Mountaineering 20341 225676317 2008-07-14T21:15:27Z NimblyPimbly 7316319 /* Falls from rocks */ {{refimprove|date=March 2007}} [[Image:Frères Bisson - 1862 - La crevasse (Départ).jpg|thumb|right|An open crevasse.]] '''Mountaineering''' is the [[sport]], [[hobby]] or [[profession]] of [[walking]], [[hiking]], [[trekking]] and [[climbing]] up [[mountain]]s. It is also sometimes known as '''alpinism''', particularly in Europe. While it began as an all-out attempt to reach the highest point of unclimbed mountains, it has branched into specializations addressing different aspects of mountains and may now be said to consist of three aspects: rock-craft, snow-craft and skiing, depending on whether the route chosen is over [[rock (geology)|rock]], [[snow]] or [[ice]]. All require great athletic and technical ability, and experience is also very important. ==Technique== [[Image:Alpinistes_Aiguille_du_Midi_02.JPG|thumb|right|Climbers descending a ridge.]] ====Snow==== While certain compacted snow conditions allow mountaineers to progress on foot, typically some form of mechanical device is required to travel efficiently over snow and ice. [[Crampons]] are devices having 10-12 spikes that are attached to a mountaineer's boots, are used on hard snow (neve) and ice to provide additional traction and allow very steep ascents and descents. There are many different varieties, ranging from lightweight aluminum models intended for walking on snow covered glaciers to aggressive steel models intended for vertical and overhanging ice and rock. [[Snowshoes]] can be used to walk through deep snow approaching the mountain or on lesser slopes up the mountain. [[Skis]] can be used almost everywhere snowshoes can and also in steeper, more alpine landscapes although it takes more practice to develop sufficiently strong skiing skills for difficult terrain. The practice of combining the techniques of alpine skiing and mountaineering to ascend and descend a mountain is a form of the sport by itself, called [[Ski Mountaineering]]. Ascending and descending a snow slope safely requires the use of an [[ice axe]] and many different footwork techniques that have been developed over the last hundred years, originating in Europe. The progression of footwork from the lowest angle slopes to the steepest terrain is first to splay the feet to a rising traverse, to kick stepping, to front pointing the crampons. The progression of the ice axe technique from the lowest angle slopes to the steepest terrain is to use the ice axe first as a walking stick, then a stake, then to use the front pick as a dagger below the shoulders or above, and finally to swing the pick into the slope over the head. This also involves different designs of ice axe depending on the terrain to be covered, and even whether a mountaineer uses one or two ice axes. ====Glaciers==== When traveling over [[glacier]]s, [[crevasse]]s pose a grave danger. These giant cracks in the ice are not always visible as snow can be blown and freeze over the top to make a ''[[snowbridge]]''. At times snowbridges can be as thin as a few inches. Climbers use a system of ropes to protect themselves from such hazards. Basic gear for glacier travel includes [[crampons]] and [[ice axe]]s. Teams of two to five climbers tie into a rope equally spaced. If a climber begins to fall the other members of the team perform a [[self-arrest]] to stop the fall. The other members of the team enact a [[crevasse rescue]] to pull the fallen climber from the crevasse. ====Ice==== Multiple methods are used to safely travel over ice. If the terrain is steep but not vertical, then [[Protection (climbing)|protection]] in the form of [[Picket (climbing)|picket]]s or [[ice screw|ice screws]] can be driven into the snow or ice and attached to the rope by the lead climber. Each climber on the team must clip past the anchor, and the last climber picks up the picket. This allows for safety should the entire team be taken off their feet. This technique is known as Simul-climbing. If the terrain becomes vertical then standard [[ice climbing]] techniques are used. [[Image:Eisklettern kl engstligenfall.jpg|thumb|left|Ice climbing]] ==Shelter== <!-- NOTE: If you are going to rename or remove this section please update the redirects at [[Basecamp]] and [[Base camp]] --> :''“Basecamp” redirects here. For the online project manager, see [[Basecamp (software)]].'' Climbers use a few different forms of shelter depending on the situation and conditions. Shelter is a very important aspect of safety for the climber as the weather in the mountains is very unpredictable. Tall mountains require many days of camping on the mountain. ====Base Camp==== The 'Base Camp' of a mountain is an area used for staging an attempt at the summit. Base camps are positioned to be safe from the harsher conditions above. There are base camps on many popular or dangerous summits. Mountains where the summit cannot be reached from base camp in a single day will have additional camps above base camp. For example, the [[Everest#Southeast_ridge|southeast ridge]] route on Mount Everest has [[Everest Base Camp|Base Camp]] plus (normally) camps I through IV. ====Hut==== The European alpine regions, in particular, have a network of [[mountain hut]]s (called ‘refuges’ in France, ‘rifugi’ in Italy, ‘cabanes’ in Switzerland and ‘hytte’ in Norway). Such huts exist at many different heights, including in the high mountains themselves – in extremely remote areas [[bivouac shelter]]s may have been provided. The mountain huts are of varying size and quality but each is typically centred on a communal dining room and have dormitories equipped with mattresses, blankets or duvets, and pillows – guests are expected to bring and to use their own sleeping bag liner. The facilities are usually rudimentary but, given their locations, huts offer vital shelter, make routes more widely accessible (by allowing journeys to be broken and reducing the weight of equipment needing to be carried), and offer good value. In Europe, all huts are staffed during the summer (mid-June to mid-September) and some are staffed in the spring (mid-March to mid-May). Elsewhere, huts may also be open in the fall. Huts also may have a part that is always open, but unmanned, a so-called winter hut. When open and manned, the huts are generally run by full-time employees, but some are staffed on a voluntary basis by members of Alpine clubs (such as [[Swiss Alpine Club]] and [[Club alpin français]]). The manager of the hut, termed a guardian or warden in Europe, will usually also sell refreshments and meals – both to those visiting only for the day and to those staying overnight. The offering is surprisingly wide – given that most supplies, often including fresh water, must be flown in by helicopter – and may include glucose-based snacks (such as Mars and Snickers bars) on which climbers and walkers wish to stock up, cakes and pastries made at the hut, a variety of hot and cold drinks (including beer and wine), and high carbohydrate dinners in the evenings. Not all huts do offer a catered service, though, and visitors may need to provide for themselves. Some huts offer facilities for both, enabling visitors wishing to keep costs down to bring their own food and cooking equipment and to cater using the facilities provided. Booking for overnight stays at huts is deemed obligatory, and in many cases is essential as some popular huts – even with over 100 bed spaces - may well be full during good weather and at weekends. Once made, the cancellation of a reservation should be advised to the hut as a matter of courtesy – and, indeed, potentially of safety, as many huts keep a record of where climbers and walkers state they planned to walk to next. Most huts are contactable by telephone and most take credit cards as a means of payment for the service they provide. ====Bivouac (Bivy)==== In the mountaineering context, a [[bivouac]] or 'bivy' is a makeshift resting or sleeping arrangement in which the climber has less than the full complement of shelter, food and equipment that would normally be present at a conventional campsite. This may involve simply getting a sleeping bag and [[Bivouac sack]] and lying down to sleep. Many times small partially sheltered areas such as a [[bergschrund]], cracks in rocks or a trench dug in the snow are used to provide a basic means of shelter. These techniques were originally used only in cases of emergency; however some climbers steadfastly committed to [[alpine style]] climbing specifically plan, or make contingency arrangements for, bivouacs in place of full camps in order to save the weight of a tent when snow conditions are not suitable for a snow cave. The principal hazard associated with bivouacs is the greater level of exposure to cold and the elements. ====Tent==== [[Tent]]s are the most common form of shelter used on the mountain. A four-season tent is recommended for any camp above timberline and in exposed positions breakwinds of snow or rock may be required to shelter the tent from these forces. One of the downsides to tenting is that high storm winds and snow loads can be dangerous and may ultimately lead to the tent's failure and collapse. In addition, the constant flapping of the tent fabric can hinder sleep and raise doubts about the security of the shelter. ====Snow cave==== Where conditions permit [[snow cave]]s are another way to shelter high on the mountain. Some climbers do not use tents at high altitudes unless the snow conditions do not allow for snow caving since snow caves are silent and actually warmer than tents, and can be built relatively easily using a snow shovel. A correctly made snow cave will hover around freezing, which relative to outside temperatures can be very warm. They can be dug anywhere there is at least four feet of snow. Another shelter that works well is a [[quinzee]], which is excavated from a pile of snow that has been work hardened or sintered (typically by stomping). [[Igloo]]s are used by some climbers, but are deceptively difficult to build and require specific snow conditions. ==Hazards== The craft of climbing has been developed to avoid three main types of danger: the danger of things falling on the climber (objective danger), the danger of the climber falling and inclement weather. The things that may fall include rocks, ice, snow, other climbers or their gear; the mountaineer may fall from rocks, ice or snow, or into a crevasse. In all, there are eight chief dangers: falling rocks, falling ice, snow-avalanches, falls, the climber falling, falls from ice slopes, falls down snow slopes, falls into crevasses and dangers from weather. To select and follow a route using one's skills and experience to mitigate these dangers is to exercise the climber's craft. ===Falling rocks=== [[Image:Kate-at-fleshmarket.JPG|thumb|right|Rocky mountains tend to be hazardous.]] Every rock mountain is slowly disintegrating due to [[erosion]], the process being especially rapid above the snow-line. Rock faces are constantly swept by falling stones, which are generally possible to dodge. Falling rocks tend to form furrows in a mountain face, and these furrows ([[Glossary of climbing terms#Couloir|couloir]]s) have to be ascended with caution, their sides often being safe when the middle is stoneswept. Rocks fall more frequently on some days than on others, according to the recent weather. Ice formed during the night may temporarily bind rocks to the face but warmth of the day or direct sun exposure may easily dislodge these rocks. Local experience is a valuable help on determining typical rockfall on such routes. The direction of the dip of rock strata often determines the degree of danger on a particular face; the character of the rock must also be considered. Where stones fall frequently debris will be found below, whilst on snow slopes falling stones cut furrows visible from a great distance. In planning an ascent of a new peak mountaineers must look for such traces. When falling stones get mixed in considerable quantity with slushy snow or water a mud avalanche is formed (common in the [[Himalaya]]). It is vital to avoid [[camping]] in their possible line of fall. ===Falling ice=== The places where ice may fall can always be determined beforehand. It falls in the broken parts of glaciers (seracs) and from overhanging cornices formed on the crests of narrow ridges. Large icicles are often formed on steep rock faces, and these fall frequently in fine weather following cold and stormy days. They have to be avoided like falling stones. [[Serac]]s are slow in formation, and slow in arriving (by glacier motion) at a condition of unstable equilibrium. They generally fall in or just after the hottest part of the day, and their debris seldom goes far. A skillful and experienced ice-man will usually devise a safe route through a most intricate ice-fall, but such places should be avoided in the afternoon of a hot day. Hanging glaciers (i.e. glaciers perched on steep slopes) often discharge themselves over steep rock-faces, the snout breaking off at intervals. They can always be detected by their debris below. Their track should be avoided. ===Falls from rocks=== The skill of a [[rock climbing|rock climber]] is shown by one's choice of handhold and foothold, and his adhesion to those once he has chosen. Much depends on a correct estimate of the firmness of the rock where weight is to be thrown upon it. Many loose rocks are quite firm enough to bear a person's weight, but experience is needed to know which can be trusted, and skill is required in transferring the weight to them without jerking. On rotten rocks the rope must be handled with special care, lest it should start loose stones on to the heads of those below. Similar care must be given to handholds and footholds, for the same reason. When a horizontal traverse has to be made across very difficult rocks, a dangerous situation may arise unless at both ends of the traverse there be firm positions. Mutual assistance on hard rocks takes all manner of forms: two, or even three, people climbing on one another's shoulders, or using an [[ice axe]] propped up by others for a foothold. The great principle is that of co-operation, all the members of the party climbing with reference to the others, and not as independent units; each when moving must know what the climber in front and the one behind are doing. After bad weather steep rocks are often found covered with a veneer of ice ([[Glossary of climbing terms#Verglas|verglas]]), which may even render them inaccessible. [[Crampons]] are useful on such occasions. ===Avalanches=== {{main|Avalanche}} The [[avalanche]] is the most underestimated danger in the mountains. People generally think that they will be able to recognize the hazards and survive being caught. The truth is a somewhat different story. Every year, 120 - 150 people die in small avalanches in the Alps alone. The vast majority are reasonably experienced male skiers aged 20-35 but also include ski instructors and guides.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} There is always a lot of pressure to risk a snow crossing. Turning back takes a lot of extra time and effort, supreme leadership, and most importantly there seldom is an avalanche to prove the right decision was made. Making the decision to turn around is especially hard if others are crossing the slope, but any next person could become the trigger. There are many types of avalanche, but two types are of the most concern: #Slab avalanche #:This type of avalanche occurs when a plate of snow breaks loose and starts sliding down; these are the largest and most dangerous. ##Hard slab avalanche #::This type of avalanche is formed by hard-packed snow in a cohesive slab. The slab will not break up easily as it slides down the hill, resulting in large blocks tumbling down the mountain. ##Soft slab avalanche #::This type of avalanche is formed again by a cohesive layer of snow bonded together, the slab tends to break up more easily. #Loose snow avalanche #:This type of avalanche is triggered by a small amount of moving snow that accumulates into a big slide. Also known as a "wet slide or point release" avalanche. This type of avalanche is deceptively dangerous as it can still knock a climber or skier off their feet and bury them, or sweep them over a cliff into a terrain trap. Dangerous slides are most likely to occur on the same slopes preferred by many skiers: long and wide open, few trees or large rocks, 30 to 45 degrees of angle, large load of fresh snow, soon after a big storm, on a slope 'lee to the storm'. Solar radiation can trigger slides as well. These will typically be a point release or wet slough type of avalanche. The added weight of the wet slide can trigger a slab avalanche. Ninety percent of reported victims are caught in avalanches triggered by themselves or others in their group. When going off-piste or traveling in alpine terrain, parties are advised to always carry: #[[avalanche beacon]] #probe #shovel (retrieving victims with a shovel instead of your hands is five times faster) and to have had avalanche training! Paradoxically, expert skiers who have avalanche training make up a large percentage of avalanche fatalities; perhaps because they are the ones more likely to ski in areas prone to avalanches, and certainly because most people do not practice enough with their equipment to be truly fast and efficient rescuers. Even with proper rescue equipment and training, there is a one-in-five chance of dying if caught in a significant avalanche, and only a 50/50 chance of being found alive if buried more than a few minutes. The best solution is to learn how to avoid risky conditions. ===Ice slopes=== [[Image:Mountaineers in High Tatry mountains winter.jpg|thumb|right|Mountaineers descending mixed rock, snow and ice slope in winter [[High Tatras]].]] For travel on slopes consisting of ice or hard snow, [[crampons]] are a standard part of a mountaineer's equipment. While step-cutting can sometimes be used on snow slopes of moderate angle, this can be a slow and tiring process, which does not provide the higher security of crampons. However, in soft snow or powder, crampons are easily hampered by balling of snow, which reduces their effectiveness. In either case, an [[ice axe]] not only assists with balance but provides the climber with the possibility of self-arrest in case of a slip or fall. On a true ice slope however, an ice axe is rarely able to effect a self-arrest. As an additional safety precaution on steep ice slopes, the climbing rope is attached to [[Glossary of climbing terms#Ice screw|ice screws]] buried into the ice. True ice slopes are rare in [[Europe]], though common in mountains located in the tropics, where newly-fallen snow quickly thaws on the surface and becomes sodden below, so that the next night's frost turns the whole mass into a sheet of semi-solid ice. ===Snow slopes=== [[Image:Hauteroute-alps-seabhcan.jpg|thumb|300px|Part of the [[Haute Route]] between [[France]] and [[Swiss Alps|Switzerland]]; two alpinists can be seen following the trail in the snow.]] Snow slopes are very common, and usually easy to ascend. At the foot of a snow or ice slope is generally a big crevasse, called a ''[[bergschrund]]'', where the final slope of the mountain rises from a snow-field or glacier. Such ''bergschrunds'' are generally too wide to be stepped across, and must be crossed by a [[snow bridge]], which needs careful testing and a painstaking use of the rope. A steep snow slope in bad condition may be dangerous, as the whole body of snow may start as an avalanche. Such slopes are less dangerous if ascended directly, rather than obliquely, for an oblique or horizontal track cuts them across and facilitates movement of the mass. New snow lying on ice is especially dangerous. Experience is needed for deciding on the advisability of advancing over snow in doubtful condition. Snow on rocks is usually rotten unless it is thick; snow on snow is likely to be sound. A day or two of fine weather will usually bring new snow into sound condition. Snow cannot lie at a very steep angle, though it often deceives the eye as to its slope. Snow slopes seldom exceed 40°. Ice slopes may be much steeper. Snow slopes in early morning are usually hard and safe, but the same in the afternoon are quite soft and possibly dangerous; hence the advantage of an early start. ===Crevasses=== [[Crevasse]]s are the slits or deep chasms formed in the substance of a glacier as it passes over an uneven bed. They may be open or hidden. In the lower part of a glacier the crevasses are open. Above the snow-line they are frequently hidden by arched-over accumulations of winter snow. The detection of hidden crevasses requires care and experience. After a fresh fall of snow they can only be detected by sounding with the pole of the ice axe, or by looking to right and left where the open extension of a partially hidden crevasse may be obvious. The safeguard against accident is the rope, and no one should ever cross a snow-covered glacier unless roped to one, or even better to two companions. Anyone venturing onto crevasses should be trained in [[crevasse rescue]]. ===Weather=== The primary dangers caused by bad weather centre around the changes it causes in snow and rock conditions, making movement suddenly much more arduous and hazardous than under normal circumstances. [[Image:Blizzard Mt Keen.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Poor visibility in blizzard conditions.]] [[Whiteout (weather)|Whiteout]]s make it difficult to retrace a route while rain may prevent taking the easiest line only determined as such under dry conditions. In a storm the mountaineer who uses a [[compass]] for guidance has a great advantage over a merely empirical observer. In large snow-fields it is, of course, easier to go wrong than on rocks, but intelligence and experience are the best guides in safely navigating objective hazards. Summer [[thunderstorm]]s may produce intense [[lightning]]. If a climber happens to be standing on or near the summit, they risk being struck. There are many cases where people have been struck by lightning while climbing mountains. In most mountainous regions, local storms develop by late morning and early afternoon. Many climbers will get an "alpine start"; that is before or by first light so as to be on the way down when storms are intensifying in activity and lightning and other weather hazards are a distinct threat to safety. ===Altitude=== Rapid ascent can lead to [[altitude sickness]]. The best treatment is to descend immediately. The climber's motto at high altitude is "climb high, sleep low", referring to the regimen of climbing higher to acclimatize but returning to lower elevation to sleep. In the South American Andes, the chewing of [[coca|coca leaves]] has been traditionally used to treat altitude sickness symptoms. Common symptoms of altitude sickness include severe headache, sleep problems, nausea, lack of appetite, lethargy and body ache. Mountain sickness may progress to HACE ([[High altitude cerebral edema|High Altitude Cerebral Edema]]) and HAPE ([[High Altitude Pulmonary Edema]]), both of which can be fatal within 24 hours. In high mountains, atmospheric pressure is lower and this means that less oxygen is available to breathe. This is the underlying cause of altitude sickness. Everyone needs to acclimatize, even exceptional mountaineers that have been to high altitude before. Generally speaking, mountaineers start using bottled oxygen when they climb above 7,000 m. Exceptional mountaineers have climbed [[Eight-thousander|8000-metre peaks]] (including [[Mount Everest|Everest]]) without oxygen, almost always with a carefully planned program of acclimatization. In 2005, researcher and mountaineer John Semple established that above-average ozone concentrations on the [[Tibetan plateau]] may pose an additional risk to climbers.<ref name=UofT>[http://www.news.utoronto.ca/bin6/051207-1892.asp Mountainous plateau creates ozone 'halo' around Tibet]</ref> ==Locations== Mountaineering has become a popular sport throughout the world. In Europe the sport largely originated in the [[Alps]], and is still immensely popular there. Other notable mountain ranges frequented by climbers include the [[Caucasus]], the [[Pyrenees]], [[Rila Mountain]] and the [[Tatra mountains]]. In North America climbers frequent the [[Rocky Mountains|Rockies]] and Sierra Nevada of California, the [[Cascades]] of the [[Pacific Northwest]] and the high peaks of [[Alaska]]. There has been a long tradition of climbers going on expeditions to the [[Greater Ranges]], a term generally used for the [[Andes]] and the high peaks of Asia including the [[Himalaya]], [[Pamirs]] and [[Tien Shan]]. In the past this was often on exploratory trips or to make first ascents. With the advent of cheaper long-haul air travel mountaineering holidays in the Greater Ranges are now undertaken much more frequently and ascents of even [[Everest]] and [[Vinson Massif]] (the highest mountain in [[Antarctica]]) are offered as a "package holiday". Other popular mountaineering areas of more local interest include the [[Southern Alps]] of [[New Zealand]], the [[Japanese Alps]], the [[Coast Mountains]] of British Columbia, the [[Scottish Highlands]], and the mountains of [[Scandinavia]], especially [[Norway]]. ==History== * Though it is unknown whether his intention was to reach a summit, [[Ötzi]] ascended at least 3,000&nbsp;m in the Alps about 5,300 years ago. His remains were found at that altitude, preserved in a glacier. * The first recorded mountain ascent in the [[Common Era]] is Roman Emperor [[Hadrian]]'s ascent of [[Mount Etna|Etna]] (3,350&nbsp;m) to see the sun rise in 121. * [[Peter III of Aragon]] climbed [[Canigou]] in the [[Pyrenees]] in the last quarter of the 13th century. * The [[first ascent]] of the [[Popocatépetl]] (5,426&nbsp;m in [[Mexico]]) was reported in 1289 by members of a local [[tribe]] (Tecanuapas) *[[Jean Buridan]] climbed [[Mont Ventoux]] around 1316.<ref>[[Lynn Thorndike]], [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-5037%28194301%294%3A1%3C49%3ASROTQO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-W Renaissance or Prenaissance], ''Journal of the History of Ideas'', Vol. 4, No. 1. (Jan., 1943), pp. 69-74.</ref> * The Italian poet [[Petrarch]] wrote that on [[April 26]], [[1336]] he, together with his brother and two servants, climbed to the top of [[Mont Ventoux]] (1,909&nbsp;m). His [[Ascent of Mont Ventoux | account of the trip]] was composed later as a letter to his friend [[Dionigi di Borgo San Sepolcro]].<ref>The Ascent of Mount Ventoux http://www.idehist.uu.se/distans/ilmh/Ren/ren-pet-ventoux.htm http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/petrarch-ventoux.html http://petrarch.petersadlon.com/read_letters.html?s=pet17.html</ref> * The [[Rochemelon]] (3,538&nbsp;m) in the Italian [[Alps]] was climbed in 1358. * In the late 1400s and early 1500s ascents were made of numerous high peaks in the [[Andes]], for religious purposes by the citizens of the [[Inca Empire]] and their subjects. They constructed platforms, houses and altars on many summits and carried out sacrifices, including [[human sacrifices]]. The highest peak they are known for certain to have climbed is [[Llullaillaco]] (6,739&nbsp;m). They may also have ascended the highest peak in the Andes, [[Aconcagua]] (6,962&nbsp;m) as a sacrifice victim has been found at over 5,000&nbsp;m on this peak.{{Fact|date=June 2007}} * In 1492 the ascent of [[Mont Aiguille]] was made by order of [[Charles VIII of France]]. The [[Humanism|Humanists]] of the 16th century adopted a new attitude towards mountains, but the disturbed state of Europe nipped in the bud the nascent mountaineering of the Zurich school. * [[Leonardo da Vinci]] climbed to a snow-field in the neighborhood of the [[Val Sesia]] and made scientific observations. * In 1642 [[Darby Field]] made the first recorded ascent of [[Mount Washington (New Hampshire)|Mount Washington]], then known as Agiocochook, in [[New Hampshire]]. * [[Konrad Gesner]] and [[Josias Simler]] of [[Zurich]] visited and described mountains, and made regular ascents. The use of [[ice axe]] and rope were locally invented at this time. No mountain expeditions of note are recorded in the 17th century. * [[Richard Pococke]] and [[William Windham, Sr.|William Windham]]'s historic visit to [[Chamonix]] was made in 1741, and set the trend for visiting [[glacier]]s. * In 1744 the Titus was climbed, the first true ascent of a snow-mountain. * The first attempt to ascend [[Mont Blanc]] was made in 1775 by a party of natives. In 1786 Dr [[Michel Paccard]] and [[Jacques Balmat]] gained the summit for the first time. [[Horace-Bénédict de Saussure]], the initiator of the first ascent followed next year. * The [[Norway|Norwegian]] mountain climber, [[Jens Esmark]] was the first person to ascend [[Snøhetta]] in 1798, part of the [[Dovrefjell|Dovrefjell range]] in Southern [[Norway]]. The same year he lead the first expedition to [[Bitihorn]], a small mountain in the southernmost outskirts of [[Jotunheimen]], Norway. In 1810 he was the first person to ascend [[Gaustatoppen|Mount Gaustatoppen]] in [[Telemark]], Norway. * The [[Grossglockner]] was climbed in 1800, the [[Ortler]] in 1804, the [[Jungfrau]] in 1811, the [[Finsteraarhorn]] in 1812, and the [[Breithorn]] in 1813. Thereafter, tourists showed a tendency to climb, and the body of Alpine guides began to come into existence as a consequence. * [[Citlaltépetl]] (5720&nbsp;m in [[Mexico]]) was first climbed in 1848 by F. Maynard & G. Reynolds. * Systematic mountaineering, as a sport, is usually dated from Sir [[Alfred Wills]]'s ascent of the [[Wetterhorn]] in 1854. The first ascent of [[Monte Rosa]] was made in 1855. * The [[Alpine Club (UK)|Alpine Club]] was founded in London in 1857, and was soon imitated in most European countries. [[Edward Whymper]]'s ascent of the [[Matterhorn]] in 1865 marked the close of the main period of Alpine conquest – the [[Golden age of alpinism]] – during which the craft of climbing was invented and 'perfected', the body of professional guides formed and their traditions fixed. * Passing to other ranges, the exploration of the [[Pyrenees]] was concurrent with that of the Alps. The [[Caucasus]] followed, mainly owing to the initiative of [[D. W. Freshfield]]; it was first visited by exploring climbers in 1868, and most of its great peaks were climbed by 1888. * The [[Edelweiss Club Salzburg]] was founded in Salzburg in 1881, and had 3 members make the first ascent on two [[Eight-thousanders]], [[Broad Peak]] (1957) and [[Dhaulagiri]] (1960). * Trained climbers turned their attention to the mountains of [[North America]] in 1888, when the Rev. W. S. Green made an expedition to the [[Selkirk Mountains]]. From that time exploration has gone on apace, and many English and American climbing parties have surveyed most of the highest peaks; [[Pikes Peak]] (14,115 ft) having been climbed by Mr. E. James and party in 1820, and [[Mount Saint Elias|Mt. Saint Elias]] (18,008 ft) by the [[Duke of the Abruzzi]] and party in 1897. The exploration of the highest [[Andes]] was begun in 1879-1880, when Whymper climbed [[Chimborazo (volcano)|Chimborazo]] and explored the mountains of [[Ecuador]]. The [[American cordillera|Cordillera]] between Chile and Argentina was visited by [[Paul Güssfeldt|Dr. Gussfeldt]] in 1883, who ascended [[Maipo (volcano)|Maipo]] (17,270 ft) and attempted [[Aconcagua]] (22,841 ft). That peak was first climbed by the Fitzgerald expedition in 1897. * The [[Andes]] of [[Bolivia]] were first explored by Sir [[William Martin Conway]] in 1898. Chilean and Argentine expeditions revealed the structure of the southern Cordillera in the years 1885-1898. Conway visited the mountains of [[Tierra del Fuego]]. * [[New Zealand]]'s [[Southern Alps]] were first visited in 1882 by the Rev. W. S. Green, and shortly afterwards a New Zealand Alpine Club was founded, and by their activities the exploration of the range was pushed forward. In 1895, [[Major Edward Arthur Fitzgerald]], made an important journey in this range. Tom Fyfe and party climbed [[Aoraki/Mount Cook]] on Christmas Day 1894, denying Fitzgerald the first ascent. Fitzgerald was en route from Britain with Swiss guide [[Matthias Zurbriggen]] to claim the peak. So piqued at being beaten to the top of Mount Cook, he refused to climb it and concentrated on other peaks in the area. Later in the trip Zubriggen soloed Mount Cook up a ridge that now bears his name. * The first mountains of the [[arctic]] region explored were those of [[Spitsbergen]] by Sir W. M. Conway's expeditions in 1896 and 1897. * Of the high African peaks, [[Kilimanjaro]] was climbed in 1889 by Dr. [[Hans Meyer]], [[Mount Kenya|Mt. Kenya]] in 1899 by [[Halford John Mackinder]]<ref name=mackinder>{{cite journal | last = Mackinder | first = Halford John | authorlink = Halford John Mackinder | year = 1900 | month = May | title = A Journey to the Summit of Mount Kenya, British East Africa | journal = The Geographical Journal | volume = 15 | issue = 5 | pages = 453–476 | doi = 10.2307/1774261 | url = http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0016-7398%28190005%2915%3A5%3C453%3AAJTTSO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Y | language = English | accessdate = 2007-05-28 }}</ref>, and a peak of [[Ruwenzori]] by H. J. Moore in 1900. * The Asiatic mountains were initially surveyed on orders of the [[British Empire]]. In 1892 Sir [[William Martin Conway]] explored the [[Karakoram]] [[Himalaya]], and climbed a peak of {{convert|23000|ft|m|abbr=on}} In 1895 [[Albert F. Mummery]] died while attempting [[Nanga Parbat]], while in 1899 D. W. Freshfield took an expedition to the snowy regions of [[Sikkim]]. In 1899, 1903, 1906 and 1908 Mrs [[Fannie Bullock Workman]] made ascents in the Himalayas, including one of the [[Nun Kun]] peaks (23,300 ft). A number of [[Gurkha]] sepoys were trained as expert mountaineers by Major the Hon. C. G. Bruce, and a good deal of exploration was accomplished by them. * [[The Rucksack Club]] was founded in [[Manchester]], England in 1902. * The [[American Alpine Club]] was founded in 1902. * In 1902, the Eckenstein-Crowley Expedition, lead by mountaineer [[Oscar Eckenstein]] and occultist [[Aleister Crowley]], was the first to attempt to scale Chogo Ri (now known as [[K2]] in the west). They reached {{convert|22000|ft|m}} before turning back due to weather and other mishaps. * In 1905, Aleister Crowley led the first expedition to Kanchenjunga, the third highest mountain in the world. Four members of that party were killed in an avalanche. Some claims say they reached around {{convert|21300|ft|m}} before turning back, however Crowley's autobiography claims they reached about {{convert|25000|ft|m}}. * The 1950s saw the first ascents of all the [[eight-thousander]]s but two, starting with [[Annapurna]] in 1950 by [[Maurice Herzog]] and [[Louis Lachenal]]. The world's highest mountain (above mean sea level), [[Mount Everest]] (8,848&nbsp;m) was first climbed on [[May 29]] [[1953]] by [[Edmund Hillary|Sir Edmund Hillary]] and [[Tenzing Norgay]] from the south side in [[Nepal]]. Just a few months later, [[Hermann Buhl]] made the first ascent of [[Nanga Parbat]] (8,125&nbsp;m), a siege style expedition culminating in a remarkable solo push for the summit, it's the only eight-thousander to be summited solo on the first ascent. [[K2]] (8,611&nbsp;m), the second highest peak in the world was first scaled in 1954. In 1964, the final eight-thousander to be climbed was [[Shishapangma]] (8,013&nbsp;m), the lowest of all the 8,000 metre peaks. ==Further reading== *Sherry B. Ortner, ''Life & Death on Mt. Everest: Sherpas & Himalayan Mountaineer'', Princeton University Press 1999 ==See also== * [[List of climbers]] * [[Ski mountaineering]] * [[Glossary of climbing terms]] * [[List of climbing topics]] * [[Mountain rescue]] * [[Peak bagging]] * [[Highest unclimbed mountain]] * [[Mountain hut]] * [[The Mountaineers (Pacific NW)]] * [[Outdoor education]] * [[Lead climbing]] * [[Rope access]] ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==External links== {{commons|Mountaineering|Mountaineering}} *[http://content.lib.washington.edu/mtnweb/index.html University of Washington Libraries Digital Collections – The Mountaineers Collection] Photographic albums and text documenting the Mountaineers official annual outings undertaken by club members from 1907-1951, primarily on the Olympic Peninsula, in Mount Rainier National Park and on Glacier Peak. *[http://content.lib.washington.edu/cmpweb/exhibits/mountaineers/index.html University of Washington Libraries Digital Collections – Mountaineers: 1920 Outing to Mt. Olympus)] Online museum exhibit includes images of camps, maps, and excerpts from the 1913 essay ''Melodious Days'' by Hugh Elmer Brown. *[http://www.everest1953.co.uk Mount Everest The British Story] *[http://www.thebmc.co.uk/ The British Mountaineering Council (BMC) Website] {{Template:Adventure travel}} [[Category:Mountaineering| ]] [[Category:Climbing techniques]] [[Category:Climbing]] <!-- interwiki --> [[bg:Алпинизъм]] [[ca:Alpinisme]] [[cs:Alpinismus]] [[cy:Mynydda]] [[de:Alpinismus]] [[el:Αλπινισμός]] [[es:Montañismo]] [[fa:کوهنوردی]] [[fr:Alpinisme]] [[hr:Alpinizam]] [[it:Alpinismo]] [[he:טיפוס הרים]] [[ht:Alpinis]] [[lv:Alpīnisms]] [[ja:登山]] [[no:Fjellsport]] [[pl:Alpinizm]] [[pt:Montanhismo]] [[ro:Alpinism]] [[qu:Qaqa siqay]] [[ru:Альпинизм]] [[sl:Alpinizem]] [[sr:Планинарење]] [[fi:Vuorikiipeily]] [[sv:Klättring#Alpin_kl.C3.A4ttring]] [[ta:மலையேற்றம்]] [[te:పర్వతారోహణ]] [[th:การปีนเขา]] [[tr:Dağcılık]] [[uk:Альпінізм]]