Music
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'''Music''' is an [[art]] form in which the medium is [[sound]] organized in [[time]]. Common elements of music are [[pitch (music)|pitch]] (which governs [[melody]] and [[harmony]]), [[rhythm]] (and its associated concepts [[tempo]], [[meter (music)|meter]], and [[articulation (music)|articulation]]), [[dynamics (music)|dynamics]], and the sonic qualities of [[timbre]] and [[texture (music)|texture]]. The word derives from [[Greek language|Greek]] ''μουσική'' (''mousike''), "(art) of the [[Muses]]".<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2368891 Mousike, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', at Perseus]</ref>
== Definition of music ==
{{see also|Music genre}}
[[Image:Claves.png|thumb|Musical notations]]
[[Greek philosophy|Greek philosophers]] and ancient [[India]]ns defined music as tones ordered horizontally as melodies and vertically as harmonies. [[Music theory]], within this realm, is studied with the presupposition that music is orderly and often pleasant to hear. However, in the 20th century, composers challenged the notion that music had to be pleasant by creating music that explored harsher, darker [[timbre]]s. The existence of some modern-day music genres such as [[death metal]] and [[grindcore]], which enjoy an extensive [[Underground music|underground]] following, indicate that even the harshest sounds can be considered music if the listener is so inclined.
20th-century composer [[John Cage]] disagreed with the notion that music must consist of pleasant, discernible melodies. Instead, he argued that any sounds we can hear can be music, saying, for example, "There is no [[noise]], only sound."<ref>[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E0CE1DB1E3BF930A2575BC0A964958260 John Cage, 79, a Minimalist Enchanted With Sound, Dies]</ref> According to musicologist [[Jean-Jacques Nattiez]], "the border between music and noise is always culturally defined—which implies that, even within a single society, this border does not always pass through the same place; in short, there is rarely a consensus.… By all accounts there is no ''single'' and ''intercultural'' universal concept defining what music might be, except that it is 'sound through time'."<ref>Nattiez 1990: 47-8, 55</ref>
The creation, [[performance]], significance, and even the [[definition of music]] vary according to culture and social context. Music ranges from strictly organized compositions (and their recreation in performance), through improvisational music to [[Aleatory|aleatoric]] forms. Music can be divided into [[genre]]s and [[genre#subgenre|subgenres]], although the dividing lines and relationships between music genres are often subtle, sometimes open to individual interpretation, and occasionally controversial. Within "[[the arts]]", music can be classified as a [[performing arts|performing art]], a [[fine art]], or an auditory art form.
==History==
[[Image:Elam-tar.jpg|thumb|right|Figurines playing stringed instruments, excavated at [[Susa]], 2nd millennium BC. [[National Museum of Iran|Iran National Museum]].]]
{{main|History of music}}
The development of music among humans must have taken place against the backdrop of [[natural sounds]] such as birdsong and the sounds other animals use to communicate.{{Fact|date=November 2007}} [[Prehistoric music]] is the name which is given to all music produced in preliterate cultures.{{Fact|date=November 2007}}<ref>"Primitive music" is an obsolescent term for prehistoric music.{{Fact|date=November 2007}}</ref>
===Ancient===
{{global|section, particularly after about 950,}}{{main|Ancient music}}
A range of [[paleolithic]] sites have yielded bones in which lateral holes have been pierced: these are usually identified as [[flute]]s,<ref>Son et musique au paléolithique", Pour La Science,. 253, 52-58 (1998)</ref> blown at one end like the [[Japan]]ese [[shakuhachi]]. The earliest written records of musical expression are to be found in the [[Samaveda]] of [[India]] and in 4,000 year old [[Cuneiform script|cuneiform]] from [[Ur]].{{Fact|date=November 2007}} Instruments, such as the seven-holed flute and various types of [[String instrument|stringed instruments]] have been recovered from the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] archaeological sites.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN8170173329&id=yySNDP9XVggC&pg=PA11&lpg=PA11&dq=seven+holed+flute+and+various+types+of+stringed+instruments&sig=0baqFLb6KItfPYLoCdFWFTCD8Sk ''The Music of India''] By Reginald MASSEY, Jamila MASSEY. Google Books</ref> India has one of the oldest musical traditions in the world—references to [[Indian classical music]] (''marga'') can be found in the ancient scriptures of the [[Hindu]] tradition, the [[Vedas]]. The traditional art or court [[music of China]] has a history stretching for more than three thousand years. Music was an important part of cultural and social life in [[Ancient Greece]]: mixed-gender choruses performed for entertainment, celebration and spiritual ceremonies; musicians and singers had a prominent role in [[Theatre of ancient Greece|ancient Greek theater]]
In the 9th century, [[al-Farabi]] wrote a notable book on music titled ''[[Kitab al-Musiqi al-Kabir]]'' ("Great Book of Music"). He played and invented a variety of [[musical instrument]]s and devised the [[Arab tone system]] of pitch organisation, which is still used in [[Arabic music]].<ref>Touma (1996), p.170</ref>
===Medieval and Renaissance Europe===
{{main|Medieval music|Renaissance music}}
While musical life in [[Europe]] was undoubtedly rich in the early [[Middle Ages|Medieval]] era, as attested by artistic depictions of instruments, writings about music, and other records, the only European repertory which has survived from before about 800 is the [[monophony|monophonic]] [[Liturgy|liturgical]] [[plainsong]] of the [[Roman Catholic Church]], the central tradition of which was called [[Gregorian chant]]. Several schools of liturgical [[polyphony]] flourished beginning in the 12th century. Alongside these traditions of [[Religious music|sacred music]], a vibrant tradition of [[Secular music|secular song]] developed, exemplified by the music of the [[troubadour]]s, [[trouvère]]s and [[Minnesang|Minnesänger]].
Much of the surviving music of 14th century Europe is secular. By the middle of the 15th century, [[composer]]s and singers used a smooth polyphony for sacred [[musical composition]]s such as the [[mass (music)|mass]], the [[motet]], and the [[laude]], and secular forms such as the [[chanson]] and the [[madrigal (music)|madrigal]]. The introduction of commercial [[printing]] had an immense influence on the dissemination of musical styles.{{Fact|date=November 2007}}
===European Baroque===
{{main|Baroque music}}
The first [[opera]]s, written around 1600 and the rise of [[Counterpoint|contrapuntal]] music define the end of the Renaissance and the beginning of the [[Baroque]] era that lasted until roughly 1750, the year of the death of [[Johann Sebastian Bach]].
[[Image:Filippino Lippi 001.jpg|thumb|right|Allegory of Music, by [[Filippino Lippi]]]]
[[Image:Music on top of Opera Garnier p1150815.jpg|thumb|Allegory of Music on the [[Opéra Garnier]]]]
German Baroque composers wrote for small [[Musical ensemble|ensemble]]s including strings, [[Brass instrument|brass]], and [[Woodwind instrument|woodwind]]s, as well as [[choir]]s, [[organ (music)|pipe organ]], [[harpsichord]], and [[clavichord]]. During the Baroque period, several major music forms were defined that lasted into later periods when they were expanded and evolved further, including the [[fugue]], the [[Invention (musical composition)|invention]], the [[sonata]], and the [[concerto]].<ref>[http://trumpet.sdsu.edu/m345/Baroque_Music1.html ''Baroque Music'' by Elaine Thornburgh and Jack Logan, Ph. D.]</ref>
===European Classical===
{{Main|Classical period (music)}}
The music of the Classical period is characterized by [[Homophony|homophonic texture]], often featuring a prominent melody with [[accompaniment]]. These new melodies tended to be almost voice-like and singable. The now popular [[instrumental]] music was dominated by further evolution of musical forms initially defined in the Baroque period: the sonata, and the concerto, with the addition of the new form, the [[symphony]]. [[Joseph Haydn]] and [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]], well known even today, are among the central figures of the Classical period.
===Romantic===
{{main|Romantic music}}
[[Ludwig van Beethoven]] and [[Franz Schubert]] were transitional composers, leading into the Romantic period, with their expansion of existing genres, forms, and functions of music. In the Romantic period, the emotional and expressive qualities of music came to take precedence over the orientation towards technique and tradition. The late 19th century saw a dramatic expansion in the size of the [[orchestra]], and in the role of [[concert]]s as part of [[urban culture|urban]] society. Later Romantic composers created complex and often much longer musical works, merging and expanding traditional forms that had previously been used separately. For example, counterpoint, combined with harmonic structures to create more extended [[chord (music)|chords]] with increased use of [[Consonance and dissonance|dissonance]] and to create dramatic tension and resolution.
===20th century===
{{main|20th century music}}
In the 20th century there was a vast increase in music listening as the [[radio]] gained popularity worldwide and new media and technologies were developed to record, capture, reproduce and distribute music. The focus of [[art music]] was characterized by exploration. [[Claude Debussy]] has become well-known and respected for his orientation towards colors and depictions in his compositional style. [[Igor Stravinsky]], [[Arnold Schoenberg]], and John Cage were all influential composers in 20th century art music. [[Jazz]] evolved and became a significant genre of music over the course of the 20th century, and during the second half of that century, [[rock music]] and [[hip hop music]] did the same.
==Performance==
{{main|Performance}}
[[Image:Naxi Musicians I.jpg|thumb|Chinese [[Nakhi|Naxi]] musicians]]
Performance is the physical expression of music. Often, a musical work is performed once its structure and instrumentation are satisfactory to its creators; however, as it gets performed, it can evolve and change.
A performance can either be rehearsed or [[Musical improvisation|improvised]]. Improvisation is a musical idea created on the spot (such as a [[guitar solo]] or a [[drum solo]]), with no prior premeditation, while rehearsal is vigorous repetition of an idea until it has achieved cohesion. [[Musician]]s will generally add improvisation to a well-rehearsed idea to create a unique performance.
Many cultures include strong traditions of [[solo (music)|solo]] and performance, such as in Indian classical music, and in the Western Art music tradition. Other cultures, such as in [[Bali]], include strong traditions of group performance. All cultures include a mixture of both, and performance may range from improvised solo playing for one's enjoyment to highly planned and organised performance rituals such as the modern classical concert, religious processions, [[music festival]]s or [[music competition]]s.
[[Chamber music]], which is music for a small ensemble with only a few of each type of instrument, is often seen as more intimate than symphonic works. A performer may be referred to as a musician.
===Aural tradition===
Many types of music, such as traditional [[blues]] and [[folk music]] were originally preserved in the memory of performers, and the songs were handed down [[oral history|orally]], or aurally (by ear). When the composer of music is no longer known, this music is often classified as "traditional". Different musical traditions have different attitudes towards how and where to make changes to the original source material, from quite strict, to those which demand improvisation or modification to the music. A culture's history may also be passed by ear through song.
===Ornamentation===
{{main|Ornament (music)}}
The detail included explicitly in the [[Musical notation|music notation]] varies between genres and historical periods. In general, art music notation from the 17th through the 19th century required performers to have a great deal of contextual knowledge about performing styles.
For example, in the 17th and 18th century, music notated for solo performers typically indicated a simple, unornamented melody. However, it was expected that performers would know how to add stylistically-appropriate ornaments such as [[Trill (music)|trills]] and turns. In the 19th century, art music for solo performers may give a general instruction such as to perform the music expressively, without describing in detail how the performer should do this. It was expected that the performer would know how to use tempo changes, [[Accent (music)|accentuation]], and [[Rest (music)|pauses]] (among other devices) to obtain this "expressive" performance style. In the 20th century, art music notation often became more explicit and used a range of markings and annotations to indicate to performers how they should play or sing the piece.
In [[popular music]] and jazz, music notation almost always indicates only the basic framework of the melody, harmony, or performance approach; musicians and singers are expected to know the performance conventions and styles associated with specific genres and pieces. For example, the "[[lead sheet]]" for a jazz tune may only indicate the melody and the chord changes. The performers in the [[Jazz band|jazz ensemble]] are expected to know how to "flesh out" this basic structure by adding ornaments, improvised music, and chordal accompaniment.
==Production==
{{main|Music production}}
Music is composed and performed for many purposes, ranging from aesthetic pleasure, religious or ceremonial purposes, or as an [[entertainment]] product for the marketplace. Amateur musicians compose and perform music for their own pleasure, and they do not derive their income from music. Professional musicians are employed by a range of institutions and organisations, including armed forces, churches and synagogues, symphony orchestras, [[broadcasting]] or [[Filmmaking|film production]] companies, and [[College or university school of music|music schools]]. Professional musicians sometimes work as freelancers, seeking contracts and engagements in a variety of settings.
There are often many links between amateur and professional musicians. Beginning amateur musicians take [[Music lesson|lessons]] with professional musicians. In community settings, advanced amateur musicians perform with professional musicians in a variety of ensembles and orchestras. In some cases, amateur musicians attain a professional level of competence, and they are able to perform in professional performance settings.
A distinction is often made between music performed for the benefit of a live audience and music that is performed for the purpose of being recorded and distributed through the music retail system or the broadcasting system. However, there are also many cases where a live performance in front of an audience is recorded and distributed (or broadcast).
===Composition===
{{main|Musical composition}}
"Composition" is often classed as the creation and recording of music via a medium by which others can interpret it (i.e. paper or sound). Many cultures use at least part of the concept of preconceiving musical material, or composition, as held in western [[classical music]]. Even when music is notated precisely, there are still many decisions that a performer has to make. The process of a performer deciding how to perform music that has been previously composed and notated is termed interpretation.
Different performers' interpretations of the same music can vary widely. Composers and song writers who present their own music are interpreting, just as much as those who perform the music of others or folk music. The standard body of choices and techniques present at a given time and a given place is referred to as [[Historically informed performance|performance practice]], where as interpretation is generally used to mean either individual choices of a performer, or an aspect of music which is not clear, and therefore has a "standard" interpretation.
In some musical genres, such as jazz and blues, even more freedom is given to the performer to engage in improvisation on a basic melodic, harmonic, or rhythmic framework. The greatest latitude is given to the performer in a style of performing called [[free improvisation]], which is material that is spontaneously "thought of" (imagined) while being performed, ''not'' preconceived. According to the analysis of Georgiana Costescu,{{Fact|date=March 2008}} improvised music usually follows stylistic or genre conventions and even "fully composed" includes some [[precompositional|freely chosen material]]. Composition does not always mean the use of notation, or the known sole authorship of one individual.
Music can also be determined by describing a "process" which may create musical sounds; examples of this range from wind chimes, through computer programs which select sounds. Music which contains elements selected by chance is called [[Aleatoric music]], and is associated with such composers as John Cage, [[Morton Feldman]], and [[Witold Lutosławski]].
Musical composition is a term that describes the composition of a piece of music. Methods of composition vary widely from one composer to another, however in analysing music all forms — spontaneous, trained, or untrained — are built from elements comprising a musical piece. Music can be composed for repeated performance or it can be improvised: composed on the spot. The music can be performed entirely from memory, from a written system of musical notation, or some combination of both. Study of composition has traditionally been dominated by examination of methods and practice of Western classical music, but the definition of composition is broad enough to include spontaneously improvised works like those of [[free jazz]] performers and African drummers such as the [[Ewe drumming|Ewe drummers]].
What is important in understanding the composition of a piece is singling out its elements. An understanding of music's formal elements can be helpful in deciphering exactly how a piece is constructed. A universal element of music is how sounds occur in time, which is referred to as the rhythm of a piece of music.
When a piece appears to have a changing time-feel, it is considered to be in [[Tempo rubato|rubato]] time, an [[Italian language|Italian]] expression that indicates that the tempo of the piece changes to suit the expressive intent of the performer. Even random placement of random sounds, which occurs in [[Sound collage|musical montage]], occurs within some kind of time, and thus employs time as a musical element.
===Notation===
{{main|Musical notation}}
Notation is the written expression of music notes and rhythms on paper using symbols. When music is written down, the pitches and rhythm of the music is notated, along with instructions on how to perform the music. The study of how to read notation involves music theory, harmony, the study of performance practice, and in some cases an understanding of historical performance methods.
Written notation varies with style and period of music. In Western Art music, the most common types of written notation are scores, which include all the music parts of an ensemble piece, and parts, which are the music notation for the individual performers or singers. In popular music, jazz, and blues, the standard musical notation is the lead sheet, which notates the melody, chords, [[lyrics]] (if it is a vocal piece), and structure of the music. Scores and parts are also used in popular music and jazz, particularly in large ensembles such as jazz "big bands."
In popular music, [[guitar]]ists and electric [[bass guitar|bass]] players often read music notated in tablature, which indicates the location of the notes to be played on the instrument using a diagram of the guitar or bass fingerboard. Tabulature was also used in the Baroque era to notate music for the [[lute]], a stringed, fretted instrument.
Notated music is produced as [[sheet music]]. To perform music from notation requires an understanding of both the musical style and the performance practice that is associated with a piece of music or genre.
===Improvisation===
{{main|Musical improvisation}}
Improvisation is the creation of [[spontaneous music]]. Improvisation is often considered an act of instantaneous composition by composers, where compositional techniques are employed with or without preparation.
===Theory===
{{main|Music theory}}
Music theory encompasses the nature and mechanics of music. It often involves identifying patterns that govern composers' techniques. In a more detailed sense, music theory (in the western system) also distills and analyzes the elements of music – rhythm, harmony (harmonic function), melody, structure, and texture. People who study these properties are known as music theorists.
==Cognition==
{{see|Hearing (sense)|Psychoacoustics}}
[[Image:Mozarteum grosser saal buehne mit orchester.jpg|thumb|Concert in the Mozarteum, Salzburg]]
The field of [[music cognition]] involves the study of many aspects of music including how it is processed by listeners. Rather than accepting the standard practices of analyzing, composing, and performing music as a given, much research in music cognition seeks instead to uncover the mental processes that underlie these practices. Also, research in the field seeks to uncover commonalities between the musical traditions of disparate cultures and possible cognitive "constraints" that limit these musical systems. Questions regarding musical innateness, and emotional responses to music are also major areas of research in the field.
[[Hearing impairment|Deaf]] people can experience music by feeling the vibrations in their body, a process which can be enhanced if the individual holds a resonant, hollow object. A well-known deaf musician is the composer Ludwig van Beethoven, who composed many famous works even after he had completely lost his hearing. Recent examples of deaf musicians include [[Evelyn Glennie]], a highly acclaimed [[Percussion instrument|percussionist]] who has been deaf since age twelve, and [[Chris Buck (violinist)|Chris Buck]], a virtuoso [[violinist]] who has lost his hearing. This is relevant because it indicates that music is a deeper cognitive process than unexamined phrases such as, "pleasing to the ear" would suggest. Much research in music cognition seeks to uncover these complex mental processes involved in listening to music, which may seem intuitively simple, yet are vastly intricate and complex.
==Sociology==
[[Image:Hongzhong - night revels 2.jpg|thumb|center|600px|<center><small>Half-section of the [[Song Dynasty]] (960–1279) version of ''Night Revels of Han Xizai'', original by [[Gu Hongzhong]]; the painting shows musicians entertaining guests in a 10th century household. In the center are three female musicians playing ''[[Guan (instrument)|guan]]'', two female musicians playing [[Dizi|transverse bamboo flutes]], and a male musician playing a wooden clapper called ''paiban''.</small></center>]]
Music is experienced by individuals in a range of social settings ranging from being alone to attending a large concert. Musical performances take different forms in different cultures and socioeconomic milieus. In Europe and [[North America]], there is often a divide between what types of music are viewed as a "[[high culture]]" and "[[low culture]]." "High culture" types of music typically include Western art music such as Baroque, Classical, Romantic, and modern-era symphonies, concertos, and solo works, and are typically heard in formal concerts in concert halls and churches, with the audience sitting quietly in seats.
Other types of music - including, but not limited to, jazz, blues, [[Soul music|soul]], and [[Country music|country]] - are often performed in bars, nightclubs, and theatres, where the audience may be able to drink, dance, and express themselves by cheering. Until the later 20th century, the division between "high" and "low" musical forms was widely accepted as a valid distinction that separated out better quality, more advanced "art music" from the popular styles of music heard in bars and dance halls.
However, in the 1980s and 1990s, musicologists studying this perceived divide between "high" and "low" musical genres argued that this distinction is not based on the musical value or quality of the different types of music.{{Fact|date=May 2007}} Rather, they argued that this distinction was based largely on the [[Socioeconomics|socioeconomic]] standing or [[social class]] of the performers or audience of the different types of music.{{Fact|date=May 2007}} For example, whereas the audience for Classical symphony concerts typically have above-average incomes, the audience for a rap concert in an inner-city area may have below-average incomes. Even though the performers, audience, or venue where non-"art" music is performed may have a lower socioeconomic status, the music that is performed, such as blues, rap, [[Punk rock|punk]], [[funk]], or [[ska]] may be very complex and sophisticated.
When composers introduce styles of music which break with convention, there can be a strong resistance from academic music experts and popular culture. Late-period Beethoven string quartets, Stravinsky [[ballet]] scores, [[serialism]], [[bebop]]-era jazz, hip hop, punk rock, and [[electronica]] have all been considered non-music by some critics when they were first introduced.{{Fact|date=May 2007}}
Such themes are examined in the [[sociology]] of music. The sociological study of music, sometimes called [[sociomusicology]], is often pursued in departments of sociology, media studies, or music, and is closely related to the field of [[ethnomusicology]].
==Media and technology==
{{see|Computer music}}
The music that composers make can be heard through several [[mass media|media]]; the most traditional way is to hear it live, in the presence, or as one of the musicians. Live music can also be broadcast over the [[radio]], [[television]] or the [[Internet]]. Some musical styles focus on producing a sound for a performance, while others focus on producing a recording which mixes together sounds which were never played "live". Recording, even of styles which are essentially live, often uses the ability to edit and splice to produce recordings which are considered better than the actual performance.
As [[sound film|talking pictures]] emerged in the early 20th century, with their prerecorded musical tracks, an increasing number of moviehouse orchestra musicians found themselves out of work.<ref>[http://www.afm.org/public/about/history.php American Federation of Musicians/History]</ref> During the 1920s live musical performances by orchestras, [[pianist]]s, and [[theater organ]]ists were common at first-run theaters.<ref>Hubbard (1985), p. 429.</ref> With the coming of the talking motion pictures, those featured performances were largely eliminated. The [[American Federation of Musicians]] (AFM) took out newspaper advertisements protesting the replacement of live musicians with mechanical playing devices. One 1929 ad that appeared in the ''[[Pittsburgh Press]]'' features an image of a can labeled "Canned Music / Big Noise Brand / Guaranteed to Produce No Intellectual or Emotional Reaction Whatever"<ref>[http://library.duke.edu/digitalcollections/images/adaccess/R/R02/R0206/R0206-lrg.jpeg "Canned Music on Trial"] part of [[Duke University]]'s ''Ad*Access'' project.</ref>
Since legislation introduced to help protect performers, composers, publishers and producers, including the [[Audio Home Recording Act]] of 1992 in the [[United States]], and the 1979 revised [[Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works]] in the [[United Kingdom]], recordings and live performances have also become more accessible through computers, devices and Internet in a form that is commonly known as [[Music-On-Demand]].
In many cultures, there is less distinction between performing and listening to music, since virtually everyone is involved in some sort of musical activity, often communal. In industrialized countries, listening to music through a recorded form, such as [[Sound recording and reproduction|sound recording]] or watching a [[music video]], became more common than experiencing live performance, roughly in the middle of the 20th century.
Sometimes, live performances incorporate prerecorded sounds. For example, a [[disc jockey]] uses [[gramophone record|disc records]] for [[scratching]], and some 20th century works have a solo for an instrument or voice that is performed along with music that is prerecorded onto a tape. [[Computer]]s and many [[Keyboard (computing)|keyboards]] can be programmed to produce and play [[Musical Instrument Digital Interface]] (MIDI) music. Audiences can also ''become'' performers by participating in [[karaoke]], an activity of Japanese origin which centres around a device that plays voice-eliminated versions of well-known songs. Most karaoke machines also have video screens that show lyrics to songs being performed; performers can follow the lyrics as they sing over the instrumental tracks.
===Internet===
The advent of the [[Internet]] has transformed the experience of music, partly through the increased ease of access to music and the increased choice. [[Chris Anderson (writer)|Chris Anderson]], in his book ''The Long Tail: Why the Future of Business is Selling Less of More'', suggests that while the economic model of [[supply and demand]] describes scarcity, the Internet retail model is based on abundance. [[Data storage device|Digital storage]] costs are low, so a company can afford to make its whole inventory available online, giving customers as much choice as possible. It has thus become economically viable to offer products that very few people are interested in. Consumers' growing awareness of their increased choice results in a closer association between listening tastes and social identity, and the creation of thousands of [[niche market]]s.<ref> Anderson, Chris (2006). The Long Tail: Why the Future of Business is Selling Less of More. Hyperion. ISBN 1-4013-0237-8. </ref>
Another effect of the Internet arises with [[Virtual community|online communities]] like [[YouTube]] and [[MySpace]]. MySpace has made [[social network]]ing with other musicians easier, and greatly facilitates the distribution of one's music. YouTube also has a large community of both amateur and professional musicians who post videos and comments.{{Fact|date=March 2008}} Professional musicians also use YouTube as a free publisher of promotional material.
YouTube users, for example, no longer only download and listen to [[MP3]]s, but also actively create their own. According to [[Don Tapscott]] and [[Anthony D. Williams]], in their book [[Wikinomics]], there has been a shift from a traditional consumer role to what they call a "[[prosumer]]" role, a consumer who both creates and consumes. Manifestations of this in music include the production of [[Mashup (music)|mashes]], [[remix]]es, and music videos by fans.<ref>{{cite book
|last=Tapscott
|first=Don
|authorlink=Don Tapscott
|coauthors=[[Anthony D. Williams|Williams, Anthony D.]]
|title=[[Wikinomics|Wikinomics: How Mass Collaboration Changes Everything]]
|date=2006-12-28
|publisher=Portfolio Hardcover
|isbn=978-1591841388
}}
</ref>
==Business==
{{main|Music industry}}
The music industry refers to the business industry connected with the creation and sale of music. It consists of record companies, [[Record label|labels]] and [[Music publisher (popular music)|publishers]] that distribute recorded music products internationally and that often control the rights to those products. Some music labels are "[[Independent record label|independent]]," while others are subsidiaries of larger corporate entities or international [[Media conglomerate|media groups]].
==Education==
===Primary===
{{main|Music education}}
The incorporation of music training from [[Preschool education|preschool]] to [[Higher education|post secondary education]] is common in North America and Europe. Involvement in music is thought to teach basic skills such as concentration, [[counting]], listening, and [[cooperation]] while also promoting understanding of [[language]], improving the ability to [[memory|recall]] information, and creating an environment more conducive to learning in other areas.<ref>Woodall and Ziembroski, 2002</ref> In [[elementary school]]s, children often learn to play instruments such as the [[recorder]], sing in small choirs, and learn about the history of Western art music. In secondary schools students may have the opportunity to perform some type of musical ensembles, such as choirs, [[marching band]]s, [[concert band]]s, jazz bands, or orchestras, and in some school systems, music classes may be available. Some students also take private [[music lesson]]s with a teacher. Amateur musicians typically take lessons to learn musical rudiments and beginner- to intermediate-level musical techniques.
At the [[university]] level, students in most arts and [[humanities]] programs can receive [[Credit (education)|credit]] for taking music courses, which typically take the form of an overview course on the [[history of music]], or a [[music appreciation]] course that focuses on listening to music and learning about different musical styles. In addition, most North American and European universities have some type of musical ensembles that non-music students are able to participate in, such as choirs, marching bands, or orchestras. The study of Western art music is increasingly common outside of North America and Europe, such as the [[Indonesian Institute of the Arts, Yogyakarta|Indonesian Institute of the Arts]] in [[Yogyakarta]], [[Indonesia]], or the classical music programs that are available in [[Asia]]n countries such as [[South Korea]], Japan, and [[People's Republic of China|China]]. At the same time, Western universities and colleges are widening their curriculum to include music of non-Western cultures, such as the [[music of Africa]] or Bali (e.g. [[Gamelan]] music).
===Academia===
[[Musicology]] is the study of the subject of music. The earliest definitions defined three sub-disciplines: [[systematic musicology]], [[Music history|historical musicology]], and comparative musicology or [[ethnomusicology]]. In contemporary scholarship, one is more likely to encounter a division of the discipline into music theory, music history, and ethnomusicology. Research in musicology has often been enriched by cross-disciplinary work, for example in the field of [[psychoacoustics]]. The study of music of non-western cultures, and the cultural study of music, is called ethnomusicology.
Graduates of undergraduate music programs can go on to further study in music graduate programs. Graduate degrees include the [[Master of Music]], the [[Master of Arts (postgraduate)|Master of Arts]], the [[Doctor of Philosophy]] (PhD) (e.g., in musicology or music theory), and more recently, the [[Doctor of Musical Arts]], or DMA. The Master of Music degree, which takes one to two years to complete, is typically awarded to students studying the performance of an instrument, education, voice or composition. The Master of Arts degree, which takes one to two years to complete and often requires a [[Dissertation|thesis]], is typically awarded to students studying musicology, music history, or music theory. [[Undergraduate education|Undergraduate]] [[Academic degree|university degrees]] in music, including the [[Bachelor of Music]], the Bachelor of Music Education, and the [[Bachelor of Arts]] (with a major in music) typically take three to five years to complete. These degrees provide students with a grounding in music theory and music history, and many students also study an instrument or learn singing technique as part of their program.
The PhD, which is required for students who want to work as university professors in musicology, music history, or music theory, takes three to five years of study after the Master's degree, during which time the student will complete advanced courses and undertake research for a dissertation. The DMAis a relatively new degree that was created to provide a credential for professional performers or composers that want to work as university professors in musical performance or composition. The DMA takes three to five years after a Master's degree, and includes advanced courses, projects, and performances. In Medieval times, the study of music was one of the [[Quadrivium]] of the seven [[liberal arts|Liberal Arts]] and considered vital to higher learning. Within the quantitative Quadrivium, music, or more accurately [[harmonic]]s, was the study of rational proportions.
[[Zoomusicology]] is the study of the music of non-human animals, or the musical aspects of sounds produced by non-human animals. As [[George Herzog]] (1941) asked, "do animals have music?" [[François-Bernard Mâche]]'s ''Musique, mythe, nature, ou les Dauphins d'Arion'' (1983), a study of "ornitho-musicology" using a technique of [[Nicolas Ruwet]]'s ''Language, musique, poésie'' (1972) [[Paradigmatic analysis|paradigmatic segmentation analysis]], shows that [[Bird vocalization|bird songs]] are organised according to a repetition-transformation principle. Jean-Jacques Nattiez (1990), argues that "in the last analysis, it is a human being who decides what is and is not musical, even when the sound is not of human origin. If we acknowledge that sound is not organised and conceptualised (that is, made to form music) merely by its producer, but by the mind that perceives it, then music is uniquely human."
Music theory is the study of music, generally in a highly technical manner outside of other disciplines. More broadly it refers to any study of music, usually related in some form with compositional concerns, and may include [[mathematics]], [[physics]], and [[anthropology]]. What is most commonly taught in beginning music theory classes are guidelines to write in the style of the [[common practice period]], or [[Tonality|tonal music]]. Theory, even that which studies music of the common practice period, may take many other forms. [[Set theory (music)|Musical set theory]] is the application of mathematical [[set theory]] to music, first applied to [[Atonality|atonal music]]. ''Speculative music theory'', contrasted with ''analytic music theory'', is devoted to the analysis and synthesis of music materials, for example [[musical tuning|tuning systems]], generally as preparation for composition.
===Ethnomusicology===
{{Main|Ethnomusicology}}
In the West, much of the history of music that is taught deals with the Western civilization's art music. The history of music in other cultures ("[[world music]]" or the field of "ethnomusicology") is also taught in Western universities. This includes the documented classical traditions of Asian countries outside the influence of Western Europe, as well as the folk or indigenous music of various other cultures.
Popular styles of music varied widely from culture to culture, and from period to period. Different cultures emphasised different [[Musical instrument|instrument]]s, or techniques, or uses for music. Music has been used not only for entertainment, for ceremonies, and for practical and artistic communication, but also for [[propaganda]] in totalitarian countries.
There is a host of music classifications, many of which are caught up in the argument over the definition of music. Among the largest of these is the division between classical music (or "art" music), and popular music (or [[Contemporary Commercial Music|commercial music]] - including [[rock and roll]], country music, and pop music). Some genres don't fit neatly into one of these "big two" classifications, (such as folk music, world music, or jazz music).
As world cultures have come into [[Globalization|greater contact]], their indigenous musical styles have often merged into new styles. For example, the United States [[bluegrass music|bluegrass]] style contains elements from [[Folk Music of England|Anglo]]-[[Music of Ireland|Irish]], [[Music of Scotland|Scottish]], Irish, [[Music of Germany|German]] and African instrumental and vocal traditions, which were able to fuse in the United States' multi-ethnic society. Genres of music are determined as much by tradition and presentation as by the actual music. Some works, like [[George Gershwin]]'s ''[[Rhapsody in Blue]]'', are claimed by both jazz and classical music. Many current music festivals celebrate a particular musical genre.
[[Music of India|Indian music]], for example, is one of the oldest and longest living types of music, and is still widely heard and performed in South Asia, as well as internationally (especially since the 1960s). Indian music has mainly 3 forms of classical music, [[Hindustani classical music|Hindustani]], [[Carnatic music|Carnatic]], and [[Dhrupad]] styles. It has also a large repertoire of styles, which involve only percussion music such as the talavadya performances famous in [[South India]].
==Music therapy==
{{main|Music therapy}}
[[Robert Burton (scholar)|Robert Burton]] wrote in his 17th century work, ''[[The Anatomy of Melancholy]]'', that music and dance were critical in treating [[Mental disorder|mental illness]], especially [[melancholia]].<ref>cf. The Anatomy of Melancholy, Robert Burton, subsection 3, on and after line 3,480, "Music a Remedy"</ref> He said that
{{quote|But to leave all declamatory speeches in praise of divine music, I will confine myself to my proper subject: besides that excellent power it hath to expel many other diseases, it is a sovereign remedy against despair and melancholy, and will drive away the devil himself.}} Burton noted that {{quote|...Canus, a Rhodian fiddler, in Philostratus, when Apollonius was inquisitive to know what he could do with his pipe, told him, "That he would make a melancholy man merry, and him that was merry much merrier than before, a lover more enamoured, a religious man more devout."}}<ref>Ismenias the Theban, Chiron the centaur, is said to have cured this and many other diseases by music alone: as now thy do those, saith Bodine, that are
troubled with St. Vitus's Bedlam dance. [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/10800/10800-8.txt Project Gutenberg's The Anatomy of Melancholy, by Democritus Junior]</ref><ref>[http://www.med.mun.ca/munmed/84/crellin.htm "Humanities are the Hormones: A Tarantella Comes to Newfoundland. What should we do about it?"] by Dr. John Crellin, MUNMED, newsletter of the Faculty of Medicine, Memorial University of Newfoundland, 1996.</ref><ref>Aung, Steven K.H., Lee, Mathew H.M., [http://www.liebertonline.com/doi/abs/10.1089/act.2004.10.266?journalCode=act "Music, Sounds, Medicine, and Meditation: An Integrative Approach to the Healing Arts", Alternative & Complementary Therapies], Oct 2004, Vol. 10, No. 5: 266-270.</ref>
In November 2006, Dr. Michael J. Crawford<ref>[http://www1.imperial.ac.uk/medicine/people/m.crawford/ Dr. Michael J. Crawford page] at [[Imperial College London]], Faculty of Medicine, Department of Psychological Medicine.</ref> and his colleagues also found that music therapy helped [[schizophrenia|schizophrenic]] patients.<ref>
{{cite journal| quotes = Music therapy may provide a means of improving mental health among people with schizophrenia, but its effects in acute psychoses have not been explored | last = Crawford | first = Mike J. | authorlink = | coauthors = Talwar, Nakul, et al. | year = 2006 | month = November | title = Music therapy for in-patients with schizophrenia: Exploratory randomised controlled trial | journal = The British Journal of Psychiatry (2006) | volume = 189 | pages = 405–409 | url = http://bjp.rcpsych.org/cgi/content/abstract/189/5/405 | doi = 10.1192/bjp.bp.105.015073 | pmid = 17077429}}</ref> In the [[Ottoman Empire]], mental illnesses were treated with music.<ref>[http://www.iadh.org/pdf/2006November.pdf Treatment of Mental Illnesses With Music Therapy - A different approach from history]</ref>
==See also==
{{portalpar|Music}}
* [[List of basic music topics]]
* [[List of music topics]]
==References==
{{reflist|2}}
==Further reading==
* Harwood, Dane (1976). "Universals in Music: A Perspective from Cognitive Psychology", ''Ethnomusicology'' 20, no. 3:521-33.
* Johnson, Julian (2002). ''Who Needs Classical Music?: Cultural Choice and Musical Value''. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-514681-6.
* Kertz-Welzel, Alexandra. "Piano Improvisation Develops Musicianship." ''Orff-Echo'' XXXVII No. 1 (2004): 11-14.
* Kertz-Welzel, Alexandra. "The Singing Muse: Three Centuries of Music Education in Germany." Journal of Historical Research in Music Education XXVI no. 1 (2004): 8-27.
* Kertz-Welzel, Alexandra. "Didaktik of Music: A German Concept and its Comparison to American Music Pedagogy." International Journal of Music Education (Practice) 22 No. 3 (2004): 277-286.
* Kertz-Welzel, Alexandra. "General Music Education in Germany Today: A Look at How Popular Music is Engaging Students." General Music Today 18 no. 2 (Winter 2005): 14-16.
* [[Jean Molino|Molino, Jean]] (1975). "Fait musical et sémiologue de la musique", ''Musique en Jeu'', no. 17:37-62.
* [[Jean-Jacques Nattiez|Nattiez, Jean-Jacques]] (1987). ''Music and Discourse: Toward a Semiology of Music'' (''Musicologie générale et sémiologue'', 1987). Translated by Carolyn Abbate (1979). ISBN 0-691-02714-5.
* Owen, Harold (2000). ''Music Theory Resource Book''. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-511539-2.
* Small, Christopher (1977). ''Music, Society, Education''. John Calder Publishers, London. ISBN 0-7145-3614-8
* [[Habib Hassan Touma]] (1996). ''The Music of the Arabs'', trans. Laurie Schwartz. Portland, Oregon: Amadeus Press. ISBN 0-931340-88-8
* Woodall, Laura and Brenda Ziembroski, (2002). [http://www.songsforteaching.com/lb/literacymusic.htm|Promoting Literacy Through Music].
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Music}}
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/blast/music/ BBC Blast Music] For 13-19 year olds interested in learning about, making, performing and talking about music.
* [http://www.music.vt.edu/musicdictionary/ The Virginia Tech Multimedia Music Dictionary], with definitions, pronunciations, examples, quizzes and simulations
* [http://www.music-web.org The Music-Web Music Encyclopedia], for musicians, composers and music lovers
* [http://dolmetsch.com/musictheorydefs.htm Dolmetsch free online music dictionary], complete, with references to a list of specialised music dictionaries (by continent, by instrument, by genre, etc.)
*[http://www.uned.es/dpto_fil/revista/polemos/articulos/MA_Quintana_On%20Hermeneutical%20Ethics%20&%20Education%20(Internet)2.doc "On Hermeneutical Ethics and Education: Bach als Erzieher"], a paper by Prof. Miguel Ángel Quintana Paz in which he explains the history of the different views hold about music in Western societies, since the Ancient Greece to our days.
*[http://www.bsmny.org/features Monthly Online Features From Bloomingdale School of Music], addressing a variety of musical topics for a wide audience
*[http://www.musicfoundations.org/pages/3/index.htm Arts and Music Uplifting Society towards Transformation and Tolerance] Articles meant to stimulate people’s awareness about the peace enhancing, transforming, communicative, educational and healing powers of music.
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