Music of Barbados 364941 220598133 2008-06-20T17:07:33Z DOI bot 6652755 Citation maintenance. You can [[WP:DOI|use this bot]] yourself! Please [[User:DOI_bot/bugs|report any bugs]]. {{sample box start|Barbadian music}} {{multi-listen start}} {{multi-listen item| filename=Mighty Gabby-Government Boo.ogg| title="Boots"| description=Song by well-known calypsonian [[Mighty Gabby]]| format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item| filename=Merrymen - the big bamboo.ogg| title="The Big Bamboo"| description=Song by long-running popular calypso group [[The Merrymen]]| format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item| filename=SWEAT.ogg| title="Sweat"| description=Song by well-known singer [[Hypasounds]]| format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item| filename=Rupee - Jump.ogg| title="Jump"| description=Popular song by ragga-soca artist [[Rupee (musician)|Rupee]] (a remake of [[Shout (Isley Brothers song)|Shout]] by [[The Isley Brothers]])| format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen end}} {{sample box end}} The '''music of Barbados''' includes distinctive national styles of [[folk music|folk]] and [[popular music]], as well as elements of [[Western classical music|Western classical]] and [[religious music]]. The [[culture of Barbados]] is a syncretic mix of African and British elements, and the island's music reflects this mix through song types and styles, instrumentation, dances and aesthetic principles. Barbadian folk traditions include the [[Landship (Barbados)|Landship]] movement, which is a satirical, informal organization based on the British navy, [[tea meeting]]s, [[tuk]] bands and numerous traditional songs and dances. In modern Barbados, popular styles include [[calypso music|calypso]], [[spouge]] and other styles, most of them imported from [[Trinidad and Tobago]], the United States or elsewhere. Barbados is, along with Trinidad, Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands, one of the few centers for Caribbean jazz.<ref name="Ledesma">De Ledesma and Popplewell, pg. 518</ref> == Characteristics and musical identity == Barbadian culture is [[syncretic]], and the island's musical culture is perceived as a mixture of African and British musics, with certain unique elements that may derive from indigenous sources. Tension between African and British culture has long been a major element of Barbadian history, and has included the banning of certain African-derived practices and black Barbadian parodies of British traditions.<ref>Millington, pg. 816 ''Millington notes that "(l)inks, fusion and tension between African and British cultural expressions are still currently manifested."''</ref> Simple entertainment is the basis for most Barbadians' participation in music and dance activities, though religious and other functional musics also occur. Barbadian folk culture declined in importance in the 20th century, but then rekindled in the 1970s, when many Barbadians became interested in their national culture and history.<ref name="Garland">Millington, pp 813-821</ref> This change was heralded by the arrival of [[spouge]], a popular national genre that reflects Barbadian heritage and African origins; spouge helped kindle a resurgence in national pride, and became viewed as Barbados' answer to the popular Caribbean genres [[reggae]] and [[calypso music|calypso]] from Jamaica and Trinidad, respectively.<ref name="advocate">Hinkson, ''The Barbados Advocate''</ref> The religious music of the Barbadian Christian churches plays an important role in Barbadian musical identity, especially in urban areas. Many distinctive Barbadian musical and other cultural traditions derive from parodies of Anglican church hymns and British military drills. The British military performed drills to both provide security for the island's population, as well as intimidate slaves.<ref name="Watson">{{cite journal|author=Watson, Karl S.|year=1975|title=The Civilised Island, Barbados: A Social History 1750-1816|publisher=University of Florida|version=Ph.D. dissertation}} cited in Millington, pp 813-821</ref> Modern Barbadian [[tea meeting]]s, [[tuk]] bands, the [[Landship]] tradition and many folk songs come from slaves parodying the practices of white authorities. British-Barbadians used music for cultural and intellectual enrichment and to feel a sense of kinship and connection with the British Isles through the maintenance of British musical forms. Plantation houses featured music as entertainment at balls, dances and other gatherings. For Afro-Barbadians, drum, vocal and dance music was an integral part of everyday life, and songs and performance practices were created for normal, everyday events, as well as special celebrations like [[Whitsuntide]], [[Christmas]], [[Easter]], [[Landship]] and [[Crop Over]]. These songs remain a part of Barbadian culture and form a rich folk repertoire.<ref name="Garland"/> [[Western classical music]] is the most socially accepted form of musical expression for Barbadians in [[Bridgetown]], including a variety of vocal music, [[chamber music|chamber]] and [[orchestra]]l music, and [[piano]] and [[violin]]. Along with [[hymn]]s, [[oratorio]]s, [[cantata]]s and other religious music, chamber music of the Western tradition remains an important part of Barbadian musical through an integral role in the services of the Anglican church.<ref name="Garland"/> == History == {{main|music history of Barbados}} Though inhabited prior to the 16th century, little is known about Barbadian music before the arrival of the Portuguese in 1536 and then the English in 1627. The Portuguese left little influence, but English culture and music helped shape the island's heritage. Irish and Scottish settlers emigrated in the 17th century, working in the [[tobacco]] industry, bringing still more new music to the island. The middle of the 1700s saw the decline of the tobacco industry and the rise of [[sugarcane]], as well as the introduction of large numbers of African slaves.Brazilian exiles however, along with sugarcane introduced Samba to the island which featured a mixture of Latin music with African influences which soon developed into Soca-Samba which is indigenous to Barbados. Modern Barbadian music is thus largely a combination of English and African elements, with Irish, Scottish, and modern American and Caribbean (especially Jamaican) influences as well.<ref name="Garland"/> By the 19th century, the Barbadian colonialists grew to fear slave revolts, and specifically, the use of music as a tool of communication and planning for revolution. As a result, the government passed laws to restrict musical activities among slaves. At the same time, American and other forms of imported music were brought to Barbados, while many important elements of modern Barbadian music, like ''[[tuk band]]''s, also emerged. In the 20th century, many new styles were imported to Barbados, most influentially including [[jazz]], [[ska]], [[reggae]], [[calypso music|calypso]] and [[soca music|soca]]. Barbados became home to many performers of these new genres, especially soca and calypso, while the island also produced an indigenous style called [[spouge]], which became an important symbol of Barbadian identity.<ref name="Garland"/><ref name="advocate"/> == Folk music == Barbadian culture and music are mixtures of European and African elements, with minimal influence from the indigenous peoples of the island, about whom little is known. Significant numbers of Asian, specifically Chinese and Japanese, people have moved to Barbados, but their music is unstudied and has had little impact on Barbadian music.<ref name="Garland"/> The earliest reference to Afro-Barbadian music may come from a description of a slave rebellion, in which the rebels were inspired to fight by music played on skin drums, conch trumpets and animal horns.<ref name="Watson"/> Slavery continued, however, and the colonial and slaveowning authorities eventually outlawed musical instruments among slaves. By the end of the 17th century, a distinctly Barbadian folk culture developed, based around influences and instruments from Africa, Britain and other Caribbean islands.<ref name="Garland"/> Early Barbadian folk music, despite legal restrictions, was a major part of life among the island's slave population. For the slaves, music was "essential for recreation and dancing and as a part of the life cycle for communication and religious meaning". African musicians also provided the music for the white landowners' private parties, while the slaves developed their own party music, culminating in the [[crop over]] festival, which began in 1688. The earliest crop over festivals featured dancing and [[call-and-response]] singing accompanied by ''[[shak-shak]]'', [[banjo]], [[bone]]s and bottles containing varying amounts of water.<ref name="Garland"/> === Song === Barbadian folk songs are heavily influenced by the [[music of England]]. Many traditional songs concern events current at the time of their composition, such as the emancipation of the slaves of Barbados, and the coronations of [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Victoria]], [[George V of the United Kingdom|George V]], and [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]]; this song tradition dates back to 1650. The most influential Barbadian folk songs are associated with the island's lower-class laborers, who have held on to their folk heritage. Some Barbadian songs and stories made their way back to England, most famously "Inckle the English Sailor" and "Yarico the Indian Maid", which became English plays and an opera by [[George Coleman]] with music by [[Samuel Arnold]], and first performed in London in 1787.<ref>Millington, pg. 817</ref><ref>[http://www.holders.net/yarico.html ''Inkle and Yarico'']</ref> === Dance === Barbadian folk dances include a wide variety of styles, performed at [[Landship]], holidays and other occasions. Dancers and other performers at the [[crop over]] festivals, for example, are popular and an iconic part of Barbadian culture, known for dancing in the costumes of sugarcane-cutters. The Landship movement features song and dance meant to imitate the passage of a British navy ship through rough seas; Landship and other occasions also feature African-derived improvised and complexly-rhythmic dances, and British [[hornpipe]]s, [[jig]]s, [[maypole]] dances and Marches.<ref name="Garland"/> The ''[[Jean and Johnnie]]'' dance was an important part of Barbadian culture until it was banned in the 19th century. This was a popular fertility dance performed outdoors at plantation fairs and other festivals, and was functional in that it allowed women to show off to men, and more rarely, vice versa. The dance was eventually banned because the dance was associated with non-Christian African traditions.<ref name="Garland"/> === Instrumentation === The Barbadian folk tradition is home to a great variety of musical instruments, imported from Africa, Great Britain or other Caribbean islands. The most central instrument group in Barbadian culture is the [[percussion instrument]]s. These include numerous drums, among them the ''pump'' and the ''[[tum tum]]'', made from a hollowed-out tree trunk, the side [[snare drum]] and a double-headed [[bass drum]] of tuk bands. Folk musicians also use [[gong]]s made from tree trunks, bones, [[rook jaw]], [[triangle (musical instrument)|triangle]], [[cymbal]]s, bottles filled with water, and [[xylophone]]s. [[Rattle]]s are also widespread, and include the pan-Antillean ''[[shak-shak]]'' and the [[calabash]], ''de shot and rattle''. More recently imported folk percussion instruments include the [[conga]] and [[bongo drum|bongo]] from Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic and Cuba, and the [[tambourine]].<ref name="Garland"/> String and wind instruments play an important role in Barbadian folk culture, especially the bow-[[fiddle]], [[banjo]] and acoustic [[guitar]]; more modern groups also use an electric and bass guitar. The ''[[shukster]]'' is a distinctive instrument, made by stretching a guitar string between two sides of a house. Traditional Barbadian wind instruments are largely metal, but in their folk origins, were made out of locally found materials. Barbadian villagers burned fingerholes, for example, on bamboo tubes, made trumpets out of [[conch]] shells and pipes from [[pumpkin]] vines. Many modern groups use [[harmonica]], [[accordion]], [[alto saxophone|alto]] and [[tenor saxophone]], [[trumpet]] and [[trombone]].<ref name="Garland"/> === Religious music === Though Western classical and other musics play an important role in Anglican church services on Barbados, religion and folk music are closely intertwined in the everyday lives of most Barbadians. The basis for religious folk music is the Anglican [[hymn]], a kind of praise song mostly sung on Sundays, a day when Christian Barbadians come together with family members to sing and praise God to ask for strength for the next week's work.<ref>Millington, pg. 817 ''Millington refers to the hymn as the "basis for Barbadians' religious experience"''</ref> [[Pentecostal music]] has become a part of Barbadian religious and musical traditions since the 1920s. Music plays a role in Pentecostal ceremonies, and is provided by emotional and improvised performances accompanied [[tambourine]]s. In addition to the Anglican and Pentecostal traditions, [[Rastafarian music]] has spread to the island in more recent years, along with [[African American music]]al forms, especially [[gospel music|gospel]], and the [[Spiritual Baptist]] religion, which derives from the Trinidadian [[Shango]] cult that spread to Barbados in the 1960s.<ref name="Garland"/> One of the more Internationally known religious music groups from Barbados are the [[The Silvertones of Barbados]]. === Holidays, festivals and other celebrations === A number of holidays, festivals and other celebrations play an integral role in Barbadian folk, and popular, music. Whitsuntide, Christmas, Easter are important, each associated with their own musical traditions, as are distinctly Barbadian festivities like the [[crop over]] festival and the [[Landship (Barbados)|Landship]] movement. The original crop over festival celebrated the end of the sugarcane harvest. These festivals were held in the great house of the plantations, and included both slaves and plantation managers. Celebrations included drinking competitions, feasting, song and dance, and climbing a greased pole. Musical accompaniment was provided by triangle, fiddle, drums and a guitar, played by slave entertainers. Crop over festivals continue to play a part of Barbadian culture, and always feature music by performers in sugarcane-cutting costumes, even though many modern performers are not themselves sugarcane-cutters.<ref>Millington, pg. 818 ''Millington notes that crop over festivals "continue, with newspaper articles telling of choices of venues where dances are organized by a local who is popular and credible in the eyes of the village".''</ref> The Barbadian Landship movement is an informal entertainment organization which mocks, through mimicry and satire, the British navy. Landship began in 1837, founded by an individual known variously as ''Moses Ward'' and ''Moses Wood'', in Britton's Hall in [[Seamen's Village]]. The structure of the Landship organization mirrors the structure of the British navy, with a "ship" which is connected to a "dock" (a wooden house similar to a [[chattel house]]), and leaders known as ''Lord High Admiral'', ''Captain'', ''Boatswain'' and other navy ranks. Each unit is named like a typical navy ship and may include actual names of British ships or places. Landship performances symbolize and reflect the passage of ships through rough seas. Parades, jigs, hornpipes, maypole dances and other music and dance types are a part of the Landship Society's celebrations. The [[Council of the Barbados Landship Association]] regulates the movement.<ref>Millington, pp 813-821</ref><ref>[http://www.allinfoaboutbarbados.com/The_Barbados_Landship.html All About Barbados: The Barbados Landship]</ref> Barbadian Christmas music is mostly based on church and concert hall performances, where typical North American [[Christmas carol]]s are performed, such as "[[White Christmas]]" and "[[Silver Bells]]", alongside works by English composers like [[William Byrd]], [[Henry Walford Davies]] and [[Thomas Tallis]]. In more recent years, calypso, reggae and other new elements have become a part of local Christmas traditions. As recently as the 1960s, Barbados was home to a distinctive practice, in which ''scrubbers'' traveled from house to house singing hymns and receiving rewards from households.<ref name="Garland"/> === Tuk bands and tea meetings === [[Tuk]] bands are Barbadian musical ensembles, consisting of a bow-[[fiddle]] or [[pennywhistle]] flute, [[kittle]] triangle and a snare and double-headed bass drum. The kittle and bass drum provide the rhythm, while the flute gives the melody.<ref name="AllTuk">[http://www.allinfoaboutbarbados.com/The_Tuk_Band.html All About Barbados: Tuk bands]</ref> The drums are light-weight so they can be carried easily, and are made by both rural villagers and drummers using cured sheepskin and goatskin. Tuk bands are based on the British military's regimental bands, which played for many years for special occasions, like visiting royalty and coronations. The tuk sound has evolved over the years, as has the instrumentation, with the bow-fiddle used before being most commonly replaced by the pennywhistle flute.<ref name="Garland"/> Tuk bands are now most common in Landship events, but are still sometimes independent. On their own, tuk bands are generally accompanied by a range of iconic Barbadian characters, including "shaggy bears", "mother sally", "the steel donkey" and "green monkeys".<ref name="AllTuk"/> The upbeat modern sound of tuk ensembles are a distinctly Barbadian blend of African and British musics.<ref>{{Cite video|people=Okada, Yuki. JVC Smithsonian Folkways Video Anthology of Music and Dance of the Americas, 4|medium=Video|year=1995|title=The Caribbean|publisher=Multicultural Media VTMV-228|location=Montpelier, Vermont}} cited in Millington, pp 813-821</ref><ref name="AllTuk"/> [[Tea meeting]]s are celebrations held in society lodges or school halls, and feature both solo and group performance, theatrical [[rhetoric]] and [[oratory]], and other activities. After declining following World War 1, tea meetings have recently been revived and have regained their widespread popularity. They are held at nighttime, beginning at 9:00 PM and continuing until midnight, when there is a two-hour break for food and drink before the tea meeting is resumed.<ref name="Garland"/> == Popular music == <!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Rihanna.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Rihanna]], a popular Bajan and Guyanese singer]] --> Barbados has produced few internationally popular musicians, but has a well-developed local scene playing imported styles like American [[jazz]] and Trinidadian [[calypso music|calypso]], as well as the indigenous [[spouge]] style. Calypso was the first popular music in Barbados, and dates back to the 1930s. Barbadian calypso is a comedic song form, accompanied by guitar and banjo. More recent styles of calypso have also kept a local scene alive, and produced a number of famous calypsonians. Spouge is a mixture of calypso and other styles, especially [[ska]], and became very popular in the 1960s, around the same time as the Barbadian jazz scene grew in stature and became home to a number of famous performers. Modern Barbadian popular music is largely based around [[reggae]], [[ragga]] and [[soca music|soca]], and includes some elements of indigenous styles. Artists like [[Terencia Coward]] have used modern popular music with instrumentation borrowed from folk ''[[tuk]]'' bands. Two of the more popular bands of Barbadian popular music are Krosfyah and Square One [now defunct]; the new wave of singers, largely soca, include Rupee, Lil' Rick and Jabae with lead vocalist Bruce and Barry Chandler, all recent winners at [[crop over]].<ref>[http://www.toronto-lime.com/music/sfiles/pic_o_de_crop_winners.htm Toronto-Lime]</ref> === Calypso === Prior to the 1930s, Barbadian [[calypso music|calypso]] was called ''banja'', and was performed by laborers in village-tenantry areas. Itinerant minstrels like [[Mighty Jerry]], [[Shilling Agard]] and [[Slammer (calypsonian)|Slammer]] were well-known forerunners of modern Barbadian calypso. Their song tradition embraced sentimentality, humor, and opinionated lyrics that continued to the 1960s, often by then accompanied by guitar or banjo.<ref name="Garland"/> The mid-20th century brought new forms of music from [[Trinidad]], [[Brazil]], the [[United States]], [[Cuba]] and the [[Dominican Republic]] to Barbados, and the Barbadian calypso style came to be viewed as lowbrow or inferior. Promoters like [[Lord Silvers]] and [[Mighty Dragon]], however, kept the popular tradition alive through shows at the [[Globe Theatre]], featuring pioneers [[Mighty Romeo]], [[Sir Don Marshall]], [[Lord Radio and the Bimshire Boys]] and [[Mike Wilkinson]]. These performers set the stage for the development of popular Barbadian calypso in the 1960s.<ref name="Garland"/> In the early 1960s, Barbadian calypso grew in popularity and stature, led by [[Viper (calypsonian)|Viper]], [[Mighty Gabby]] and the [[Merrymen]]. The first calypso competitions were held in 1960, and they quickly grew larger and more prominent. The Merrymen became the island's most prominent contribution to calypso by the 1970s and into the 80s. Their style, known as ''[[blue beat]]'', incorporated Barbadian folk songs and ballads, as well as American [[blues]], [[country music]], and a distinctive sound created by harmonica, guitar and banjo.<ref name="Garland"/> By the beginning of the 1980s, ''[[kaiso]]'', a form of stage-presented calypso pioneered in Trinidad, was widespread at crop over and other celebrations.<ref>[http://www.barbados.org/music/calypso.htm Barbados.org]</ref> The foundation of the [[National Cultural Foundation]] in 1984 helped to promote and administer calypso festivals, which attracted tourists, stimulating the calypso industry. As a result, calypso has become a very visible and iconic part of Barbadian culture, and some calypsonians have become internationally renowned, including [[Mighty Gabby]] and [[Red Plastic Bag]].<ref name="Garland"/> === Spouge === {{main|Spouge}} Spouge is a style of Barbadian popular music created by [[Jackie Opel]] in the 1960s. It is primarily a fusion of Jamaican [[ska]] with Trinidadian [[calypso]], but is also influenced by a wide variety of musics from the British Isles and United States, include [[sea shanty|sea shanties]], hymns and [[spiritual (music)|spiritual]]s. Spouge instrumentation originally consisted of [[cowbell]], bass guitar, trap set and various other electronic and percussion instruments, later augmented by [[saxophone]], [[trombone]] and [[trumpet]]s.<ref> Millington, pg. 820 ''Millington lists the American and British influences as including Welsh, Scottish and Irish elements, "transmitted through literature and poetry (Shakespeare and Milton), rhymes, folk songs, sea shanties, classical music, hymns, and other songs of praise (all of which have) been constantly available, providing entertainment, edification and general education to all people of Barbados. North American love songs, parlor songs, African-American spirituals and folk hymns, and hillbilly music have also contributed to a cultural mixture in which the love of a song, the expression through movement, and demand for theater continue to be of paramount importance".''</ref> Of these, the cowbell and the guitar are widely seen as the most integral part of the instrumentation, and are said to reflect the African origin of much of Barbadian music.<ref name="advocate"/> Two different kinds of spouge were popular in the 1960s, ''raw spouge'' (''Draytons Two style'') and ''dragon spouge'' (''Cassius Clay style''). The spouge industry grew immensely by the end of the 1970s, and produced popular stars like [[Blue Rhythm Combo]], the [[Draytons Two]] and [[The Troubadours]].<ref name="Garland"/> Recent years has seen a resurgence of interest in spouge among some quarters, with people like [[Desmond Weekes]] of the Draytons Two indicating that spouge should be encouraged because it is a national form that can reach international audiences and inspire the nation's pride in their cultural heritage.<ref name="advocate"/> === Jazz === [[Jazz]] is a genre of music from the United States which reached Barbados by the end of the 1920s. The first major performer from the island was [[Lionel Gittens]], who was followed by [[Percy Green]], [[Maggie Goodridge]] and [[Clevie Gittens]]. These bandleaders played a variety of music, including [[swing music|swing]], a kind of pop-jazz, Barbadian calypso and [[waltz]]es. With little recorded music on the island, radio broadcasts such as [[Willis Conover]]'s ''[[Voice of America]]'' had a major influence. In 1937, riots over poverty and disenfranchisement occurred, and people like [[Clement Payne]] had risen to fame advocating reform. In that year, Payne was deported and riots broke out in Bridgetown, spreading throughout the island. The following year, the [[Barbados Labour Party]] was formed by [[C. A. Braithwaite]] and [[Grantley Adams]].<ref name="Pinckney">Pinckney, pp 58-88</ref> As political awareness among the black majority on the island spread, so did [[bebop]], a kind of jazz which was associated, in the United States, with social activism and [[Afrocentrism]]. The first Barbadian bebop musician from the island was [[Keith Campbell]], a pianist who had learned to play many styles while living in Trinidad during a time when American soldiers were stationed there, providing a ready market for bands that could play American music. Other musicians of this period included [[Ernie Small]], a trumpeter and pianist, and bandleader [[St. Clare Jackman]].<ref name="Pinckney"/> In the 1950s, [[R&B]] and [[rock and roll]] became popular on the island, and many jazz bands found themselves pushed aside. A wave of Guyanese musicians also appeared on the island, including [[Colin Dyall]], a saxophonist who later joined the Police Band, and the [[Ebe Gilkes Quartet]]. Though mainstream audiences were still listening to R&B and rock, modern jazz retained a small core of followers into the 1960s. The foundation of the [[Belair Jazz Club]] in Bridgetown in 1961 helped to keep this scene alive. With independence in 1966 came a focus on black Barbadian culture, and music like calypso, reggae and spouge, rather than the preoccupation with British standards of musical development. [[Calypso jazz]] arose during this period, pioneered by groups like the [[Schofield Pilgrim]]. The genre had developed by 1965, when original works like "Jouvert Morning" and "Calypso Lament" were composed. Artists like the pianist Adrian Clarke became popular during the 60s as well.<ref name="Pinckney"/> In the early 1970s, jazz fan and critic [[Carl Moore]] launched a project to keep jazz alive on the island, while [[Zanda Alexander]]'s performance in Bridgetown in 1972 is said to be the first Caribbean jazz festival. [[Oscar Peterson]]'s 1976 performance in Trinidad also inspired Barbadian musicians, as did the radio program ''Jazz Jam'', which was broadcast starting in the mid-70s on the [[Caribbean Broadcast Corporation]]. In 1983, however, the Belair Jazz Club closed, and was not replaced by any long-term clubs. Later in the 1980s, jazz declined greatly in popularity, though saxophonist [[Arturo Tappin]] organized the [[International Barbados/Caribbean Jazz Festival]], while other performances were organized by a group called the [[Friends of Jazz]]. More jazz calypso fusion musicians appeared on the scene during this period, including [[Janice Robertson]] and her Trinidadian husband [[Raf Robertson|Raf]].<ref name="Pinckney"/> == Education and musicology == Academic study of Barbadian music remains limited. Some song collections and other activities have been conducted, but there remain significant holes in scholarship, such as the musics of recent immigrants from China and India, who presumably have brought with them styles of [[music of India|Indian]] and [[music of China|Chinese musics]]. Due to a lack of archaeological and historical records, the island's indigenous music is unknown. Since the 1970s, an increase in general interest in Barbadian culture has spurred greater study of music, and given an incentive to radio and television stations to create and maintain archives of cultural practices.<ref>Millington, pp 813-814, 817, 820-821 ''Millington describes a "1981 collection of narrative, social, and children's songs, ''Folk Songs of Barbados'' (Marshall, McGeary, and Thompson, 1981) (as belying the notion) that no indigenous or oral tradition exists in Barbados.''</ref> On modern Barbados, oral transmission remains the primary mode of [[music education]], and there are few opportunities for most people to become formally educated in music of any kind. The elders of the island, who are the most educated in oral traditions, are held in high esteem due to their knowledge of folk culture.<ref>Millington, pg. 821 ''Millington describes the keepers of oral knowledge as "guardians of the cultural heritage (of Barbados)", whose positions of respect have made them "especially revered" within their local communities"</ref> Modern Barbados is home to several institutions of musical education. There are dedicated schools for [[ballet]]: [[Dance Place]] and the [[Liz Mahon Dancers]]. A number of schools sponsor orchestras, steelbands and tuk bands, including the [[St. Lucy Secondary School Steel Orchestra]].<ref name="Government">{{cite web|url=http://www.barbados.gov.bb/culture.htm|title=Culture|work=Government of Barbados|accessmonthday=October 22 |accessyear=2006}}</ref> Music is a part of the curriculum for early childhood as well as primary and secondary education.<ref>{{cite web|title=Curriculum|work=Ministry of Education|accessmonthday=March 11 |url=http://www.mes.gov.bb/pageselect.cfm?page=14|accessyear=2007}}</ref> The [[University of the West Indies]] has a campus on Barbados, but does not offer degree programs in music.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cavehill.uwi.edu/|title=Academic Programmes|work=University of the West Indies at Cave Hill|accessmonthday=March 11 |accessyear=2007}}</ref> == Music institutions and festivals == The main [[music festival]] in Barbados is [[crop over]], which is celebrated with song, dance, [[calypso tent]] competitions and parades, especially leading up to the first Monday in August, ''Kadooment Day''. The crop over festival celebrates the end of the [[sugarcane]] harvest, and is inaugurated by the ritual delivery of the last of the harvest on a cart pulled by mules. The champion sugarcane workers are crowned King and Queen for the event.<ref name="Cameron">Cameron, pp 770-771</ref> In addition to crop over, music plays an important role in many other Barbadian holidays and festivals. The Easter [[Oistins Fish Festival]], for example features a street party with music<ref name="Government"/><ref name="Cameron"/> to celebrate the signing of the ''Charter of Barbados''<ref name="Cameron"/> and the fishing industry of the island,<ref name="Government"/> and the [[Holetown Festival]], which commemorates the arrival of the first settlers in 1627. [[Opera]], [[cabaret]] and sports are a major part of the Easter [[Holders Season]].<ref name="Cameron"/> On [[November 30]], the Barbadian Independence Day, military bands in parades play marches, calypsos and other popular songs. This is preceded for several weeks by the [[National Independence Festival of Creative Arts]].<ref name="Cameron"/><ref>[http://www.allinfoaboutbarbados.com/Independence_Day_Military_Parade.html All About Barbados: Independence Day Military Parades]</ref> The National Independence Festival of Creative Arts and Crop Over are two of the festivals sponsored by the [[National Cultural Foundation]] (NCF); the other is [[Congaline]], a recently-organized street party that begins in April and ends on [[May Day]]. NCF also assists with the Holers Opera Season, Oistins Fish Festival, Holetown Festival and the [[B'dos Jazz Festival]].<ref name="Government"/> Other major musical institutions in Barbados include the [[Barbados Chamber Orchestra]] and the [[Cavite Choral]]. There are also dance and [[ballet]] groups known as [[Dance National Afrique]], [[Barbados Dance Theatre Company]], [[Dance Strides]], [[Liz Mahon Dances]], [[Dance Place]] and [[Dancing Africa]].<ref name="Government"/> The island's music industry is home to several recording studios, the largest being ''Blue Wave'', a 48-track system, and ''Paradise Alley'', a 24-track system. Others include Chambers' Studio, Gray Lizard Productions and Ocean Lab Studios.<ref name="Government"/> == References and Notes == * {{cite web |accessmonthday = June 6 |accessyear = 2006 |title = Independence Day Military Parades |url = http://www.allinfoaboutbarbados.com/Independence_Day_Military_Parade.html |work = All Info About Barbados }} * {{cite web |accessmonthday = June 6 |accessyear = 2006 |title = Tuk band |url = http://www.allinfoaboutbarbados.com/The_Tuk_Band.html |work = All Info About Barbados }} * {{cite web |accessmonthday = June 6 |accessyear = 2006 |title = The Barbados Landship |url = http://www.allinfoaboutbarbados.com/The_Barbados_Landship.html |work = All Info About Barbados }} * {{cite book |author = Cameron, Sarah |id = ISBN 0-8442-4907-6 |publisher = Passport Books |title = Caribbean Islands Handbook with the Bahamas |year = 1996 }} * {{cite book |author = De Ledesma, Charles |chapter = Put Water in the Brandy? |coauthors = Georgia Popplewell |editor = Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.) |id = ISBN 1-85828-636-0 |title = Rough Guide to World Music, Vol. 2: Latin & North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific |pages = pp 507-526 |publisher = Rough Guides |year = 2000 }} * {{cite web |accessmonthday = December 3 |accessyear = 2005 |publisher = Barbados.org |title = Calypso |url = http://www.barbados.org/music/calypso.htm |work = Barbados Music }} * {{cite web |url=http://www.barbados.gov.bb/culture.htm |title=Culture|work=Government of Barbados |accessmonthday=October 22 |accessyear=2006 }} * {{cite news |first = Hinkson |last = David |title = Does spouge have a future? Part two |publisher = [[The Barbados Advocate]] |date = 2004-03-26 }} * {{cite web|url=http://www.holders.net/yarico.html|title=Inkle and Yarico|accessmonthday=June 4 |accessyear=2006|work=Holders Barbados}} * {{cite journal |author = Pinckney, Warren R. Jr |issue = 1 |journal = American Music |month = Spring |pages = 58–88 |publisher = Society for American Music |title = Jazz in Barbados |volume = 12 |year = 1994 |doi = 10.2307/3052491 }} * {{cite book |author = Millington, Janice |id = ISBN 0-8153-1865-0 |chapter = Barbados |pages = pp 813 - 821 |publisher = Routledge |title = Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, Vol. 2 |year = 1999 }} *{{cite web |title = Barbados Cropover Road March Winners |work = Toronto-Lime |url = http://www.toronto-lime.com/music/sfiles/pic_o_de_crop_winners.htm |accessmonthday = October 22 |accessyear = 2006 }} {{reflist}} == Further reading == * {{cite book |author = Marshall, Trevor |coauthors = Peggy McGeary, and Grace Thompson |location = Bridgetown |publisher = Macmarson Associates |title = Folk Songs of Barbados |year = 1981 }} * {{cite book |author = Carrington, Sean |coauthors = Addington Forde, Henry Frasier, and John Gilmore |edition = 2nd ed |location = Oxford |publisher = Macmillan Caribbean |title = A-Z Barbadian Heritage |year = 2004 }} * {{cite book |id = ISBN 0-87047-111-2 |first = Curwen |last = Best |title = Barbadian Popular Music and the Politics of Caribbean Culture }} == External links == *[http://www.calypsonians.com Online Library of Barbadian Calypso and Calypsonians] * [http://bajanfuhlife.com/cropover/ Bajanfuhlife.com] (Home of Crop Over) website {{LesserAntilleanmusic}} [[Category:Barbadian music| ]]