Muséum national d'histoire naturelle
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[[Image:Grande Gallerie de l'evolution.jpg|thumb|300px|Famous Great Gallery of Evolution]]
[[Image:Arsinoitherium zitteli skull.JPG|thumb|250px|[[Arsinoitherium|''Arsinoitherium zitteli'']]]]
The '''Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle''' ('''MNHN''') is the [[France|French]] national [[museum]] of [[natural history]].
==History==
The museum was formally founded on [[10 June]] [[1793]], during the [[French Revolution]]. Its origins lie, however, in the ''Jardin royal des plantes médicinales'' (Royal Medicinal Plant Garden) created by [[Louis XIII of France|King Louis XIII]] in 1635, which was directed and run by the royal [[physician]]s. The royal proclamation of the boy-king [[Louis XV of France|Louis XV]] on [[31 March]] [[1718]], however, removed the medical function, enabling the garden—which became known simply as the ''Jardin du Roi'' (King's Garden)—to focus on natural history.
For much of the 18th century (1739–1788), the garden was under the direction of [[Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon]], one of the leading [[natural history|naturalists]] of the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], bringing international fame and prestige to the establishment. Incorporated as the Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle in 1793, opening in 1794 with, as one of its foundation professors, eminent evolutionary pioneer [[Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck]], it continued to flourish over the next century, and, particularly under the direction of [[chemist]] [[Michel Eugène Chevreul]], became a rival to the [[University of Paris]] in [[science|scientific]] research. For example, while [[Henri Becquerel]] held the chair for Applied Physics at the Muséum national d'histoire naturelle from 1892 till 1908 he discovered the radiation properties of [[uranium]]. It has to be noted that four generations of Becquerel had this position from 1838 untll 1948.<ref>{{cite journal
| author = A. Allisy
| title = Henri Becquerel: The Discovery of Radioactivity
| journal = Radiation Protection Dosimetry
| volume = 68
| issue =
| pages = 3–10
| year = 1996
| url = http://rpd.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/68/1-2/3
}}</ref>
A decree of [[12 December]] [[1891]] ended this phase, returning the museum to an emphasis on natural history. After receiving financial autonomy in 1907, it began a new phase of growth, opening facilities throughout France during the [[Interwar period|interwar]] years. In recent decades, it has concentrated its research and education efforts on the effects of human exploitation on the environment. Administratively speaking, it is classed as a ''[[grand établissement]]'' of higher education.
==Mission and organization==
The museum has as its mission both research (fundamental and applied) and public diffusion of knowledge. It is organized into seven research and three diffusion departments. The former are Classification and Evolution; Regulation, Development, and Molecular Diversity; Aquatic Environments and Populations; [[Ecology]] and [[Biodiversity]] Management; [[History of Earth]]; Men, Nature, and Societies; and [[Prehistory]]. The latter are the Galleries of the [[Jardin des Plantes]]; Botanical Parks and Zoos; and the Museum of Man (''Musée de l'Homme'').
==Location and branches==
The museum includes sites throughout France, including the original location at the [[Jardin des Plantes]] in the [[Ve arrondissement]] in [[Paris]] ([[Paris Métro|métro]] [[Place Monge (Paris Metro)|Place Monge]]). The galleries there include the [[Galerie de Minéralogie et de Géologie|Gallery of Mineralogy and Geology]], the [[galerie de paléontologie et d’anatomie comparée|Gallery of Palaeontology and Comparative Anatomy]], and the famous Grand Gallery of [[Evolution]] (''Grande Galerie de l'évolution''). The museum's [[Menagerie]] is also located here.
[[Image:Façade principale de la Gallerie de Paléontologie.jpg|thumb|250 px|Main façade of the Gallery.]]
The [[Musée de l'Homme]] is also in Paris, in the [[XVIe arrondissement]] ([[Paris Métro|métro]] [[Trocadéro (Paris Metro)|Trocadéro]]). It houses displays in [[ethnography]] and [[physical anthropology]], including [[artifact (archaeology)|artifact]]s, [[fossil]]s, and other objects.
Two [[zoo]]s, the Parc zoologique de [[Paris]] (also known as the [[Zoo de Vincennes]]), at the [[Bois de Vincennes]] in the [[XIIe arrondissement]], and the Parc zoologique de Clères, at a [[mediæval]] manor in [[Clères]] ([[Seine-Maritime]]), are also part of the museum.
==Directors of the Museum==
Directors elected for one year:
* 1793 to 1794 : [[Louis Jean-Marie Daubenton]].
* 1794 to 1795 : [[Antoine-Laurent de Jussieu]].
* 1795 to 1796 : [[Bernard Germain de Lacépède|Bernard Germain Étienne de Laville-sur-Illon, comte de Lacépède]].
* 1796 to 1797 : [[Louis Jean-Marie Daubenton]].
* 1797 to 1798 : [[Louis Jean-Marie Daubenton]].
* 1798 to 1799 : [[Antoine-Laurent de Jussieu]].
* 1799 to 1800 : [[Antoine-Laurent de Jussieu]].
Directors elected for two years:
* 1800 to 1801 : [[Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy|Antoine-François Fourcroy]].
* 1802 to 1803 : [[René Desfontaines]].
* 1804 to 1805 : [[Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy|Antoine-François Fourcroy]].
* 1806 to 1807 : [[René Desfontaines]].
* 1808 to 1809 : [[Georges Cuvier]].
* 1810 to 1811 : [[René Desfontaines]].
* 1812 to 1813 : [[André Laugier]].
* 1814 to 1815 : [[André Thouin]].
* 1816 to 1817 : [[André Thouin]].
* 1818 to 1819 : [[André Laugier]].
* 1820 to 1821 : [[René Desfontaines]].
* 1822 to 1823 : [[Georges Cuvier]].
* 1824 to 1825 : [[Louis Cordier]].
* 1826 to 1827 : [[Georges Cuvier]].
* 1828 to 1829 : [[René Desfontaines]].
* 1830 to 1831 : [[Georges Cuvier]].
* 1832 to 1833 : [[Louis Cordier]].
* 1834 to 1835 : [[Adrien de Jussieu]].
* 1836 to 1837 : [[Michel-Eugène Chevreul]].
* 1838 to 1839 : [[Louis Cordier]].
* 1840 to 1841 : [[Michel-Eugène Chevreul]].
* 1842 to 1843 : [[Adrien de Jussieu]].
* 1844 to 1845 : [[Michel-Eugène Chevreul]].
* 1846 to 1847 : [[Adolphe Brongniart]].
* 1848 to 1849 : [[Adrien de Jussieu]].
* 1850 to 1851 : [[Michel-Eugène Chevreul]].
* 1852 to 1853 : [[André Marie Constant Duméril]].
* 1854 to 1855 : [[Michel-Eugène Chevreul]].
* 1856 to 1857 : [[Marie Jean Pierre Flourens]].
* 1858 to 1859 : [[Michel-Eugène Chevreul]].
* 1860 to 1861 : [[Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire]].
* 1862 to 1863 : [[Michel-Eugène Chevreul]].
Directors elected for five years:
* 1863 to 1879 : [[Michel-Eugène Chevreul]].
* 1879 to 1891 : [[Edmond Frémy]].
* 1891 to 1900 : [[Alphonse Milne-Edwards]].
* 1900 to 1919 : [[Edmond Perrier]].
* 1919 to 1931 : [[Louis Mangin]].
* 1932 to 1936 : [[Paul Lemoine]].
* 1936 to 1942 : [[Louis Germain]].
* 1942 to 1949 : [[Achille Urbain]].
* 1950 to 1950 : [[René Jeannel]].
* 1951 to 1965 : [[Roger Heim]].
* 1966 to 1970 : [[Maurice Fontaine]].
* 1971 to 1975 : [[Yves Le Grand]].
* 1976 to 1985 : [[Jean Dorst]].
* 1985 to 1990 : [[Philippe Taquet]].
* 1994 to 1999 : [[Henry de Lumley]].
Presidents elected for five years:
* 2002-2006 : [[Bernard Chevassus-au-Louis]].
* 2006-... [[André Menez]]
==Chairs==
The transformation of the ''Jardin'' from the medicinal garden of the King to a national public museum of natural history required the creation of twelve Chaired positions. Over the ensuing years the number of Chairs and their subject areas evolved, some being subdivided into two positions and others removed. (These titles have been translated from the French. For the original French designations, see the French Wikipedia page on the same subject by clicking the word "français" in the lefthand margin of this page).
* '''Animal Anatomy'''
** 1793 to 1802 : [[Jean-Claude Mertrud]].
** 1802 to 1832 : [[Georges Cuvier]]. This Chair was renamed ''Comparative Anatomy''.
***'''Comparative Anatomy'''
**** 1832 to 1850 : [[Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville]].
**** 1850 to 1855 : [[Louis Georges Duvernoy]].
**** 1855 to 1868 : [[Antoine Serres]].
**** 1868 to 1879 : [[Paul Gervais]].
**** 1879 to 1894 : [[Georges Pouchet]].
**** 1894 to 1902 : [[Henri Filhol]].
**** 1903 to 1921 : [[Edmond Perrier]].
**** 1922 to 1941 : [[Raoul Anthony]].
**** 1942 : Empty.
**** 1943 to 1960 : [[Jacques Millot]].
**** 1961 : Empty.
**** 1962 to 1984 : [[Jean Anthony]].
**** 1984 to ???? : Empty.
*'''Human Anatomy'''
** 1793 to 1832 : [[Antoine Portal]].
** 1832 to 1838 : [[Pierre Flourens]]. This Chair was renamed ''Anatomy and Natural History of Man''.
*** '''Anatomy and Natural History of Man'''
**** 1839 to 1855 : [[Antoine Serres]]. This Chair was renamed ''Anthropology''.
***** '''Anthropology'''
****** 1855 to 1892 : [[Jean Louis Armand de Quatrefages de Bréau]].
****** 1892 to 1908 : [[Ernest Hamy]].
****** 1909 to 1927 : [[René Verneau| René Verneau]].
****** 1928 to 1936 : [[Paul Rivet]]. This Chair was renamed ''Ethnology of Modern Man and Fossilized Man'' when the [[Musée de l'Homme]] was created.
******* '''Ethnology of Modern Man and Fossilized Man'''
******** 1937 to 1940 : [[Paul Rivet]].
******** 1941 to 1944 : [[Henri Vallois]].
******** 1945 to 1949 : [[Paul Rivet]].
******** 1950 to 1959 : [[Henri Vallois]].
******** 1960 to 1967 : [[Henri Vallois]]. This Chair was renamed ''Anthropology and Ethnology''.
********* '''Anthropology and ethnology'''
********** 1968 to 1970 : [[Robert Gessain]]. This Chair was renamed ''Anthropology''.
*********** '''Anthropology'''
************ 1970 to 1979 : [[Robert Gessain]].
************ 1980 to 1983 : [[Yves Coppens]].
************ 1983 to 1985 : unknown.
* '''Comparative Physiology'''
** 1837-1838 : [[Frédéric Cuvier]]
** 1838-1867 : [[Pierre Flourens]]. This Chair was exchanged with the Chair of ''General Physiology'' by the faculty of Sciences in Paris.
*** 1868-1879 : [[Claude Bernard]]
*'''Chemistry'''
** 1779 to 1793 : [[Antoine-Louis Brongniart]].
** 1804 to 1830 : [[Louis-Nicolas Vauquelin]].
** 1830 to 1850 : [[Michel-Eugène Chevreul]]. This Chair was renamed ''Chemistry as Applied to Organic Compounds'' (Organic Chemistry).
*** '''Chemistry as Applied to Organic Compounds'''
*** 1850 to 1889 : [[Michel-Eugène Chevreul]].
**** 1890 to 1915 : [[Léon-Albert Arnaud]].
**** 1915 to 1919 : unknown.
**** 1919 to 1925 : [[Louis-Jacques Simon]].
**** 1926 to 1927 : unknown.
**** 1928 to 1936 : [[Richard Fosse]]. This Chair joined with the Chair of Botany to become the Chair of ''Organic and Physical Chemistry of Plants''.
***** '''Organic and Physical Chemistry of Plants'''
****** 1936 to 1940 : [[Richard Fosse]].
****** 1941 : unknown. This Chair was renamed ''Chemistry as Applied to Organic Compounds''.
******* '''Chemistry as Applied to Organic Compounds'''
******** 1941 to 1957 : [[Charles Sannié]].
******** 1958 to 1967 : [[Charles Mentzer]].
******** 1968 : unknown.
******** 1969 to ??? : [[Darius Molho]].
*'''General Chemistry'''
** 1793 to 1809 : [[Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy|Antoine-François Fourcroy]].
** 1809 to 1811 : unknown.
** 1811 to 1832 : [[André Laugier]].
** 1832 to 1850 : [[Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac]]. This Chair was renamed ''Chemistry as Applied to Inorganic Compounds''.
*** '''Chemistry as Applied to Inorganic Compounds'''
**** 1850 to 1892 : [[Edmond Frémy]]. This Chair was removed.
*'''Plants in the Countryside (literal translation)'''
** 1793 to 1826 : [[Antoine-Laurent de Jussieu]].
** 1826 to 1853 : [[Adrien de Jussieu]]. This Chair was removed and replaced by the Chair of ''Paleontology''.
*'''Botany in the Museum'''
** 1793 to 1833 : [[René Desfontaines]].
** 1833 to 1857 : [[Adolphe Brongniart]]. This Chair was renamed ''Botany and Plant Physiology''
*** '''Botany and Plant Physiology'''
**** 1857 to 1874 : [[Adolphe Brongniart]]. This Chair was renamed ''Botany, Organology and Plant Physiology''.
***** '''Botany, Organology and Plant Physiology'''
****** 1874 to 1876 : [[Adolphe Brongniart]].
****** 1876 to 1879 : unknown.
****** 1879 to 1914 : [[Philippe Van Tieghem]].
****** 1914 to 1918 : unknown.
****** 1919 to 1932 : [[Julien Costantin]].
****** 1933 : unknown. This Chair was renamed ''Comparative Anatomy of Current Plants and Fossils'' and was removed in 1934. It was restored in 1937.
******* '''Comparative Anatomy of Current Plants and Fossils'''
******** 1938 to 1944 : [[Paul Bertrand]].
******** 1945 to 1958 : [[Auguste Loubière]]. This Chair was changed to ''Plant Physics''.
*** '''Plant Physics'''
**** 1857 to 1897 : [[Georges Ville]].
**** 1898 to 1925 : [[Léon Maquenne]].
**** 1926 to 1931 : [[Marc Bridel]].
**** 1931 to 1934 : unknown. This Chair was removed in 1935. It was restored in 1959.
**** 1959 to 1960 : [[Pierre Donzelot]].
**** 1961 to 1962 : [[Charles Sadron]]. This Chair was renamed ''Biophysics''.
***** '''Biophysics'''
****** 1962 to 1975 : [[Charles Sadron]].
****** 1976 to ???? : [[Claude Hélène]].
* '''Botany (Classification and Natural Families)'''
** 1874 to 1905 : [[Édouard Bureau]]. After the creation of the Chair of ''Botany (Classification and Natural Families of Cryptogams)'', this Chair was reduced to the Phanerogams (Spermatophytes).
*** '''Botany (Classification and Natural Families of Phanerogams'''
**** 1906 to 1931 : [[Henri Lecomte]].
**** 1931 to 1933 : [[Jean-Henri Humbert]]. This Chair was renamed ''Phanerogamy''.
***** '''Phanerogamy'''
****** 1933 to 1957 : [[Jean-Henri Humbert]].
****** 1958 to 1968 : [[André Aubréville]].
****** 1969 to 1983 : [[Jean-François Leroy]].
****** 1983 to ??? : unknown.
*** '''Botany (Classification and Natural Families of Cryptogams'''
**** 1905 to 1931 : [[Louis Mangin]].
**** 1932 to 1932 : [[Pierre Allorge]]. This Chair was renamed ''Cryptogamy''.
***** '''Cryptogamy'''
****** 1933 to 1944 : [[Pierre Allorge]].
****** 1945 to 1973 : [[Roger Heim]].
****** 1974 : unknown.
****** 1975 to 1982 : [[Suzanne Jovet-Ast]].
****** 1982 to ??? : unknown.
* '''Horticulture (Agriculture and Culture of Gardens, Vineyards and Orchards)'''
** 1793 to 1824 : [[André Thouin]].
** 1825 to 1828 : [[Louis-Augustin Bosc d’Antic]].
** 1828 to 1850 : [[Charles-François Brisseau de Mirbel]].
** 1850 to 1882 : [[Joseph Decaisne]].
** 1883 : unknown.
** 1884 to 1901 : [[Maxime Cornu]].
** 1901 to 1919 : [[Julien Costantin]].
** 1920 to 1932 : [[Désiré Bois]].
** 1932 to 1956 : [[André Guillaumin]].
** 1956 to 1956 : unknown. This Chair was renamed ''Applied Plant Biology''.
*** '''Applied Plant Biology'''
**** 1961 to 1985 : [[Jean-Louis Hamel]].
* '''Ecology and the Protection of Nature'''
** 1955 to 1958 : [[Georges Kuhnholtz-Lordat]]. This Chair was renamed ''General Ecology''.
*** '''General Ecology'''.
**** 1960 to 1962 : [[Paul Rémy]].
**** 1963 to ??? : [[Claude Delamare-Deboutteville]].
*'''Zoology (Quadrupeds, Cetacea, Birds, Reptiles, Fish)'''
** 1793 to 1794 : [[Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire]]. This Chair was subdivided into two Chairs :
***'''Zoology (Mammals and Birds)'''
**** 1794 to 1841 : [[Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire]].
**** 1841 to 1861 : [[Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire]].
**** 1862 to 1876 : [[Henri Milne Edwards]].
**** 1876 to 1900 : [[Alphonse Milne-Edwards]].
**** 1900 to 1906 : [[Émile Oustalet]].
**** 1906 to 1926 : [[Édouard Trouessart]].
**** 1926 to 1947 : [[Édouard Bourdelle]].
**** 1948 : unknown.
**** 1949 to 1962 : [[Jacques Berlioz (zoologiste)|Jacques Berlioz]].
**** 1963 : unknown.
**** 1964 to ??? : [[Jean Dorst]].
***'''Zoology (Reptiles and Fish)'''
**** 1795 to 1825 : [[Bernard Germain de Lacépède|Bernard Germain Étienne de Laville-sur-Illon, comte de Lacépède]]. (N.b. 1825 is the year of Lacépède’s death, but actually Duméril replaced him in the Chair of Zoology as early as 1803 because Lacépède, who was occupied with his political appointments, relinquished his Professorship.
**** 1825 to 1857 : [[André Marie Constant Duméril]].
**** 1857 to 1870 : [[Auguste Duméril]].
**** 1870 to 1875 : [[Émile Blanchard]] (who held the Chair during a period of transition).
**** 1875 to 1909 : [[Léon Vaillant]].
**** 1910 to 1937 : [[Louis Roule]].
**** 1937 to 1943 : [[Jacques Pellegrin]].
**** 1944 to 1956 : [[Léon Bertin]].
**** 1957 to 1975 : [[Jean Guibé]]. This Chair was subdivided: The Fish were transferred to the Chair of ''Dynamics of Aquatic Populations'' and became the Chair of ''General and Applied Ichthyology''. This Chair was then renamed ''Zoology (Reptiles and Amphibians)''.
***** '''Zoology (Reptiles and Amphibians)'''
****** 1977 to ??? : [[Édouard-Raoul Brygoo]].
***** '''Dynamics of Aquatic Populations'''
****** 1975 : [[Jacques Daget]]. This Chair was renamed ''General and Applied Ichthyology''.
******* '''General and Applied Ichthyology'''
******** 1976 to 1984 : [[Jacques Daget]].
******** 1985 to ???? : unknown.
'''Zoology (Insects, Worms and Microscopic Animals)''' <ref>See: [[Jean Lhoste]] (1987), ''French entomologists (1750-1950)''. Editions INRA/OPIE. (In French)</ref>
** 1793 to 1829: [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck|Jean-Baptist de Lamarck]]. With his death, this Chair was subdivided into two Chairs:
*** '''Natural History of Shellfish, Arachnids and the Insects or Articulated Animals'''
**** 1830 to 1833 : [[Pierre André Latreille]].
**** 1833 to 1841 : [[Jean Victoire Audouin|Victor Audouin]].
**** 1841 to 1862 : [[Henri Milne Edwards]].
**** 1864 to 1894 : [[Émile Blanchard]].
**** 1895 to 1917 : [[Eugène Louis Bouvier|Louis Bouvier]]. This Chair is then restricted to only Insects and is renamed ''Entomology''.
***** '''Entomology'''
****** 1917 to 1931 : [[Eugène Louis Bouvier|Louis Bouvier]].
****** 1931 to 1950 : [[René Jeannel]].
****** 1951 to 1955 : [[Lucien Chopard]].
****** 1956 to 1960 : [[Eugène Séguy]].
****** 1961 : unknown.
****** 1962 to 1963 : [[Alfred Balachowsky]]. This Chair is renamed ''General and Applied Entomology''.
******* '''General and Applied Entomology'''
******** 1963 to 1974 : [[Alfred Balachowsky]].
******** 1975 to 1987 : [[Jacques Carayon]].
******** 1987 to 2000 : [[Claude Caussanel]].
******** 2000 to 2001 : [[Loïc Matile]].
*** '''Natural History of Mollusks, Worms and Zoophytes'''
**** 1830 to 1832 : [[Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville]].
**** 1832 to 1865 : [[Achille Valenciennes]].
**** 1865 to 1869 : [[Henri de Lacaze-Duthiers]].
**** 1869 to 1875 : [[Paul Deshayes]].
**** 1876 to 1903 : [[Edmond Perrier]].
**** 1903 to 1917 : [[Louis Joubin]]. This Chair is then restricted to Mollusks and Zoophytes is renamed ''Malacology''.
***** '''Malacology'''
****** 1917 to 1935 : [[Louis Joubin]].
****** 1935 to 1942 : [[Louis Germain]].
****** 1943 to 1970 : [[Édouard Fischer-Piette]]. This Chair is then attached to that of ''Biology of Marine Invertebrates''.
******* '''Biology of Marine Invertebrates'''
******** 1966 to ??? : [[Claude Lévi]].
*** '''Zoology (Worms and Crustaceans)'''
**** 1917 to 1937 : [[Charles Gravier (zoologist)|Charles Gravier]].
**** 1938 to 1954 : [[Louis Fage]].
**** 1955 to 1955 : [[Max Vachon]]. The Worms were separated from the Arthropods. The Chair of ''Zoology (Arthropods) was then created.
***** '''Zoology (Worms)'''
****** 1960 to ??? : [[Alain Chabaud]].
***** '''Zoology (Arthropods)'''
****** 1960 to 1978 : [[Max Vachon]].
****** 1979 to ??? : [[Yves Coineau]].
* '''Entomology of Colonial Agriculture'''
** 1942 to 1958 [[Paul Vayssière]]. This Chair was then renamed ''Entomology of Tropical Agriculture''.
*** '''Entomology of Tropical Agriculture'''
**** 1958 to 1960 [[Paul Vayssière]]. This Chair was then removed.
*'''Mineralogy'''
** 1793 to 1800 : [[Louis Jean-Marie Daubenton]].
** 1800 to 1802 : [[Déodat Gratet de Dolomieu]].
** 1802 to 1822 : [[René Just Haüy]].
** 1822 to 1847 : [[Alexandre Brongniart]].
** 1847 to 1857 : [[Armand Dufrénoy]].
** 1857 to 1876 : [[Gabriel Delafosse]].
** 1876 to 1892 : [[Alfred Des Cloizeaux]].
** 1893 to 1936 : [[Alfred Lacroix]].
** 1937 to 1967 : [[Jean Orcel]].
** 1968 to ??? : [[Jacques Fabriès]].
* '''Geology'''
** 1793 to 1819 : [[Barthélemy Faujas de Saint-Fond]].
** 1819 to 1861 : [[Louis Cordier]].
** 1861 to 1891 : [[Auguste Daubrée]].
** 1892 to 1919 : [[Stanislas-Étienne Meunier]].
** 1920 : unknown.
** 1921 to 1940 : [[Paul Lemoine]].
** 1941 to 1962 : [[René Abrard]].
** 1963 to 1980 : [[Robert Laffitte]].
** 1980 to ???? : [[Lucien Leclaire]].
*'''Physics as Applied to the Natural Sciences'''
** 1838 to 1877 : [[Antoine-César Becquerel]].
** 1878 to 1891 : [[A. E. Becquerel|Edmond Becquerel]].
** 1892 to 1908 : [[Henri Becquerel]].
** 1909 to 1948 : [[Jean Becquerel]].
** 1949 to 1977 : [[Yves Le Grand]]. This Chair was then combined with the Chair of ''Physical-Chemistry of Biological Adaptation.
*'''Natural Iconography or the Art of Drawing and Painting all the Things of Nature'''
** 1793 to 1822 [[Gérard van Spaendonck]]. This Chair is then removed.
== See also ==
* [[List of museums in Paris]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
{{Commonscat|Muséum national d'histoire naturelle}}
* [http://www.mnhn.fr/museum/foffice/transverse/transverse/accueil.xsp?cl=en MNHN official website] ''(English version)
{{coor title d|48.842109|N|2.356286|E|type:landmark_region:FR}}
*[http://www.rutelide-dundee.com/Marc3F.htm Popular and unofficial site] ''(French only)''
[[Category:1793 establishments|Museum national d'histoire naturelle]]
[[Category:Museums in Paris|Histoire naturelle]]
[[Category:Natural history museums|Museum national d'histoire naturelle]]
[[Category:National museums of France|Histoire naturelle]]
[[Category:Grands établissements|Museum national d'histoire naturelle]]
[[Category:Paris Ve arrondissement|Museum national d'histoire naturelle]]
[[ca:Muséum national d'histoire naturelle]]
[[de:Muséum national d’histoire naturelle]]
[[es:Museo Nacional de Historia Natural de Francia]]
[[fr:Muséum national d'histoire naturelle]]
[[it:Museo nazionale di storia naturale di Francia]]
[[la:Museum Nationale Historiae Naturalis (Lutetia)]]
[[ja:国立自然史博物館 (フランス)]]
[[pl:Muzeum Historii Naturalnej w Paryżu]]
[[pt:Muséum national d'histoire naturelle]]
[[ru:Музей естествознания (Париж)]]