:0.5em;" |- ! bgcolor=#e7dcc3 colspan=4 | Tambora Artifacts |- | width=150px; | | width=150px; | | width=150px; | | width=150px; | |- | style="font-size:smaller; vertical-align:top;" | an artifact in pumice deposit | style="font-size:smaller; vertical-align:top;" | a bowl | style="font-size:smaller; vertical-align:top;" | a bronze object | style="font-size:smaller; vertical-align:top;" | [[Mon-Khmer]] writings in an artifact |}--> ==Ecosystem== A scientific team led by a [[Switzerland|Swiss]] [[botany|botanist]], Heinrich Zollinger, arrived on Sumbawa in 1847.<ref>{{cite web|title=Heinrich Zollinger|url=http://www.zollinger-genealogy.com/FamousZollingers/heinrichzollinger.php|publisher=Zollinger Family History Research| accessdate=2006-11-14}}</ref> Zollinger's mission was to study the eruption scene and its effects on the local [[ecosystem]]. He was the first person to climb to the summit after the eruption. It was still covered by smoke. As Zollinger climbed up, his feet sank several times through a thin surface crust into a warm layer of powder-like [[sulfur]]. Some vegetation had re-established itself and a few trees were observed on the lower slope. A ''[[Casuarina]]'' forest was noted at 2,200&ndash;2,550&nbsp;m (7,200&ndash;8,400&nbsp;ft).<ref name="Zollinger2">Zollinger (1855) cited by Trainor (2002).</ref> Several ''[[Imperata cylindrica]]'' [[grassland]]s were also found. Rehabitation of the mountain began in 1907. A [[coffee]] plantation was started in the 1930s on the northwestern slope of the mountain, in the village of Pekat.<ref name="Boers1995">{{cite journal|title=Mount Tambora in 1815: A Volcanic Eruption in Indonesia and its Aftermath|last=de Jong Boers|first=B.|journal=Indonesia|volume=60|date=1995|pages=37&ndash;59|url=http://e-publishing.library.cornell.edu:80/Dienst/UI/1.0/Summarize/seap.indo/1106964023|doi=10.2307/3351140}}</ref> A dense [[rain forest]], dominated by the pioneering tree, ''Duabanga moluccana'', had grown at an altitude of 1,000&ndash;2,800&nbsp;m (3,300&ndash;9,000&nbsp;ft).<ref name="Boers1995"/> It covers an area up to 80,000&nbsp;hectares (800&nbsp;km²). The rain forest was explored by a Dutch team, led by Koster and de Voogd in 1933.<ref name="Boers1995"/> From their accounts, they started their journey in a "fairly barren, dry and hot country", and then they entered "a mighty jungle" with "huge, majestic forest giants". At 1,100&nbsp;m (3,600&nbsp;ft), they entered a [[montane]] forest. Above 1,800&nbsp;m (6,000&nbsp;ft), they found ''[[Dodonaea viscosa]]'' dominated by ''Casuarina'' trees. On the summit, they found sparse ''[[Anaphalis|Anaphalis viscida]]'' and ''[[Wahlenbergia]]''. In 1896, 56 species of birds were found, including the [[Crested White-eye]].<ref name="Trainor2002">{{cite journal|title=Birds of Gunung Tambora, Sumbawa, Indonesia: effects of altitude, the 1815 catalysmic volcanic eruption and trade|last=Trainor|first=C.R.|volume=18|journal=Forktail|date=2002|pages=49&ndash;61|url=http://www.orientalbirdclub.org/publications/forktail/18pdfs/Trainor-Tambora.pdf}}</ref> Twelve further species were found in 1981. Several other zoological surveys followed, and found other bird species on the mountain, resulting in over 90 bird species discovered on Mount Tambora. [[Yellow-crested Cockatoo]]s, [[Zoothera|''Zoothera'' thrush]]es, [[Hill Myna]]s, [[Green Junglefowl]] and [[Rainbow Lorikeet]]s are hunted for the cagebird trade by the local people. [[Orange-footed Scrubfowl]] are hunted for food. This bird exploitation has resulted in a decline in the bird population. The Yellow-crested Cockatoo is nearing extinction on Sumbawa island.<ref name="Trainor2002"/> Since 1972, a [[Logging industry|commercial logging company]] has been operating in the area, which poses a large threat to the rain forest. The logging company holds a [[timber]]-cutting concession for an area of 20,000&nbsp;hectares (200&nbsp;km²), or 25% of the total area.<ref name="Boers1995"/> Another part of the rain forest is used as a [[hunting]] ground. In between the hunting ground and the logging area, there is a designated [[wildlife reserve]] where [[deer]], [[Domestic buffalo|water buffalo]]s, [[wild pig]]s, [[bat]]s, [[flying fox]]es, and various species of [[reptile]]s and [[bird]]s can be found.<ref name="Boers1995"/> ==Monitoring== Indonesia's population has been increasing rapidly since the 1815 eruption. As of 2006, the population of Indonesia has reached 222 million people,<ref>{{cite press release|publisher = Indonesian Central Statistics Bureau|title = Tingkat Kemiskinan di Indonesia Tahun 2005–2006| date = 1 September 2006|url = http://www.bps.go.id/releases/files/kemiskinan-01sep06.pdf|language = [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]|accessdate = 2006-09-26}}</ref> of which 130 million are concentrated on [[Java]] and [[Bali]] islands.<ref>{{cite web|last = Calder|first = Joshua|title = Most Populous Islands|publisher = World Island Information|date = 3 May 2006|url = http://www.worldislandinfo.com/POPULATV2.htm|accessdate = 2006-09-26 }}</ref> A [[volcanic eruption]] as large as the Tambora 1815 eruption would cause catastrophic devastation with more fatalities. Therefore, volcanic activity in Indonesia is continuously monitored, including that of Mount Tambora. [[Seismology|Seismic activity]] in Indonesia is monitored by the Directorate of Vulcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, Indonesia. The monitoring post for Mount Tambora is located at Doro Peti village.<ref name="vsidanger">{{cite web|url=http://merapi.vsi.esdm.go.id/?static/volcano/tambora/bahaya.html|title=Tambora Hazard Mitigation|publisher=Directorate of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation|accessdate=2006-11-13|language=in [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]}}</ref> They focus on seismic and [[tectonics|tectonic]] activities by using a [[seismograph]]. Since the 1880 eruption, there has been no significant increase in seismic activity.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Directorate of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, Indonesia|title=Tambora Geophysics|language=in [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]|url=http://merapi.vsi.esdm.go.id/?static/volcano/tambora/geofisika.html|accessdate=2006-11-13}}</ref> However, monitoring is continuously performed inside the caldera, especially around the parasite cone Doro Api Toi. The directorate has defined a hazard [[mitigation|mitigation map]] for Mount Tambora. Two zones are declared: the dangerous zone and the cautious zone.<ref name="vsidanger"/> The dangerous zone is an area that will be directly affected by an eruption: pyroclastic flow, lava flow and other pyroclastic falls. This area, including the caldera and its surroundings, covers up to 58.7&nbsp;km² (14,500&nbsp;acres). Habitation of the dangerous zone is prohibited. The cautious zone includes areas that might be indirectly affected by an eruption: [[lahar]] flows and other pumice stones. The size of the cautious area is 185&nbsp;km² (45,700&nbsp;acres), and includes Pasanggrahan, Doro Peti, Rao, Labuan Kenanga, Gubu Ponda, Kawindana Toi and Hoddo villages. A river, called Guwu, at the southern and northwest part of the mountain is also included in the cautious zone.<ref name="vsidanger"/> ==See also== *[[List of volcanoes in Indonesia]] *[[List of deadliest natural disasters]] ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==Further reading== *C.R. Harrington (ed.). ''The Year without a summer? : world climate in 1816'', Ottawa : Canadian Museum of Nature, 1992. ISBN 0-660-13063-7 *Henry and Elizabeth Stommel. ''Volcano Weather: The Story of 1816, the Year without a Summer'', Newport RI. 1983. ISBN 0-915160-71-4 ==External links== {{commonscat|Mount Tambora}} {{portal|Indonesia}} * {{cite web | title=Indonesia Volcanoes and Volcanics | work=Cascades Volcano Observatory | publisher=USGS | url=http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Volcanoes/Indonesia/framework.html | accessdate 2006-03-19 }} * {{ cite web | title=Tambora, Sumbawa, Indonesia | work=Volcano World | publisher=Department of Geosciences at Oregon State University | url=http://volcano.und.nodak.edu/vwdocs/volc_images/southeast_asia/indonesia/tambora.html }} * {{ cite web | title=Tambora | work=Global Volcanism Program | publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]] | url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0604-04=}} {{featured article}} [[Category:Stratovolcanoes|Tambora, Mount]] [[Category:Subduction volcanoes|Tambora, Mount]] [[Category:Volcanoes of Sumbawa|Tambora, Mount]] [[Category:Mountains of Indonesia|Tambora, Mount]] [[Category:Active volcanoes|Tambora, Mount]] [[Category:VEI-7 volcanoes|Tambora, Mount]] [[Category:Volcanic calderas of Indonesia|Tambora, Mount]] [[Category:Natural disasters in Indonesia|Tambora]] [[Category:1815 natural disasters|Tambora]] {{Link FA|id}} [[cs:Tambora]] [[cy:Mynydd Tambora]] [[de:Tambora]] [[et:Tambora]] [[es:Tambora]] [[eo:Tambora]] [[fr:Tambora]] [[fy:Tambora]] [[hi:टैम्बोरा]] [[id:Gunung Tambora]] [[is:Tambora]] [[it:Tambora]] [[he:הר טמבורה]] [[lt:Tamboras]] [[nl:Tambora]] [[ja:タンボラ山]] [[no:Tambora]] [[nn:Tambora]] [[pl:Tambora]] [[pt:Monte Tambora]] [[ru:Тамбора]] [[sk:Tambora (sopka)]] [[fi:Tambora]] [[sv:Tambora]] [[zh:坦博拉火山]]