Mud volcano
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:''Note: See the [[volcano]] article for information on [[magma]]tic volcanoes such as [[Mount St. Helens]] or [[Kilauea]].''
:''The hydrothermal phenomenon known as "mud volcanoes" are often not true mud volcanoes; see [[mud pot]] for more information.''
[[Image:Mud volcano Salton Sea.jpg|thumb|A gaseous mud volcano]]
The term '''mud volcano''' or '''mud dome''' is used to refer to formations created by geo-excreted liquids and gases, although there are several different processes which may cause such activity. Temperatures are much cooler than igneous processes. The largest structures are 10 km in diameter and reach 700 metres in height.
About 86% of released gases are [[methane]], with much less [[carbon dioxide]] and [[nitrogen]] emitted. Ejected materials often are a slurry of fine solids suspended in liquids which may include water (frequently [[acid]]ic or salty) and [[hydrocarbon]] fluids.
==Details==
[[Image:Usgs-of99-570 mud volcano.png|right|thumbnail|350px|Mud volcano in the [[Gulf of Mexico]] sea bottom.]]
A '''mud volcano''' may be the result of a [[piercement structure]] created by a pressurized mud [[diapir]] which breaches the Earth's surface or ocean bottom. Temperatures may be as low as the freezing point of ejected materials, particularly when venting is associated with the creation of [[hydrocarbon]] [[clathrate hydrate]] deposits.
Mud volcanoes are often associated with [[petroleum]] deposits and tectonic [[subduction]] zones and [[orogeny|orogenic belts]]; hydrocarbon gases are often erupted. They are also often associated with [[volcano|lava volcanoes]]; in the case of such close proximity, mud volcanoes emit incombustible gases including helium, whereas lone mud volcanoes are more likely to emit methane.
In [[Azerbaijan]], eruptions are driven from a deep mud reservoir which is connected to the surface even during dormant periods, when seeping water still shows a deep origin. [[Seep]]s have temperatures up to 2–3 °C above the ambient temperature.<ref name="planke2003">{{cite journal | author=S. Planke, H. Svensen, M. Hovland, D. A. Banks, B. Jamtveit | title=Mud and fluid migration in active mud volcanoes in Azerbaijan | journal=Geo-Marine Letters | year=December 2003 | volume=23 | issue=3-4 | pages=258–268|doi=10.1007/s00367-003-0152-z}}</ref>
Approximately 1,100 mud volcanoes have been identified on land and in shallow water. It has been estimated that well over 10,000 may exist on [[continental shelf|continental slopes]] and [[abyssal plain|abyssal plains]].
Mud volcanoes are frequently associated with earthquake zones. Many scientists suggest monitoring gas emissions and activity of mud volcanoes because they can be suitable to predict strong earthquakes.{{Fact|date=November 2007}}
=== Features ===
* [[Gryphon (geology)|Gryphon]]: steep-sided cone shorter than 3 meters that extrudes mud
* Mud [[volcanic cone|cone]]: high cone shorter than 10 meters that extrudes mud and rock fragments
* [[Scoria]] cone: cone formed by heating of mud deposits during fires
* [[Salse]]: water-dominated pools with gas seeps
* Spring: water-dominated outlets smaller than 0.5 meters
* Mud shield and many other kinds of features
=== Emissions ===
Most liquid and solid material is released during eruptions, but various seeps occur during dormant periods.
First order estimates of mud volcano emissions have been recently made (1Tg = 1 million metric tonnes).
* 2002: L.I. Dimitrov estimated that 10.2–12.6 [[teragram|Tg]]/yr of methane is released from onshore and shallow offshore mud volcanoes.
* 2002: Etiope and Klusman in 2002 estimated at least 1–2 and as much as 10–20 Tg/yr of methane may be emitted from onshore mud volcanoes.
* 2003: Etiope, in an estimate based on 120 mud volcanoes: "The emission results to be conservatively between 5 and 9 Tg/yr, that is 3–6% of the natural methane sources officially considered in the atmospheric methane budget. The total geologic source, including MVs (this work), seepage from seafloor (Kvenvolden et al., 2001), microseepage in hydrocarbon-prone areas and geothermal sources (Etiope and Klusman, 2002), would amount to 35–45 Tg/yr."<ref name="etiope2003gsa">{{cite conference | author=Etiope, Giuseppe | title=A NEW ESTIMATE OF GLOBAL METHANE FLUX TO THE ATMOSPHERE FROM ONSHORE AND SHALLOW SUBMARINE MUD VOLCANOES | booktitle=Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs | year=2003 | pages=115}} {{cite web | title=A NEW ESTIMATE OF GLOBAL METHANE FLUX TO THE ATMOSPHERE FROM ONSHORE AND SHALLOW SUBMARINE MUD VOLCANOES | work=XVI INQUA Congress | url=http://gsa.confex.com/gsa/inqu/finalprogram/abstract_53365.htm | accessmonthday=April 20 | accessyear=2005}}</ref>
* 2003: Milkov et al's analysis suggests that the global gas flux may be as high as 33 Tg/yr (15.9 Tg/yr during quiescent periods plus 17.1 Tg/yr during eruptions). 6 Tg/yr of greenhouse gases from onshore and shallow offshore mud volcanoes. Deep-water sources may emit 27 Tg/yr. Total may be 9% of fossil CH<sub>4</sub> missing in the modern atmospheric CH<sub>4</sub> budget, and 12% in the preindustrial budget.<ref name="milkov2003a">{{cite journal | author=Milkov, A. V., R. Sassen, T. V. Apanasovich, and F. G. Dadashev | title=Global gas flux from mud volcanoes: A significant source of fossil methane in the atmosphere and the ocean | journal=Geophys. Res. Lett. | volume=30 | issue=2 | year=2003 | pages=1037|doi=10.1029/2002GL016358}}</ref>
* 2003: Alexei Milkov estimated approximately 30.5 Tg/yr of gases (mainly methane and CO<sub>2</sub>) may escape from mud volcanoes to the atmosphere and the ocean.<ref name="milkov2003aapg">{{cite web | title=Global Distribution and Significance of Mud Volcanoes | work=AAPG Annual Meeting 2003: Energy - Our Monumental Task | url=http://aapg.confex.com/aapg/sl2003/techprogram/paper_77807.htm | accessmonthday=April 20 | accessyear=2005}}</ref>
* 2003: Achim J. Kopf estimated 1.97 × 10<sup>11</sup> to 1.23 × 10<sup>14</sup> m³ of methane is released by all mud volcanoes per year, of which 4.66 × 10<sup>7</sup> to 3.28 × 10<sup>11</sup> m³ is from surface volcanoes.<ref name="kopf2003">{{cite journal | author=Achim J. Kopf | title=Global methane emission through mud volcanoes and its past and present impact on the Earth''s climate | journal=International Journal of Earth Sciences | volume=92 | issue=5 | year=2003 | pages=806–816|doi=10.1007/s00531-003-0341-z}} ISSN 1437-3254 (Paper) ISSN 1437-3262 (Online)</ref> That converts to 141–88,000 Tg/yr from all mud volcanoes, of which 0.033–235 Tg is from surface volcanoes.
==Locations==
[[Image:Gas hydrates 1996.jpg|right|thumbnail|350px|Hydrate-bearing sediments, which often are associated with mud volcano activity.<br>Source: [[USGS]], 1996.]]
===Europe and Asia===
Mud volcanoes are generally few in Europe, but dozens can be found on the [[Taman Peninsula]] of [[Russia]] and [[Kerch Peninsula]] of southeastern [[Ukraine]].
In [[Italy]] they are common in the northern front of the [[Apennine Mountains|Apennines]] and in [[Sicily]].
Another relatively accessible place where mud volcanoes can be found in Europe are the [[Berca Mud Volcanoes]] near Berca in [[Buzău County]], [[Romania]] close to the [[Carpathian Mountains]].
Many mud volcanoes exist on the shores of the [[Black Sea]] and [[Caspian Sea]]. [[Tectonic]] forces and large sedimentary deposits around the latter have created several fields of mud volcanoes, many of them emitting methane and other hydrocarbons. Features over 200 meters high exist in [[Azerbaijan]], with large eruptions sometimes producing flames of similar scale (see below). [[Iran]] and [[Pakistan]] also possess mud volcanoes in the [[Makran]] range of mountains in the south of the two countries.
[[China]] has a number of mud volcanoes in [[Xinjiang]] province. There are also mud volcanoes at the Arakan Coast in Myanmar. There are two active mud volcanoes in South [[Taiwan]], and several inactive ones.
The island of [[Baratang]], part of the [[Great Andaman]] archipelago in the [[Andaman Islands]], [[Indian Ocean]] has several sites of mud volcanic activity. The was a significant eruption event in [[2003]].
A drilling accident offshore of Brunei in 1979 caused a mud volcano which took 20 relief wells and nearly 30 years to stop the eruption.
Drilling or an [[earthquake]] may have resulted in the [[Sidoarjo mud flow]] on [[May 29th]], [[2006]] in the [[Porong]] sub district of [[East Java]] province, [[Indonesia]]. The mud covered about 440 hectares, or 1,087 acres and inundated four villages, homes, roads, rice fields, factories, and displaced about 24,000 people and killing 14. The gas exploration company was operated by [[PT Lapindo Brantas]]. In 2008 it has been termed the world's largest mud volcano and is beginning to show signs of catastrophic collapse, according to geologists who have been monitoring it and the surrounding area. A catastrophic collapse could sag the vent and surrounding area by up to 150 meters in the next decade. In March 2008, the scientists observed drops of up to 3 meters in one night. Most of the subsidence in the area around the volcano is more gradual, at around 0.1cm per day. Now named [[Lusi]], the mud volcano appears to be a hydrocarbon/hydrothermal hybrid. [[Lusi]] is actually a contraction of Lumpur [[Sidoarjo]] where lumpur is the Indonesian word for mud.
====Azerbaijan====
{{main|Gobustan State Reserve}}
[[Image:Mud Volcanoe.jpg|thumb|Lokbatan Mud Volcano eruption in Azerbaijan, 2001]]
It's estimated that 300 of the planet's estimated 700 mud volcanoes sit in Eastern [[Azerbaijan]] and the [[Caspian Sea]].<ref>[http://www.azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/ai112_folder/112_articles/112_mud_volcano.html 11.2 Mud Volcanoes - Mysterious Phenomena Fascinate Scientists and Tourists by Ronnie Gallagher<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
Many geologists as well as locals and international mud tourists trek to such places as the [[Firuz Crater]], [[Gobustan]], [[Salyan]] and end up happily covered in mud which is thought to have medicinal qualities.<ref>[http://www.istc.org/sisp/index.htm?fx=event&event_id=39793 Student Travel Information & Discounts - Events: Mud Volcanoes (Azerbaijan)<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> In 2001 one mud volcano 15 kilometers from [[Baku]] made world headlines when it suddenly started spewing flames 15 meters high.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/1626310.stm BBC News | SCI/TECH | Azeri mud volcano flares<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
'''Bold text'' mud volcanos are present in Balochistan Pakistan. On costal high to Gawadar
=== North and South America===
Mud volcanoes of the North American continent include:
* [[Shrub mud volcano|Shrub]] and [[Klawasi mud volcano]]es in the [[Copper River (Alaska)|Copper River basin]] by the [[Wrangell Mountains]], [[Alaska]], [[USA]]. Emissions are mostly CO<sub>2</sub> and nitrogen; the volcanoes are associated with [[magma]]tic processes.
* An unnamed mud volcano 30 m high and with a top about 100 m wide, 24 km off [[Redondo Beach, California|Redondo Beach]], [[California]], and 800 m under the surface of the [[Pacific Ocean]].
* A field of small (< 3 meters) mud volcanoes in the [[Salton Sea]] geothermal area near the town of [[Niland, California]]. Emissions are mostly CO<sub>2</sub>.
* Smooth Ridge mud volcano in 1,000 m of water near [[Monterey Canyon]], [[California]].
* [[Kaglulik]] mud volcano, 43 m under the surface of the [[Beaufort Sea]], near the northern boundary of [[Alaska]] and [[Canada]]. [[Petroleum]] deposits are believed to exist in the area.
* [[Maquinna (volcano)|Maquinna]] mud volcano, located 16-18 kilometers west of [[Vancouver Island]], [[British Columbia]], [[Canada]].
* There are many mud volcanoes in [[Trinidad and Tobago]] in the [[Caribbean]], near [[oil reserves]] in southern parts of the island of [[Trinidad]]. As of August 15, 2007, the mud volcano titled the Moruga Bouffle was said to being spitting up methane gas which show signs that it is definitely active. There are also several other mud volcanoes in the tropical island which include:
** the [[Devils Woodyard]] mud volcano near [[Hindustan, Trinidad and Tobago|Hindustan]]
** the [[Moruga Bouffe]] mud volcano near [[Moruga]]
** the [[Piparo]] mud volcano
** the [[Chatham, Trinidad and Tobago|Chatham]] mud volcano located underwater in the [[Columbus Channel]]; this mud volcano periodically produces a short-lived island.
[[Image:Volcan de lodo.jpg|thumb|right|Yagrumito Mud Volcano in Monagas, Venezuela. (6 km from Maturín)]]
South American mud volcanoes include:
* Venezuela. The Eastern part of Venezuela contains several mud volcanoes, all of them, like in Trinidad, having an origin related to oil deposits. The image shows the ''Volcán de lodo de Yagrumito'', about 6 km from Maturín, Venezuela. Its mud contains, water, biogenic gas, certain amount of hydrocarbons and an important quantity of salt. Cows from the [[savanna]] often gather around to lick the dried mud for its salt content which is an integral part of their diet needed to produce milk.
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Totumo.JPG|thumb|right|Volcan El Totumo, Colombia.]] -->
* Colombia. Volcan [[El Totumo]] [http://www.isic.org/sisp/index.htm?fx=event&event_id=29975], which marks the division between [[Bolivar]] and [[Atlantico]] in [[Colombia]]. This volcano is approximately 50 feet high and can accommodate 10 to 15 people on its crater, many tourists and locals visit this volcano due to the medicinal benefits of the mud, the volcano is located next to a "cienaga" or lake. This volcano is currently under a legal fight between the Bolivar and the Atlantico "Departamentos" because of its tourist value.
==== Yellowstone's "Mud Volcano" ====
[[Image:Yellowstone mud volcano 17894.jpg|thumb|left|Yellowstone's Mud Volcano feature. (NPS,Peaco,[[1998]]).]]
The name of [[Yellowstone National Park]]'s ''Mud Volcano'' feature and the surrounding area is misleading; it consists of [[hot spring]]s, [[mud pot]]s and [[fumarole]]s rather than a true mud volcano. Depending upon the precise definition of the term ''mud volcano'', the Yellowstone formation could be considered a hydrothermal mud volcano cluster. The feature is much less active than in its first recorded description, although the area is quite dynamic. Yellowstone is an active [[geothermal (geology)|geothermal]] area with a magma chamber near the surface, and active gases are chiefly steam, carbon dioxide, and [[hydrogen sulfide]].<ref name="usgsglossmudv">{{cite web | title=Mud volcano | work=USGS Photo glossary of volcano terms | url=http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Products/Pglossary/MudVolcano.html | accessmonthday=April 20 | accessyear=2005}}</ref>
The mud volcano in Yellowstone was previously a mound, until suddenly it tore itself apart into the formation seen today.{{Fact|date=November 2007}}
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== See also ==
* [[Volcano]] - igneous volcano
* [[Black smoker]]
* [[Cold seep]]
* [[Hydrothermal vent]]
* [[Lahar]] - mud flow
* [[Sand volcano]]
* [[Methane hydrate]]
* [[Nikolai Kudryavtsev]]
* [[abiogenic petroleum origin]]
== References ==
<div class="references-small"><references /></div>
== External links ==
* [http://www.carltonswcd.org/mud_volcanoes.htm Cold water mud vocanoes created by artesian pressure in Minnesota's Nemadji River basin]
* [http://bulletin.gia.az Bulletin Of Mud Volcanology] Azerbaijan Academy Of Sciences (In English)
* [http://soundwaves.usgs.gov/2003/06/outreach2.html Gaia's Breath—Methane and the Future of Natural Gas] - USGS, [[June 2003]]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/1626310.stm Azeri mud volcano flares] - [[October 29]] [[2001]] BBC report
* [http://walrus.wr.usgs.gov/cabrillo/tierra/methane_hydrate.html Redondo Beach mud volcano with methane hydrate deposits]
* [http://walrus.wr.usgs.gov/hydrocarbons/index.html Hydrocarbons Associated with Fluid Venting Process in Monterey Bay, California]
* [http://water.usgs.gov/pubs/wri/wri004207/ Hydrothermal Activity and Carbon-Dioxide Discharge at Shrub and Upper Klawasi Mud Volcanoes, Wrangell Mountains, Alaska] - U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 00-4207
* [http://www.gsi.gov.in/mudvol.htm Mud Volcano Eruption at Baratang, Middle Andamans]
* [http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/ai112_folder/112_articles/112_mud_volcano.html Article on mud volcanoes from Azerbaijan International]
* [http://www.bioedonline.org/news/news.cfm?art=2755 Mud volcano floods Java], August 2006
* [http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/BE5EF1A2-5B9A-4329-ACC9-7054CB62AD2F.htm Mud volcano work suspended, 25 Feb 2007, Al Jazeera English]
[[Category:Mud volcanoes| ]]
[[Category:Volcanology]]
[[Category:Subduction volcanoes]]
[[Category:Petrology]]
[[Category:Hydrothermal vents]]
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