Music of Italy 383448 225333735 2008-07-13T03:50:22Z SchfiftyThree 556700 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/124.184.156.90|124.184.156.90]] to last version by Rjwilmsi (using [[WP:HG|Huggle]]) {{seealso|Music history of Italy}} {{Italianmusic}} The '''music of Italy''' ranges across a broad spectrum of [[opera]] and instrumental [[classical music]], the traditional styles of the country's different regions, and a body of popular music drawn from both native and imported sources. [[Music]] has traditionally been one of the cultural markers of [[Italy|Italian]] national and ethnic identity and holds an important position in society and in [[Italian politics|politics]]. Italian innovation in [[scale (music)|musical scales]], [[harmony]], [[Musical notation|notation]], and [[musical theatre|theatre]] enabled the development of [[opera]] in the late 16th century, and much of modern [[European classical music]], such as the [[symphony]] and [[concerto]]. Instrumental and vocal classical music is an iconic part of Italian identity, spanning experimental art music and international fusions to symphonic music and opera. Opera is integral to Italian musical culture, and has become a major segment of [[popular music]]. The Neapolitan song, ''[[canzone Napoletana]]'', and the ''[[cantautori]]'' [[singer-songwriter]] traditions are also popular domestic styles that form an important part of the Italian music industry, alongside imported genres like [[jazz]], [[rock (music)|rock]] and [[hip hop music|hip hop]]. Italian folk music is an important part of the country's musical heritage, and spans a diverse array of regional styles, instruments and dances. == Characteristics == Like other elements of [[culture of Italy|Italian culture]], Italian music is generally eclectic. No parochial protectionist movement has ever attempted to keep Italian music pure and free from foreign influence, except briefly under the Fascist regime of the 1920s and 30s.<ref name="Niccolodi">Niccolodi, ''Musica e musicisti nel ventennio fascista''</ref> As a result, Italian music has kept elements of the many peoples that have dominated or influenced the country, including [[music of Germany|Germanic tribes]], [[Arabic music|Arabs]], [[Music of Greece|Greeks]], [[music of France|French]] and [[music of Spain|Spanish]]. The country's historical contributions to music are also an important part of national pride. The relatively recent history of Italy includes the development of an [[opera]] tradition that has spread throughout the world; prior to the development of Italian identity or a unified Italian state, the Italian peninsula contributed to important innovations in music including the development of [[musical notation]] and [[Gregorian chant]]. Immigrant populations from around the Mediterranean, especially Greece, the Balkans and North Africa, have established large communities in the southern peninsula over the last thousand years.<ref>Charanis, "On the Question of Hellenization of Sicily and Southern Italy During the Middle Ages"</ref> As a result, folk music on Sicily and the southern Italian mainland display features typical of elsewhere in the Mediterranean. These include an excessive nasality in the voice and an extremely [[ornamentation (music)|ornamental]] approach to [[pitch (music)|pitch]].<ref>Farmer, pp. 451</ref> Lomax's description of southern Italian singing is widely cited: "A voice as pinched and strangulated and high-pitched as any in Europe. The singing expression is one of true agony, the throat is distended and flushed with strain, the brow knotted with a painful expression. Many tunes are long and highly ornamented in Oriental style."<ref>Lomax, ''American Anthropologist''</ref> Melody has typically been important in most Italian musical forms, even at the expense of [[lyrics]] and [[harmony|harmonic complexity]]. This is true in opera, popular music and even, to some extent, in modern text-centered styles such as [[Italian hip hop]] and the music of the ''[[cantautori]]'' singer-songwriters.<ref>Monti and di Pietro, ''Dizionario dei Cantautori''</ref> === Social identity === Italy was not unified politically until the 19th century. The drive towards unification led to efforts to create a sense of Italian identity, famously described by the Italian statesman [[Massimo Taparelli, marquis d'Azeglio|Massimo d’Azeglio]]: “We have created Italy; now we have to create Italians.”<ref>This phrase is widely cited in accounts of Italian political history of the 19th century. One treatment comes from {{cite web|url=http://www.brusselsjournal.com/node/1113azeg|title=Nations Under Construction: Defining Artificial States|work=The Brussels Journal|accessdate=December 25|accessyear=2006|date=[[June 13]], [[2006]]|author=Paul Belien}}</ref> Abroad, Italian culture and society are often stereotyped, associating all Italian music with certain styles. For example, some years ago the Mayor of Venice banned gondoliers from singing [[Neapolitan song]]s for the tourists, most of whom requested "''[[O sole mio|‘O sole mio]]''" and other songs typical only of Naples but widely regarded abroad as characteristic of all Italian music.<ref>Matthews. p. 39.</ref> Allegiance to music is integrally woven into the social identity of Italians but no single style has been considered a characteristic "national style". Most folk musics are localized, and unique to a small region or city.<ref name="NewGrove">''New Grove Encyclopedia of Music'', pg. 664</ref><ref name="Garland2">''Garland Encyclopedia of World Music'', pp 613-614</ref> Italy's classical legacy, however, is an important point of the country's identity, particularly opera; traditional operatic pieces remain a popular part of music and an integral component of national identity. The musical output of Italy remains characterized by "great diversity and creative independence (with) a rich variety of types of expression".<ref name="Garland2"/> With the growing industrialization that accelerated during the 20th century, Italian society gradually moved from an agricultural base to an urban and industrial center. This change weakened traditional culture in many parts of society; a similar process occurred in other European countries, but unlike them, Italy had no major initiative to preserve traditional musics. Immigration from North Africa, Asia, and other European countries led to further diversification of Italian music. Traditional music came to exist only in small pockets, especially as part of dedicated campaigns to retain local musical identities:<ref name="NewGrove"/>) === Politics === Music and politics have been intertwined for centuries in Italy. Just as many works of art in the Italian [[Renaissance]] were commissioned by royalty and the [[Roman Catholic Church]], much music was likewise composed on the basis of such commissions&mdash;incidental court music, music for coronations, for the birth of a royal heir, royal marches, and other occasions. Composers who strayed ran certain risks. Among the best known of such cases was the Neapolitan composer [[Domenico Cimarosa]], who composed the Republican hymn for the short-lived [[Parthenopaean Republic|Neapolitan Republic of 1799]]. When the republic fell, he was tried for treason along with other revolutionaries. Cimarosa was not executed by the restored monarchy, but he was exiled.<ref name="Mondo">''Il Mondo della musica'', p. 583</ref> Music also played a role in the unification of the peninsula. During this period, some leaders attempted to use music to forge a unifying cultural identity. One example is the chorus "''Va Pensiero''" from [[Giuseppe Verdi]]'s opera ''[[Nabucco]]''. The opera is about ancient Babylon, but the chorus contains the phrase "''O mia Patria''", ostensibly about the struggle of the Israelites, but also a thinly veiled reference to the destiny of a not-yet-united Italy; the entire chorus became the unofficial anthem of the ''[[Risorgimento]]'', the drive to unify Italy in the 19th century. Even Verdi's name was a synonym for Italian unity because "''Verdi''" could be read as an acronym for ''Vittorio Emanuele Re d'Italia'', ''Victor Emanuel King of Italy'', the [[Savoy]] monarch who eventually became [[Victor Emanuel II]], the first king of united Italy. Thus, "''Viva Verdi''" was a rallying cry for patriots and often appeared in graffiti in [[Milan]] and other cities in what was then part of [[Austro-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian]] territory. Verdi had problems with censorship before the unification of Italy. His opera ''[[Un ballo in maschera]]'' was originally entitled ''Gustavo III'' and was presented to the [[San Carlo]] opera in [[Naples]], the capital of the [[Kingdom of the Two Sicilies]], in the late 1850s. The Neapolitan censors objected to the realistic plot about the assassination of [[Gustav III of Sweden|Gustav III]], [[King of Sweden]], in the 1790s. Even after the plot was changed, the Neapolitan censors still rejected it.<ref name="Mondo2">''Il Mondo della musica'', p. 163</ref> Later, in the Fascist era of the 1920s and 30s, government censorship and interference with music occurred, though not on a systematic basis. Prominent examples include the notorious anti-modernist manifesto of 1932<ref>Sachs, ''Music in Fascist Italy'', pp.23-27</ref> and [[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini]]'s banning of G.F. Malipiero's opera ''La favola del figlio cambiato'' after one performance in 1934.<ref>The episode is cited in "Underscoring Fascism," a book review of Sachs (1987) by John C. G. Waterhouse in ''The Musical Times'', Vol. 129, No. 1744. (Jun., 1988), pp. 298-299</ref> The music media often criticized music that was perceived as either politically radical or insufficiently Italian.<ref name="Garland2"/> General print media, such as the ''Enciclopedia Moderna Italiana'', tended to treat traditionally favored composers such as [[Giacomo Puccini]] and [[Pietro Mascagni]] with the same brevity as composers and musicians that were not as favored—modernists such as [[Alfredo Casella]] and [[Ferruccio Busoni]]; that is, encyclopedia entries of the era were mere lists of career milestones such as compositions and teaching positions held. Even the conductor [[Arturo Toscanini]], an avowed opponent of Fascism,<ref>''Time'', "Maestro v. Fascism". The article recounts Toscanini's refusal to conduct at the Salzburg Festival in protest of the Nazi annexation of Austria</ref> gets the same neutral and distant treatment with no mention at all of his "anti-regime" stance.<ref>Baldi, ''Enciclopedia Moderna Italiana''</ref> Perhaps the best-known episode of music colliding with politics involves Toscanini. He had been forced out of the musical directorship at [[La Scala]] in [[Milan]] in 1929 because he refused to begin every performance with the fascist song, ''Giovinezza''. For this insult to the regime, he was attacked and beaten on the street outside the Bologne opera after a performance in 1931.<ref>Sachs, Harvey, ''Toscanini'', The episode is infamous and appears in virtually all biographical accounts of Toscanini.</ref> During the Fascist era, political pressure stymied the development of classical music, although censorship was not as systematic as in Nazi Germany. A series of "racial laws" was passed in 1938, thus denying to Jewish composers and musicians membership in professional and artistic associations.<ref>"Racial laws" started to be issued in Italy in March of 1938; specifically, the one denying Jews membership in professional organizations was the Royal Decree of 5 September 1938, XVI, n. 1390, Art. 4</ref> Although there was not a massive flight of Italian Jews from Italy during this period (compared to the situation in Germany)<ref>Adams (1939) claims that&mdash;on the eve of WWII&mdash; most Italians who had fled Italy for political reasons&mdash;i.e "...membership in anti-Fascist organizations..."&mdash;were in France and puts the number at about 9,000. The author does not distinguish refugees on the basis of race or creed.</ref> composer [[Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco]], an Italian Jew, was one of those who emigrated. Some non-Jewish foes of the regime also emigrated&mdash;Toscanini, for one.<ref name="Niccolodi"/><ref name="Sachs242">Sachs, ''Music in Fascist Italy'', p. 242: "The politicization of the performing arts, so crudely initiated by the fascists, has been brought to a high level of refinement by their successors."</ref> More recently, in the later part of the 20th century, especially in the 1970s and beyond, music became further enmeshed in Italian politics.<ref name="Sachs242"/> A [[roots revival]] stimulated interest in folk traditions, led by writers, collectors and traditional performers.<ref name="Garland2"/> The political right in Italy viewed this roots revival with disdain, as a product of the "unprivileged classes".<ref>''Garland'' refers to the "unprivileged classes" as ''classi subalterne'', a term created by [[Antonio Gramsci]], social philosopher and founder of the Italian Communist Party.</ref> The revivalist scene thus became associated with the opposition, and became a vehicle for "protest against free-market capitalism".<ref name="Garland2"/> Similarly, the avant-garde classical music scene has, since the 1970s, been associated with and promoted by the [[Italian Communist Party]], a change that can be traced back to the 1968 student revolts and protests.<ref name="NewGrove"/> == Classical music == {{main|Italian classical music}} {{sample box start|Italian classical music}} {{multi-listen start}} {{multi-listen item| filename=Giacomo Puccini - Preludio Sinfonico.ogg| title="Preludio Sinfonico"| description=Operatic music by [[Giacomo Puccini]], performed by the [[Fulda Symphonic Orchestra]]| format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item| filename=Cambini - Quintet1-mov2.ogg| title="Three Wind Quintets"| description=By [[Giuseppe Cambini]] and performed by the Soni Ventorum Woodwind Quintet| format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item| filename=Caruso-AveMaria.ogg| title="Ave Maria"| description=Song by popular opera singer [[Enrico Caruso]]| format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item| filename=La Donna E Mobile Rigoletto.ogg| title="La Donna E Mobile Rigoletto"| description=Caruso, from [[Giuseppe Verdi]]'s opera ''[[Rigoletto]]''| format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item| filename=Corelli-Trio Sonata 11-3.ogg| title="Trio Sonata 11", movement #3| description=Arcangelo Corelli, [[Baroque]] composer and violinist| format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen end}} {{sample box end}} Italy has long been a center for European classical music, and by the beginning of the 20th century, Italian classical music had forged a distinct national sound that was decidedly Romantic and melodic. As typified by the operas of Verdi, it was music in which "...The vocal lines always dominate the tonal complex and are never overshadowed by the instrumental accompaniments..."<ref>Ulrich and Pisk, p. 531</ref> Italian classical music had resisted the "German harmonic juggernaut"<ref>Crocker, p. 487</ref>—that is, the dense harmonies of [[Richard Wagner]], [[Gustav Mahler]] and [[Richard Strauss]]. Italian music also had little in common with the French reaction to that German music—the impressionism of [[Claude Debussy]], for example, in which melodic development is largely abandoned for the creation of mood and atmosphere through the sounds of individual chords.<ref> Ulrich and Pisk, pp. 581-582</ref> European classical music changed greatly in the 20th century. New music abandoned much of the historical, nationally developed schools of harmony and melody in favor of [[experimental music]], [[atonality]], [[minimalism]] and [[electronic music]], all of which employ features that have become common to European music in general and not Italy specifically.<ref>Crocker, p. 517</ref> These changes have also made classical music less accessible to many people. Important composers of the period include [[Luciano Berio]], [[Luigi Nono]], [[Luigi Dallapiccola]], [[Carlo Jachino]], [[Gian Carlo Menotti]], [[Jacopo Napoli]], and [[Goffredo Petrassi]]. ===Opera=== {{main|Italian opera}} Opera originated in Italy in the late 1500s during the time of the [[Florentine Camerata]]. Through the centuries that followed, opera traditions developed in Venice and Naples; the operas of [[Claudio Monteverdi]], [[Alessandro Scarlatti]], and, later, of [[Gioacchino Rossini]], [[Vincenzo Bellini]], and [[Gaetano Donizetti]] flourished. Opera has remained the musical form most closely linked with Italian music and Italian identity. This was most obvious in the 19th century through the works of [[Giuseppe Verdi]], an icon of Italian culture and pan-Italian unity. Italy retained a Romantic operatic musical tradition in the early 20th century, exemplified by composers of the so-called [[Giovane Scuola]], whose music was anchored in the previous century, including [[Arrigo Boito]], [[Ruggiero Leoncavallo]], [[Pietro Mascagni]], and [[Francesco Cilea]]. After [[World War I]], however, opera declined in comparison to the popular heights of the 19th and early 20th centuries. Causes included the general cultural shift away from [[Romanticism]] and the rise of the [[Film|cinema]], which became a major source of entertainment. A third cause is the fact that "internationalism" had brought contemporary Italian opera to a state where it was no longer "Italian".<ref name="NewGrove">''New Grove Encyclopedia of Music'', "Italy", pp 637-680</ref> This was the opinion of at least one prominent Italian musicologist and critic, [[Fausto Terrefranca]], who, in a 1912 pamphlet entitled ''Giaccomo Puccini and International Opera'', accused Puccini of "commercialism" and of having deserted Italian traditions. Traditional Romantic opera remained popular; indeed, the dominant opera publisher in the early 20th century was [[Casa Ricordi]], which focused almost exclusively on popular operas until the 30s, when the company allowed more unusual composers with less mainstream appeal. The rise of relatively new publishers such as [[Carisch]] and [[Suvini Zerboni]] also helped to fuel the diversification of Italian opera.<ref name="NewGrove">''New Grove Encyclopedia of Music'', "Italy", pp 637-680</ref> Opera remains a major part of Italian culture; renewed interest in opera across the sectors of Italian society began in the 1980s. Respected composers from this era include the well-known [[Aldo Clementi]], and younger peers such as [[Marco Tutino]] and [[Lorenzo Ferrero]].<ref name="NewGrove"/> ===Sacred music=== Italy, being one of Catholicism's seminal nations, has a long history of music for the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. Until approximately 1800, it was possible to hear [[Gregorian Chant]] and [[Renaissance]] [[polyphony]], such as the music of [[Palestrina]], [[Lasso]], [[Anerio]], and others. Approximately 1800 to approximately 1900 was a century during which a more popular, [[opera]]tic, and entertaining type of church music was heard, to the exclusion of the aforementioned chant and polyphony. In the late 1800s, the [[Cecilian Movement]] was started by musicians who fought to restore this music. This movement gained impetus not in Italy but in Germany, particularly in [[Regensburg]]. The movement reached its apex around 1900 with the ascent of [[Don Lorenzo Perosi]] and his supporter (and future saint), [[Pope Pius X]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Musician to Five Popes: Don Lorenzo Perosi|work=Seattle Catholic|url=http://www.seattlecatholic.com/a051130.html|accessdate=December 25|author=Dubiaga, Michael Jr.|accessyear=2006}}</ref> The advent of [[Vatican II]], however, nearly obliterated all Latin-language music from the Church, once again substituting it with a more popular style.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.theuniversityconcourse.com/V,4,12-3-1999/Ziegler.htm|title=Latin, Gregorian Chant, and the Spirit of Vatican II|volume=V|month=December 3|year=1999|author=Ziegler, Jeff|issue=4|journal=University Concourse|accessdate=December 25|accessyear=2006}}</ref> ===Instrumental music=== The dominance of opera in Italian music tends to overshadow the important area of instrumental music.<ref>Friedland (1970) provides a complete treatment of what she calls "an almost unexplored segment" of music; that is, "…the orchestral and chamber music produced by Italian composers in the 1800s."</ref> Historically, such music includes the vast array of sacred instrumental music, instrumental concertos, and orchestral music in the works of [[Andrea Gabrielli]], [[Giovanni Gabrielli]], [[Tomaso Albinoni]], [[Arcangelo Corelli]], [[Antonio Vivaldi]], [[Luigi Boccherini]], [[Luigi Cherubini]] and [[Domenico Scarlatti]]. (Even opera composers occasionally worked in other forms&mdash;[[Giuseppe Verdi]]'s ''String Quartet in E minor'', for example. Even [[Gaetano Donizetti|Donizetti]], whose name is identified with the beginnings of Italian lyric opera, wrote 18 [[string quartets]].) In the early 20th century, instrumental music began growing in importance, a process that started around 1904 with [[Giuseppe Martucci]]'s Second Symphony, a work that Malipiero called "the starting point of the renascence of non-operatic Italian music."<ref>Cited in the ''New Grove Encyclopedia of Music'', pg. 659. </ref> Several early composers from this era, such as [[Leone Sinigaglia]], used native folk traditions. The early 20th century is also marked by the presence of a group of composers called the ''generazione dell'ottanta'' (generation of 1880), including [[Franco Alfano]], [[Alfredo Casella]], [[Gian Francesco Malipiero]], [[Ildebrando Pizzetti]], and [[Ottorino Respighi]]. These composers usually concentrated on writing instrumental works, rather than opera. Members of this generation were the dominant figures in Italian music after Puccini's death in 1924.<ref name="NewGrove"/> New organizations arose to promote Italian music, such as the [[Venice Festival of Contemporary Music]] and the [[Maggio Musicale Fiorentino]]. [[Guido Gatti]]'s founding of the periodical ''il Piano'' and then ''La ressegna musicale'' also helped to promote a broader view of music than the political and social climate allowed. Most Italians, however, preferred more traditional pieces and established standards, and only a small audience sought new styles of experimental classical music.<ref name="NewGrove"/> ===Ballet=== Italian contributions to ballet are less known and appreciated than in other areas of classical music. Italy, particularly [[Milan]], was the European center of court [[choreography]] as early as the 1400s in the form of such things as ritual masked balls. Early choreographers and composers of ballet include [[Fabrizio Caroso]] and [[Cesare Negri]]. The style of ballet known as the "spectacles ''all’italiana''" imported to France from Italy caught on, and the first ballet performed in France (1581), ''Ballet comique de la Royn'', was composed by an Italian, Baltazarini di Belgioioso,<ref> Mondo4. pp. 139-42</ref> better known by the French version of his name, [[Balthasar de Beaujoyeulx]]. Early ballet was accompanied by considerable instrumentation, with the playing of horns, trombones, kettle drums, dulcimers, bagpipes, etc. Although the music has not survived, there is speculation that dancers, themselves, may have played instruments onstage.<ref>Bouget</ref> Then, in the wake of the [[French Revolution]], Italy again became a center of ballet, largely through the efforts of [[Salvatore Viganò]], a choreographer who worked with some of the most prominent composers of the day. He was made the balletmaster of ''[[La Scala]]'' in 1812.<ref> Mondo4. pp. 139-42</ref> The best-known example of Italian ballet from the 19th century is probably ''Excelsior'', with music by [[Romualdo Marenco]] and choreography by [[Luigi Manzotti]]. It was composed in 1881 and is a lavish tribute to the scientific and industrial progress of the 19th century. It is still performed and was staged as recently as 2002. Currently, major Italian opera theaters maintain ballet companies. They exist to provide incidental and ceremonial dancing in many operas, such as ''[[Aida]]'' or ''[[La Traviata]]''. These dance companies usually maintain a separate ballet season and perform the standard repertoire of classical ballet, little of which is Italian. The Italian equivalent of the Russian ''[[Bolshoi Ballet]]'' and similar companies that exist only to perform ballet, independent of a parent opera theater is ''[[La Scala Ballet]]'', which is under the direction of [[Frèdèric Olivieri]]. Since 1979 there has existed in Italy a modern dance company, the ''[[Aterballetto]]'', based in Reggio Emilia. The company performs worldwide under the leadership of choreographer [[Mauro Bigonzetti]]. ===Experimental music=== ''Experimental music'' is a broad, loosely-defined field encompassing musics created by abandoning traditional classical concepts of melody and harmony, and by using the new technology of electronics to create hitherto impossible sounds. In Italy, one of the first to devote his attention to experimental music was [[Ferruccio Busoni]], whose 1907 publication, ''Sketch for a New Aesthetic of Music'', discussed the use of electrical and other new sounds in future music. He spoke of his dissatisfaction with the constraints of traditional music: :“We have divided the octave into twelve equidistant degrees…and have constructed our instruments in such as way that we can never get in above or below or between them…our ears are no longer capable of hearing anything else…yet Nature created an ''infinite gradation—infinite!'' Who still knows it nowadays?”<ref>Busoni, p.89</ref> Similarly, [[Luigi Russolo]], the Italian [[Futurism (art)|Futurist]] painter and composer, wrote of the possibilities of new music in his 1913 manifestoes ''The Art of Noises'' and ''Musica Futurista''. He also invented and built instruments such as the ''intonarumori'', mostly percussion, which were used in a precursor to the style known as ''[[musique concrète]]''. One of the most influential events in early 20th century music was the return of [[Alfredo Casella]] from France in 1915; Casella founded the [[Società Italiana di Musica Moderna]], which promoted several composers in disparate styles, ranging from experimental to traditional. After a dispute over the value of experimental music in 1923, Casella formed the [[Corporazione delle Nuove Musiche]] to promote modern experimental music.<ref name="NewGrove"/> In the 1950s, [[Luciano Berio]] experimented with instruments accompanied by electronic sounds on tape. In modern Italy, one important organization that fosters research in avantgarde and electronic music is [[CEMAT]], the Federation of Italian Electroacoustic Music Centers. It was founded in 1996 in Rome and is a member of the [[CIME]], the ''Confédération Internationale de Musique Electroacoustique''. CEMAT promotes the activities of the “Sonora” project, launched jointly by the Department for Performing Arts, Ministry for Cultural Affairs and the Directorate for Cultural Relations, Ministry for Foreign Affairs with the object of promoting and diffusing Italian contemporary music abroad. ===Classical music in society=== Italian classical music grew gradually more experimental and progressive into the mid-20th century, while popular tastes have tended to stick with well established composers and compositions of the past.<ref name="NewGrove"/> The 2004-2005 program at the [[Teatro San Carlo]] in Naples is typical of modern Italy: of the eight operas represented, the most recent was Puccini. In symphonic music, of the 26 composers whose music was played, 21 of them were from the 19th century or earlier, composers who use the melodies and harmonies typical of the Romantic era. This focus is common to other European traditions, and is known as ''[[postmodern music|postmodernism]]'', a school of thought that draws on earlier harmonic and melodic concepts that pre-date the conceptions of [[atonality]] and [[dissonance]].<ref>Kramer</ref> This focus on popular historical composers has helped to maintain a continued presence of classical music across a broad spectrum of Italian society. When music is part of a public display or gathering, it is often chosen from a very eclectic repertoire that is as likely to include well-known classical music as popular music. A few recent works have become a part of the modern repertoire, including scores and theatrical works by composers such as [[Luciano Berio]], [[Luigi Nono]], [[Franco Donatoni]], and [[Sylvano Bussotti]]. These composers are not part of a distinct school or tradition, though they do share certain techniques and influences. By the 1970s, avant-garde classical music had become linked to the [[Italian Communist Party]], while a revival of popular interest continued into the next decade, with foundations, festivals and organization created to promote modern music. Near the end of the 20th century, government sponsorship of musical institutions began to decline, and several [[RAI]] choirs and city orchestras were closed. Despite this, a number of composers gained international reputations in the early 21st century.<ref name="NewGrove"/> == Folk music == {{main|Italian folk music}} {{sample box start|Italian folk music}} {{multi-listen start}} {{multi-listen item| filename=SonSoldatoFanteria.ogg| title="Son Soldato Fanteria" ("The Ghost Soldier")| description=A Bersaglieri marching song, recorded in Northern California| format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item| filename=Napoliebelloestinco.ogg| title="Napoli e Bello e Stinco" ("Naples Is Lovely")| description=A tarantella, sung in Neapolitan dialect, recorded in Northern California| format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item| filename=LaTabaccheraMia.ogg| title="La Tabacchera Mia" ("My Snuffbox")| description=An unaccompanied Italian-American folk song| format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen end}} {{sample box end}} [[Folk music of Italy|Italian folk music]] has a deep and complex history.<ref> Giurati. This essay provides a thorough review of the history and current state of Italian ethnomusicology.</ref> Because [[Italian unification|national unification]] came late to the [[Italian peninsula]], the traditional music of its many hundreds of cultures exhibit no homogeneous national character. Rather, each region and community possesses a unique musical tradition that reflects the history, language, and ethnic composition of that particular locale.<ref>Sassu.</ref> These traditions reflect Italy's geographic position in southern [[Europe]] and in the center of the [[Mediterranean Sea]]; [[Arabic music|Arabic]], [[African music|African]], [[Celtic Music|Celtic]], [[Persian music|Persian]], [[Roma music|Roma]], and [[Music of Southeastern Europe|Slavic]] influences, as well as rough geography and the historic dominance of small [[Italian city-states|city states]], have all combined to allow diverse musical styles to coexist in close proximity. Italian folk styles are very diverse, and include [[monophony|monophonic]], [[polyphony|polyphonic]], and [[responsorial]] song, choral, instrumental and vocal music, and other styles. Choral singing and polyphonic song forms are primarily found in northern Italy, while south of Naples, solo singing is more common, and groups usually use unison singing in two or three parts carried by a single performer. Northern ballad-singing is syllabic, with a strict tempo and intelligible lyrics, while southern styles use a ''[[rubato]]'' tempo, and a strained, tense vocal style.<ref name="Garland">Keller, Catalano and Colicci, in the ''Garland Encyclopedia of World Music'', pp 604 - 625</ref> Folk musicians use the dialect of their own regional tradition; this rejection of the standard [[Italian language]] in folk song is nearly universal. There is little perception of a common Italian folk tradition, and the country's folk music never became a national symbol.<ref>Keller, Catalano and Colicci, in the ''Garland Encyclopedia of World Music'', pp 604 - 625; ''Garland'' notes that "during the second half of the nineteenth and part of the twentieth century, opera and so-called Neapolitan popular song served such purposes."</ref> [[Image:italgeoname.jpg|left|thumb|Some common geographical names used as points of reference in Italy.<ref>Thus, it is common to speak of the "music of Cilento," even though these names do not necessarily refer to formal administrative regions or provinces of Italy.</ref>]] === Regions === Italy's folk music is sometimes divided into several spheres of geographic influence, a classification system of three regions, southern, central and northern, proposed by [[Alan Lomax]] in 1956<ref>Lomax, pp. 48-50</ref> and often repeated. Additionally, Curt Sachs<ref>Sachs</ref> proposed the existence of two quite distinct kinds of folk music in Europe: continental and Mediterranean, and others<ref>Magrini (1990), p. 20.</ref> have placed the transition zone from the former to the latter roughly in north-central Italy, approximately between [[Pesaro]] and [[La Spezia]]. The central, northern and southern parts of the peninsula each share certain musical characteristics, and are each distinct from the [[music of Sardinia]].<ref name="Garland"/> In the Piedmontese valleys and some Ligurian communities of northwestern Italy, the music preserves the strong influence of ancient [[Occitania]]. The lyrics of the Occitanic [[troubadour]]s are some of the oldest preserved samples of vernacular song, and modern bands like [[Gai Saber]] and [[Lou Dalfin]] preserve and contemporize Occitan music. The Occitanian culture retains characteristics of the ancient Celtic influence, through the use of six or seven hole flutes (''[[fifre]]'') or the bagpipes (''[[piva]]''). The music of [[Friuli-Venezia Giulia]], in northeastern Italy, shares much more in common with [[Austria]] and [[Slovenia]] including variants of the [[waltz]] and the [[polka]]. Much of northern Italy shares with areas of Europe further to the north an interest in ballad singing (called ''canto epico lirico'' in Italian) and choral singing. Even ballads&mdash;usually thought of as a vehicle for a solo voice&mdash;may be sung in choirs. In the province of Trento "folk choirs" are the most common form of music making.<ref>Keller2</ref> Noticeable musical differences in the southern type include increased use of interval part singing and a greater variety of folk instruments. The Celtic and Slavic influences on the group and open-voice choral works of the north yield to a stronger Arabic, Greek, and African-influenced strident [[monody]] of the south. In parts of Apulia ([[Grecìa Salentina]], for example) the [[Griko]] dialect is commonly used in song. The Apulian city of [[Taranto]] is a home of the [[tarantella]], a rhythmic dance widely performed in southern Italy. Apulian music in general, and Salentine music in particular, has been well researched and documented by ethnomusicologists and by [[Aramirè]]. The [[Music of Sardinia|music of the island of Sardinia]] is best known for the polyphonic chanting of the ''[[tenores]]''. The sound of the ''tenores'' recalls the roots of Gregorian chant, and is similar to but distinctive from the Ligurian [[trallalero]]. Typical instruments include the ''[[launeddas]]'', a Sardinian triplepipe used in a sophisticated and complex manner. [[Efisio Melis]] was a well-known master ''launeddas'' player of the 1930s.<ref>Leydi, p. 179</ref> === Songs === Italian folk songs include [[ballad]]s, [[lyrics|lyrical]] songs, [[lullaby|lullabies]] and children's songs, seasonal songs based around holidays such as [[Christmas]], life-cycle songs that celebrate weddings, baptisms and other important events, dance songs, cattle calls and occupational songs, tied to professions such as fishermen, shepherds and soldiers. Ballads (''canti epico-lirici'') and lyric songs (''canti lirico-monostrofici'') are two important categories. Ballads are most common in northern Italy, while lyric songs prevail further south. Ballads are closely tied to the English form, with some British ballads existing in exact correspondence with an Italian song. Other Italian ballads are more closely based on French models. Lyric songs are a diverse category that consist of lullabies, serenades and work songs, and are frequently improvised though based on a traditional repertoire.<ref name="Garland"/> Other Italian folk song traditions are less common than ballads and lyric songs. Strophic, religious ''[[laude]]'', sometimes in Latin, are still occasionally performed, and [[Epic poetry|epic]] songs are also known, especially those of the ''[[Maggio drammatico|maggio]]'' celebration. Professional female singers perform [[dirge]]s similar in style to those elsewhere in Europe. [[Yodel]]ing exists in northern Italy, though it is most commonly associated with the folk musics of other Alpine nations. The Italian [[Carnival]] is associated with several song types, especially the Carnival of [[Bagolino]], [[Brescia]]. Choirs and brass bands are a part of the mid-Lenten holiday, while the [[begging]] song tradition extends through many holidays throughout the year.<ref name="Garland"/> === Instrumentation === [[Image:folkaccord.jpg|right|thumb|A folk accordion.]] Instrumentation is an integral part of all facets of Italian folk music. There are several instruments that retain older forms even while newer models have become widespread elsewhere in Europe. Many Italian instruments are tied to certain rituals or occasions, such as the ''[[zampogna]]'' bagpipe, typically heard only at Christmas.<ref>Guizzi, pp. 43-44</ref> Italian folk instruments can be divided into [[string instrument|string]], [[wind instrument|wind]] and [[percussion instrument|percussion]] categories.<ref>Olson, pp. 108-109.</ref> Common instruments include the ''[[organetto]]'', an accordion most closely associated with the [[saltarello]]; the diatonic button ''organetto'' is most common in central Italy, while chromatic accordions prevail in the north. Many municipalities are home to [[brass band]]s, which perform with roots revival groups; these ensembles are based around the [[clarinet]], accordion, violin and small drums, adorned with bells.<ref name="Garland"/> [[Image:folkflutes.jpg|left|thumb|A selection of folk flutes]] Italy's wind instruments include most prominently a variety of folk [[flute]]s. These include duct, globular and transverse flutes, as well as various variations of the [[pan flute]]. Double flutes are most common in Campania, Calabria and Sicily.<ref>Carpitella, pgs. 422-428, cited in the ''Garland Encyclopedia of World music'', pg. 616</ref> A ceramic pitcher called the ''quartara'' is also used as a wind instrument, by blowing across an opening in the narrow bottle neck; it is found in eastern Sicily and Campania. Single- (''ciaramella'') and double-reed (''piffero'') pipes are commonly played in groups of two or three.<ref name="Garland"/> Several folk bagpipes are well-known, including central Italy's ''[[zampogna]]''; dialect names for the bagpipe vary throughout Italy-- ''beghet'' in [[Bergamo]], ''piva'' in [[Lombardy]], ''müsa'' in [[Alessandria]], [[Genoa]], [[Pavia]] and [[Piacenza]], and so forth. Numerous percussion instruments are a part of Italian folk music, including wood blocks, [[bell (instrument)|bell]]s, [[castanet]]s, drums. Several regions have their own distinct form of [[rattle]], including the ''[[raganella]]'' cog rattle and the Calabrian ''[[conocchie]]'', a spinning or shepherd's staff with permanently attached seed rattles with ritual fertility significance. The Neapolitan rattle is the ''[[triccaballacca]]'', made out of several [[mallet]]s in a wooden frame. [[Tambourine]]s (''tamburini'', ''tamburello'') are common, as are various kinds of drums, such as the [[friction drum]] ''[[putipù]]''. The [[Jews Harp|mouth-harp]], ''[[Jews Harp|scacciapensieri]]'' or ''care-chaser'', is a distinctive instrument, found only in northern Italy and Sicily.<ref name="Garland"/> [[Image:Zampogna1.jpg|right|thumb|The ''zampogna'', a folk bagpipe.]] String instruments vary widely depending on locality, with no nationally prominent representative. [[Viggiano]] is home to a [[harp]] tradition, which has a historical base in [[Abruzzi]], [[Lazio]] and [[Calabria]]. Calabria, alone, has 30 traditional musical instruments, some of which have strongly archaic characteristics and are largely extinct elsewhere in Italy. It is home to the four- or five-stringed [[guitar]] called the ''[[chitarra battente]]'', and a three-stringed, bowed fiddle called the ''[[lira]]'',<ref>Ricci</ref> which is also found in similar forms in the [[music of Crete]] and [[Music of Southeastern Europe|Southeastern Europe]]. A one-stringed, bowed fiddle called the ''torototela'', is common in the northeast of the country. The largely German-speaking [[Province of Bolzano-Bozen|Alto Adige/South Tyrol]] is known for the [[zither]], and the ''[[ghironda]]'' ([[hurdy-gurdy]]) is found in [[Emilia]], [[Piedmont]] and [[Lombardy]].<ref name="Garland"/> Existing, rooted and widespread traditions confirm the production of ephemeral and toy instruments made of bark, reed (arundo donax), leaves, fibers and stems, as it emerges, for example, from [[Fabio Lombardi]]'s research. === Dance === Dance is an integral part of folk traditions in Italy. Some of the dances are ancient and, to a certain extent, persist today. There are magico-ritual dances of propitiation as well as harvest dances, including the “sea-harvest” dances of fishing communities in Calabria and the wine harvest dances in Tuscany. Famous dances include the southern [[tarantella]]; perhaps the most iconic of Italian dances, the ''tarantella'' is in 6/8 time, and is part of a folk ritual intended to cure the poison caused by [[tarantula]] bites. Popular Tuscan dances ritually act out the hunting of the hare, or display blades in [[weapon dance]]s that simulate or recall the moves of combat, or use the weapons as stylized instruments of the dance itself. For example, in a few villages in northern Italy, swords are replaced by wooden half-hoops embroidered with green, similar to the so-called "garland dances" in northern Europe.<ref>Wolfram</ref> There are also dances of love and courting, such as the ''duru-duru'' dance in Sardinia.<ref> Mondo3, pp. 682-687</ref> Many of these dances are group activities, the group setting up in rows or circles; some—the love and courting dances—involve couples, either a single couple or more. The ''tammuriata'' (performed to the sound of the tambourine) is a couple dance performed in southern Italy and accompanied by a lyric song called a ''[[strambotto]]''. Other couples dances are collectively referred to as [[saltarello]].<ref name="Garland"/>There are, however, also solo dances; most typical of these are the “flag dances” of various regions of Italy, in which the dancer passes a town flag or pennant around the neck, through the legs, behind the back, often tossing it high in the air and catching it. These dances can also be done in groups of solo dancers acting in unison or by coordinating flag passing between dancers. Northern Italy is also home to the ''[[monferrina]]'', an accompanied dance that was incorporated in Western art music by the composer [[Muzio Clementi]].<ref name="Garland"/> Academic interest in the study of dance from the perspectives of sociology and anthropology has traditionally been neglected in Italy but is currently showing renewed life at the university and post-graduate level.<ref> Sparti </ref> == Popular music == {{main|Italian popular music}} {{sample box start|Italian popular music}} {{multi-listen start}} {{multi-listen item| filename=Articolo31Passa il funk.ogg| title="Passa il Funk"| description=Song by popular hip hop, rock and pop group [[Articolo 31]]| format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item| filename=FabriziodeAndreLaCanzonediM.ogg| title="La Canzone di Marinella"| description=Song by popular performer [[Fabrizio de Andre]]| format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item| filename=ZuccheroNienteDaPerdere.ogg| title="Niente da Perdere"| description=Song by pop singer [[Zucchero]]| format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen end}} {{sample box end}} The earliest Italian popular music was the opera of the 19th century. Opera has had a lasting effect on Italy's folk, classical and popular musics. Opera tunes spread through [[brass band]]s and itinerant ensembles. ''[[Canzone Napoletana]]'', or ''Neapolitan song'', is a distinct tradition that became a part of popular music in the 19th century, and was an iconic image of Italian music abroad by the end of the 20th century.<ref name="Garland"/> Imported styles have also become an important part of Italian popular music, beginning with the French ''[[Café-chantant]]'' in the 1890s and then the arrival of American [[jazz]] in the 1910s. Until Italian Fascism became officially "allergic" to foreign influences in the late 1930s, American dance music and musicians were quite popular; jazz great [[Louis Armstrong]] toured Italy as late as 1935 to great acclaim.<ref>Mazzoletti</ref> In the 1950s, American styles became more prominent, especially [[rock (music)|rock]]. The [[singer-songwriter]] ''[[cantautori]]'' tradition was a major development of the later 1960s, while the Italian rock scene soon diversified into [[progressive rock|progressive]], [[punk rock|punk]], [[funk]] and folk-based styles.<ref name="Garland"/> === Early popular song === [[Italian opera]] became immensely popular in the 19th century and was known across even the most rural sections of the country. Most villages had occasional opera productions, and the techniques used in opera influenced rural folk musics. Opera spread through itinerant ensembles and [[brass band]]s, focused in a local village. These civic bands (''banda communale'') used instruments to perform operatic arias, with [[trombone]]s or [[fluegelhorn]]s for male vocal parts and [[cornet]]s for female parts.<ref name="Garland"/> Besides opera, some regional music in the 19th century also became popular throughout Italy. Notable among these local traditions was the ''[[Canzone Napoletana]]''—the Neapolitan Song. Although there are anonymous, documented songs from Naples from many centuries ago,<ref>Vajro, p. 17</ref> the term, ''canzone Napoletana'' now generally refers to a large body of relatively recent, composed popular music—such songs as "[['O Sole Mio|'O sole mio]]", "Torna a Surriento", and "[[Funiculi Funicula]]". In the 18th century, many composers, including [[Alessandro Scarlatti]], [[Leonardo Vinci]], and [[Giovanni Paisiello]], contributed to the Neapolitan tradition by using the local language for the texts of some of their [[comic opera]]s. Later, others—most famously [[Gaetano Donizetti]]—composed Neapolitan songs that garnered great renown in Italy and abroad.<ref name="Garland"/> The Neapolitan song tradition became formalized in the 1830s through an annual songwriting competition for the yearly [[Piedigrotta]] festival,<ref>Napoletana, notes to vol.1</ref> dedicated to the [[Piedigrotta|Madonna of Piedigrotta]], a well-known church in the [[Mergellina]] area of Naples. The music is identified with Naples, but is famous abroad, having been exported on the great waves of emigration from Naples and southern Italy roughly between 1880 and 1920. Language is an extremely important element of Neapolitan song, which is always written and performed in [[Neapolitan language|Neapolitan]],<ref>Maiden (2)</ref> the regional minority language of [[Campania]]. Neapolitan songs typically use simple harmonies, and are structured in two sections, a refrain and narrative verses, often in contrasting relative or parallel major and minor keys.<ref name="Garland"/> In non-musical terms, this means that many Neapolitan songs can sound joyful one minute and melancholy the next. The music of [[Francesco Tosti]] was popular at the turn of the 20th century, and is remembered for his light, expressive songs. His style became very popular during the ''[[Belle Époque]]'' and is often known as salon music. His most famous works are ''Serenata'', ''Addio'' and the popular Neapolitan song, ''Marechiaro'', the lyrics of which are by the prominent Neapolitan dialect poet, [[Salvatore di Giacomo]]. Recorded popular music began in the late 19th century, with international styles influencing Italian music by the late 1910s; however, the rise of ''[[Autarky|autarchia]]'', the Fascist policy of cultural isolationism in 1922 led to a retreat from international popular music. During this period, popular Italian musicians traveled abroad and learned elements of [[jazz]], [[Latin American music]] and other styles. These musics influenced the Italian tradition, which spread around the world and further diversified following liberalization after World War II.<ref name="Garland"/> Under the isolationist policies of the fascist regime, which rose to power in 1922, Italy developed an insular musical culture. Foreign musics were suppressed while Mussolini's government encouraged nationalism and linguistic and ethnic purity. Popular performers, however, travelled abroad, and brought back new styles and techniques.<ref name="Garland"/> American jazz was an important influence on singers such as [[Alberto Rabagliati]], who became known for a [[swing (music)|swinging]] style. Elements of harmony and melody from both jazz and [[blues]] were used in many popular songs, while rhythms often came from Latin dances like the [[tango (dance)|tango]], [[Rumba (dance)|rumba]] and [[beguine]]. Italian composers incorporated elements from these styles, while Italian music, especially Neapolitan song, became a part of popular music across Latin America.<ref name="Garland"/> === Modern pop === Among the best-known Italian pop musicians of the last few decades are [[Domenico Modugno]], [[Mina (singer)|Mina]], [[Gianni Morandi]], [[I Pooh]], [[Adriano Celentano]] and, more recently, [[Zucchero]], [[Vasco Rossi]] and [[Eros Ramazzotti]]. Musicians who compose and sing their own songs are called ''[[cantautori]]'' (singer-songwriters). Their compositions typically focus on topics of social relevance and are often [[protest song]]s: this wave began in the 1960s with musicians like [[Fabrizio De André]], [[Giorgio Gaber]], [[Gino Paoli]] and [[Luigi Tenco]]. Social, political, psychological and intellectual themes, mainly in the wake of Gaber and De André's work, became even more predominant in 1970s through authors such as [[Pino Daniele]], [[Francesco De Gregori]], [[Francesco Guccini]], [[Antonello Venditti]] and [[Roberto Vecchioni]]. At the same time [[Lucio Battisti]], [[Angelo Branduardi]] and [[Franco Battiato]] pursued careers more oriented to the tradition of Italian pop music.<ref>Dizionario</ref> There is some genre cross-over between the ''cantautori'' and those who are viewed as singers of "protest music".<ref>Bordoni, p. 237</ref> Film scores, although they are secondary to the film, are often critically acclaimed and very popular in their own right. Among early music for Italian films from the 1930s was the work of [[Riccardo Zandonai]] with scores for the films ''La Principessa Tarakanova'' (1937) and ''Caravaggio'' (1941). Post-war examples include [[Goffredo Petrassi]] with ''Non c'e pace tra gli ulivi'' (1950) and [[Roman Vlad]] with ''Giulietta e Romeo'' (1954). Another well-known film composer was [[Nino Rota]] whose post-war career included the scores for films by [[Federico Fellini]] and, later, ''[[The Godfather]]'' series. Other prominent film score composers include [[Ennio Morricone]], [[Riz Ortolani]] and [[Piero Umiliani]].<ref>Fazzini, pp.7-19</ref> === Imported styles === ''See also [[Italian hip hop]], [[Italian jazz]], [[Italian rock]], [[Italian progressive rock]]'' During the ''[[Belle Époque]]'', the French fashion of performing popular music at the ''[[café-chantant]]'' spread throughout Europe.<ref>Segel</ref> The tradition had much in common with [[cabaret]], and there is overlap between ''café-chantant'', ''café-concert'', ''cabaret'', [[music hall]], [[vaudeville]] and other similar styles, but at least in its Italian manifestation, the tradition remained largely apolitical, focusing on lighter music, often risqué, but not bawdy. The first ''café-chantant'' in Italy was the ''Salone Margherita'', which opened in 1890 on the premises of the new Galleria Umberto in Naples.<ref>Paliotti</ref> Elsewhere in Italy, the Gran Salone Eden in Milan and the Music Hall Olympia in Rome opened shortly thereafter. ''Café-chantant'' was alternately known as the Italianized ''caffè-concerto''. The main performer, usually a woman, was called a ''chanteuse'' in French; the Italian term, ''sciantosa'', is a direct coinage from the French. The songs, themselves, were not French, but were lighthearted or slightly sentimental songs composed in Italian. That music went out of fashion with the advent of WWI. The influence of US pop forms has been strong since the end of [[World War II]]. Lavish [[Broadway theatres|Broadway]]-show numbers, [[Big Band|big bands]], [[rock and roll]], and [[hip hop music|hip hop]] continue to be popular. Latin music, especially Brazilian [[bossa nova]], is also popular, and the Puerto Rican genre of [[reggaeton]] is rapidly becoming a mainstream form of dance music. It is now not uncommon for modern Italian pop artists such as [[Laura Pausini]], [[Eros Ramazzotti]], and [[Zucchero]] to release new songs in English or Spanish in addition to, or instead of, Italian. Thus, musical revues, which are standard fare on current Italian television, can easily go, in a single evening, from a big-band number with dancers to an Elvis impersonator to a current pop singer doing a rendition of a Puccini aria. Jazz found its way into Europe during WWI through the presence of American musicians in military bands playing [[syncopation|syncopated]] music.<ref>It is claimed by some (Badger 1995) that the introduction to Europe of the syncopated sounds of early American jazz came in the form of music performed by the band of the [[369th Infantry Regiment]] (the "[[Harlem Hellfighters]]"), led by [[James Reese Europe]], the leading figure on the African American music scene in [[New York City]] in the 1910s before being commissioned as a lieutenant to serve in WWI.</ref> Yet, even before that, Italy received an inkling of new music from across the Atlantic in the form of ''Creole'' singers and dancers who performed at the Eden Theater in Milan in 1904; they billed themselves as the "creators of the [[cakewalk]]." The first real jazz orchestras in Italy, however, were formed during 1920s by bandleaders such as Arturo Agazzi and enjoyed immediate success.<ref>Mazzoletti</ref> In spite of the anti-American cultural policies of the Fascist regime during the 1930s, American jazz remained popular. In the immediate post-war years, jazz took off in Italy. All American post-war jazz styles, from [[bebop]] to [[free jazz]] and [[Jazz fusion|fusion]] have their equivalents in Italy. The universality of Italian culture ensured that jazz clubs would spring up throughout the peninsula, that all radio and then television studios would have jazz-based house bands, that Italian musicians would then start nurturing a home grown kind of jazz, based on European song forms, classical composition techniques and folk music. Currently, all Italian music conservatories have jazz departments, and there are jazz festivals each year in Italy, the best known of which is the [[Umbria Jazz Festival]], and there are [[Music media in Italy|prominent publications]] such as the journal, ''Musica Jazz''. Italian pop rock has produced major stars like [[Zucchero]], and has resulted in many top hits. The industry media, especially television, are important vehicles for such music; the television show ''[[Sabato Sera]]'' is characteristic.<ref>Dave Laing with Olivier Julien and Catherine Budent, "Television Shows", pg. 475, in the ''Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World''</ref> Italy was at the forefront of the [[progressive rock]] movement of the 1970s, a style that primarily developed in Europe but also gained audiences elsewhere in the world. It is sometimes considered a separate genre, [[Italian progressive rock]]. Italian bands such as [[Premiata Forneria Marconi]] (PFM), [[Banco del Mutuo Soccorso]], and [[Le Orme]] incorporated a mix of symphonic rock and Italian folk music and were popular throughout Europe and the United States as well. Other progressive bands such as [[Balletto di Bronzo]] or [[Museo Rosenbach]] remained little known, but their albums are today considered classics by collectors. A few avant-garde rock bands ([[Area (band)|Area]] or [[Picchio dal Pozzo]]) gained notoriety for their innovative sound. Progressive rock concerts in Italy tended to have a strong political undertone and an energetic atmosphere. The [[Italian hip hop]] scene began in the early 1990s with [[Articolo 31]] from [[Milan]], whose style was mainly influenced by [[East Coast rap]]. Other early hip hop crews were typically politically-oriented, like [[99 Posse]], who later became more influenced by British [[trip hop]]. More recent crews include [[gangster rap]]pers like Sardinia's [[La Fossa]]. Other recently imported styles include [[techno music|techno]], [[Trance music|trance]], and [[electronica]] performed by artists including [[Gabry Ponte]], [[Eiffel 65]], and [[Gigi D`Agostino]].<ref name="RoughGuide">Surian, pgs. 169-201</ref> Hip hop is especially characteristic of southern Italy, a fact which some observers have contributed to the view of southern culture as more "African" than "European", as well as the southern concept of ''rispettu'' (''respect'', ''honor''), a form of verbal jousting; both facts have helped identify southern Italian music with the African American hip hop style.<ref>Stokes, "Ethnicity and Race", pg. 216, in the ''Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World, Volume 1: Media, Industry and Society''</ref> Additionally, there are many bands in Italy that play a style called ''patchanka'', which is characterized by a mixture of traditional music, punk, reggae, rock and political lyrics. [[Modena City Ramblers]] are one of the more popular bands known for their mix of Irish, Italian, punk, reggae and many other forms of music.<ref name="RoughGuide"/> Italy has also become a home for a number of Mediterranean fusion projects. These include [[Al Darawish]], a multicultural band based in Sicily and led by [[Palestinian]] [[Nabil Ben Salaméh]]. The [[Luigi Cinque Tarantula Hypertext Orchestra]] is another example, as is the TaraGnawa project by [[Phaleg]] and [[Nour Eddine]]. The Neapolitan popular singer, [[Massimo Ranieri]] has also released a CD, ''Oggi o dimane'', of traditional ''canzone Napoletana'' with North African rhythms and instruments.<ref name="RoughGuide"/> == Industry == [[Image:superstore01.jpg|right|thumb|Inside a music superstore.]] A recent economics report says that the music industry in Italy made 2.3 billion € in 2004. That sum refers to the sale of CDs, music electronics, musical instruments, and ticket sales for live performances; it represents a 4.35% growth over 2004. The actual sale of music albums has decreased slightly, but there has been a compensatory increase in paid-for digitally downloaded music from industry-approved sites. By way of comparison, the Italian recording industry ranks eighth in the world; Italians own 0.7 music albums per capita as opposed to the USA, in first-place with 2.7. The report cites a 20% increase in 2004 over 2003 in paid royalties for on-air as well as live music.<ref>''Rapporto 2005''</ref> Nationwide, there are three state-run and three private TV networks. All provide live music at least some of the time, thus giving work to musicians, singers, and dancers. Many large cities in Italy have local TV stations, as well, which may provide live folk or dialect music often of interest only to the immediate area. Book and CD superstores have entered the Italian market over the last decade. The largest of these chains is [[Feltrinelli]], originally a publishing house in the 1950s. In 2001, it geared up to the level of ''Multimedia Store'' and now sells massive quantities of recorded music. There are, as of 2006, 14 such mega-stores in Italy, with more planned. [[FNAC]] is another large chain, originally French. It has six large outlets in Italy. These stores also serve as venues for music performance, hosting several concerts a week. == Venues, festivals and holidays == [[Image:Italia military music.jpg|left|thumb|An [[Military of Italy|Italian army]] [[military band]]]] [[Image:ravellofest01.jpg|right|thumb|The annual Festival of Ravello is a popular music venue in Italy. Here, an orchestra starts to set up on a stage overlooking the Amalfi coast.]] Venues for music in Italy include concerts at the many [[Italian music conservatories|music conservatories]], symphony halls and [[Italian opera houses|opera houses]]. Italy also has many well-known international [[Italian music festivals|music festivals]] each year, including the Festival of [[Spoleto]] and the [[Ravello Festival|Wagner Festival]] in [[Ravello]]. Some festivals offer venues to younger composers in classical music by producing and staging winning entries in competitions. The winner, for example, of the "Orpheus" International Competition for New Opera and Chamber music&mdash;besides winning considerable prize money&mdash;gets to see his or her musical work performed at The Spoleto Festival.<ref> Competition rules and details available at http://www.culturekiosque.com/klassik/news/ra1compt.htm </ref> There are also dozens of privately sponsored master classes in music each year that put on concerts for the public. Italy is also a common destination for well-known orchestras from abroad; at almost any given time during the busiest season, at least one major orchestra from elsewhere in Europe or North America is playing a concert in Italy. Additionally, public music may be heard at dozens of pop and rock concerts throughout the year. Open-air opera may even be heard, for example, at the ancient Roman amphitheater, the [[Verona#Monuments|Arena of Verona]]. Military bands, too, are popular in Italy. At a national level, one of the best-known of these is the concert band of the ''[[Guardia di Finanza]]'' (Italian Customs/Border Police); it performs many times a year. Many theaters also routinely stage not just Italian translations of American musicals, but true Italian musical comedy, which are called by the English term ''musical''. In Italian, that term describes a kind of musical drama not native to Italy, a form that employs the American idiom of jazz-pop-and rock-based music and rhythms to move a story along in a combination of songs and dialogue. Music in religious rituals, especially Roman Catholic, manifests itself in a number of ways. Parish bands, for example, are quite common throughout Italy. They may be as small as four or five members to as many as 20 or 30. They commonly perform at religious festivals specific to a particular town, usually in honor of the town's patron saint. The historic orchestral/choral masterpieces performed in church by professionals are well-known; these include such works as the [[Stabat Mater]] by [[Giovanni Battista Pergolesi]] and Verdi's ''Requiem''. The [[Second Vatican Council]] from 1962 to 1965 revolutionized music in the Roman Catholic church, leading to an increase in the number of amateur choirs that perform regularly for services; the Council also encouraged the congregational singing of hymns, and a vast repertoire of new hymns has been composed in the last 40 years.<ref>Boccardi.</ref> There is not a great deal of native Italian Christmas music. The most popular Italian [[Christmas carol]] is ''"[[Tu scendi dalle stelle]]"'', the modern Italian words to which were written by [[Pope Pius IX]] in 1870. The melody is a major-key version of an older, minor-key Neapolitan carol ''"Quanno Nascette Ninno"''. Other than that, Italians largely sing translations of carols that come from the German and English tradition ("[[Silent Night (song)|Silent Night]]", for example). There is no native Italian secular Christmas music, which accounts for the popularity of Italian-language versions of "[[Jingle Bells]]" and "[[White Christmas]]".<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://faculty.ed.umuc.edu/~jmatthew/naples/blog08.html|title=Christmas (3)--Tu scendi dalle stelle, music (2)|author=Jeff Matthews|work=Around Naples Encyclopedia|accessdate=December 31|accessyear=2006}}</ref> <!-- Deleted image removed: [[Image:sanremofest.jpg|right|thumb|At festival time, Italian TV guides concentrate on Sanremo.]] --> The [[Festival della canzone italiana|Festival of Italian Song]] (also known as the ''Sanremo Music Festival'') is an important venue for popular music in Italy. It has been held annually since 1951 and is currently staged at the [[Teatro Ariston]] in Sanremo. It runs for one week in February, and gives veteran and new performers a chance to present new songs. Winning the contest has often been a springboard to industry success. The festival is televised nationally for three hours a night, is hosted by the best-known Italian TV personalities, and has been a vehicle for such performers as [[Domenico Modugno]], perhaps the best-known Italian pop singer of the last 50 years. Television variety shows are the widest venue for popular music. They change often, but ''Buona Domenica'', ''Domenica In'', and ''I raccomandati'' are popular. The longest running musical broadcast in Italy is ''La Corrida'', a three-hour weekly program of amateurs and would-be musicians.<ref>Baroni, p. 15.</ref> It started on the radio in 1968 and moved to TV in 1988. The studio audience bring cow-bells and sirens and are encouraged to show good-natured disapproval. The city with the highest number of rock concerts (of national and international artists) is Milan, with a number close to the other European music capitals, as Paris, London and Berlin. In the Metro Area of Milan there are more than 700 concerts each year.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} == Education == [[Image:beet04.jpg|left|thumb|Within the courtyard of the Naples Music Conservatory]] Many institutes of higher education teach music in Italy. About 75 music conservatories provide advanced training for future professional musicians. There are also dozens of private music schools and workshops for instrument building and repair. Private teaching is also quite common in Italy. Elementary and high school students can expect to have one or two weekly hours of music teaching, generally in choral singing and basic music theory, though extracurricular opportunities are rare.<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=December 31|accessyear=2006|url=http://www.euroeducation.net/prof/italco.htm|work=EuroEducation.net|title=Structure of Education System in Italy}}</ref> Though most Italian universities have classes in related subjects such as music history, performance is not a common feature of university education. Italy has a specialized system of high schools; students attend, as they choose, a high school for humanities, science, foreign languages, or art&mdash;but not music. Italy does have ambitious, recent programs to expose children to more music. Furthermore with the recent education reform a specific ''Liceo musicale e coreutico'' (2nd level secondary school, ages 14-15 to 18-19) is explicitly indicated by the law decrees.<ref>Ministero dell’istruzione, dell’università e della ricerca, Indicazioni nazionali per i piani di studio personalizzati dei percorsi liceali - Piano degli studi e Obiettivi specifici di apprendimento - Allegato C/5 (Art. 2 comma 3) - Liceo musicale e coreutico - http://www.istruzione.it/normativa/2005/allegati/dlgs_secondo_ciclo_all_c5.pdf annex to Circolare n.11 del 1 febbraio 2006 - Trasmissione decreti di attuazione del progetto di innovazione, in ambito nazionale, ex art. 11 del D.P.R. n. 275/1999 - Istituti di istruzione secondaria superiore - http://www.istruzione.it/riforma/secondociclo.shtml</ref> Yet this kind of school has not been set up and is not effectively operational. The state-run television network has started a program to use modern satellite technology to broadcast choral music into public schools.<ref> The program is called [http://www.educational.rai.it/verdincanto/home.htm ''Verdincanto''] </ref> == Scholarship == Scholarship in the field of collecting, preserving and cataloguing all varieties of music is vast. In Italy, as elsewhere, these tasks are spread over a number of agencies and organizations. Most large music conservatories maintain departments that oversee the research connected with their own collections. Such research is coordinated on a national and international scale via the internet. One prominent institution in Italy is IBIMUS, the ''Istituto di Bibliografia Musicale'' in Rome. It works with other agencies on an international scale through RISM, the ''[[Répertoire International des Sources Musicales]]'', an inventory and index of source material. Also, the ''Discoteca di Stato'' (National Archives of Recordings) in Rome, founded in 1928, holds the largest public collection of recorded music in Italy with some 230,000 examples of classical music, folk music, jazz, and rock, recorded on everything from antique wax cylinders to modern electronic media. The scholarly study of traditional Italian music began in about 1850, with a group of early philological [[Ethnography|ethnographers]] who studied the impact of music on a pan-Italian national identity. A unified Italian identity only just started to develop after the political integration of the peninsula in 1860. The focus at that time was on the lyrical and literary value of music, rather than the instrumentation; this focus remained until the early 1960s. Two folkloric journals helped to encourage the burgeoning field of study, the ''Rivista Italiana delle Tradizioni Popolari'' and ''Lares'', founded in 1894 and 1912, respectively. The earliest major musical studies were on the Sardinian ''[[launeddas]]'' in 1913-1914 by [[Mario Giulio Fara]]; on Sicilian music, published in 1907 and 1921 by [[Alberto Favara]]; and studies of the [[music of Emilia Romagna]] in 1941 by [[Francesco Balilla Pratella]].<ref name="Garland"/> The earliest recordings of Italian traditional music came in the 1920s, but they were rare until the establishment of the [[Centro Nazionale Studi di Musica Popolare]] at the [[Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia|National Academy of Santa Cecilia]] in Rome. The Center sponsored numerous song collection trips across the peninsula, especially to southern and central Italy. [[Giorgio Nataletti]] was an instrumental figure in the Center, and also made numerous recordings himself. The American scholar [[Alan Lomax]] and the Italian, [[Diego Carpitella]], made an exhaustive survey of the peninsula in 1954. By the early 1960s, a [[roots revival]] encouraged more study, especially of northern musical cultures, which many scholars had previously assumed maintained little folk culture. The most prominent scholars of this era included [[Roberto Leydi]], [[Ottavio Tiby]] and [[Leo Levi]]. During the 1970s, Leydi and Carpitella were appointed to the first two chairs of ethnomusicology at universities, with Carpitella at the [[University of Rome La Sapienza|University of Rome]] and Leydi at the [[University of Bologna]]. In the 1980s, Italian scholars began focusing less on making recordings, and more on studying and synthesizing the information already collected. Others studied Italian music in the United States and Australia, and the folk musics of recent immigrants to Italy.<ref name="Garland"/> == References == *{{cite journal | last = Adams | first = Walter | title = The Present Problem; Refugees in Europe | journal = Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science | volume = 203 | pages = 37–44 | year = 1939 | month = May | id = ISSN 00027162 | doi = 10.1177/000271623920300105 }} *{{cite journal | last = Badger | first = F. Reed | title = James Reese Europe and the Prehistory of Jazz | journal = American Music | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages = 48–67 | month = Spring | year = 1989 | id = ISSN 07344392 | doi = 10.2307/3052049 }} * {{it icon}} {{cite encyclopedia |first = Edgardo |last = Baldi |title = Mascagni, Puccini, Casella, Busoni, Toscanini |encyclopedia = Enciclopedia Moderna Italiana |publisher = Sonzogno |location = Milan |year = 1935 }} *{{cite book | last = Baroni | first = Joseph | title =Dizionario della Televisione | date = 2005 | publisher = Raffaello Cortina | place = Milan | id = ISBN 8870789721 }} *{{cite book |last = Boccardi |first = Donald |year = 2001 |title = The History of American Catholic Hymnals Since Vatican II |publisher = GIA Publications |location = Chicago |id = ISBN 1-57999-121-1 }} *{{it icon}} {{cite book |last = Bordoni |first = Carlo |coauthors = Gianluca Testani |year = 2006 |title = Oggi ho salvato il mondo; Canzoni di protesta 1990-2005 |publisher = Fazi ed |location = Rome |id = ISBN 88-7966-409-3 }} *{{cite journal |last = Bouget |first = Marie-Thérèse |coauthors = (translated by M.McGowen) |year = 1986 |title = Musical Enigmas in Ballet of the Court of Savoy |journal = Dance Research: The Journal of the Society for Dance research |pages = 29–44 |volume = 4 |issue = n.1 |doi = 10.2307/1290672 }} * {{cite encyclopedia |first = Ferruccio |last = Busoni |title = Sketch for a New Esthetic of Music |encyclopedia = Three Classics in the Aesthetics of Music |publisher = Dover |location = New York |year = 1962 |id = ISBN 0486203204 }} *{{de icon}} {{cite journal |last = Carpitella |first = Diego |year = 1975 |title = Der Diaulos des Celestino |journal = Musikforschung |pages = 422–428 |language = German |issue = 18 |id = {{ISSN|0027-4801}} }} cited in the ''Garland Encyclopedia of World Music'', pg. 616 *{{cite journal |last = Charanis |first = Peter |authorlink = Peter Charanis |year = 1946 |title = On the Question of Hellenization of Sicily and Southern Italy During the Middle Ages |journal = American Historical Review |volume = 52 |id = {{ISSN|0002-8762}} |doi = 10.2307/1845070 |pages = 74 }} *{{it icon}} {{cite book |last = di Giacomo |first = Salvatore |authorlink = Salvatore di Giacomo |year = 1924 |language = Italian |title = I quattro antichi conservatori di musica a Napoli (''The Four Ancient Music Conservatories of Naples'') |publisher = Sandron |location = Milan }} *{{it icon}} {{cite book |last = Monti |first = Giangilberto |coauthors = Veronica Di Pietro |year = 2003 |title = Dizionario dei Cantautori |publisher = Garzanti |location = Milan |id = ISBN 881174035-5 }} *{{cite encyclopedia |last = Farmer |first = Henry George |title = The Music of Islam |encyclopedia = New Oxford History of Music |volume = Vol. 1, Ancient and Oriental Music |year = 1957 |publisher = Oxford University Press |location = Oxford |id = ISBN 0-19-316301-2 }} *{{it icon}} {{cite book |last = Fazzini |first = Paolo |year = 2006 |language = Italian |title = Visioni sonore, Viaggi tra i compositori italiani per il cinema |publisher = Un mondo a parte |location = Roma |id = ISBN 88-89481-06-4 }} *{{cite book |last = Foil |first = David |year = 1995 |title = Gregorian Chant and Polyphony |publisher = Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers |location = New York |id = ISBN 1-884822-41-X }} *{{cite journal |last = Friedland |first = Bea |title = Italy's Ottocento: Notes from the Musical Underground |journal = The Musical Quarterly |volume = 56 |issue = 1 |pages = 27–53 |month = January |year = 1970 |id= ISSN 00274631 |doi = 10.1093/mq/LVI.1.27 }} *{{cite journal |author = Giurati, Giovanni |year = 1995 |title = Italian Ethnomusicology |journal = Yearbook for Traditional Music |volume = 27 }} *{{it icon}} {{cite encyclopedia |last = Guizzi |first = Febo |year = 1990 |title = Gli strumenti della musica poplare in Italia |encyclopedia = Le tradizioni popolari: Canti e musiche popolari |publisher = Electa |location = Milan }} * Lombardi, Fabio, 2000, ''Canti e strumenti popolari della Romagna Bidentina'', Società Editrice "Il Ponte Vecchio", Cesena * Guizzi, Febo, 2002, ''Gli strumenti della musica popolare in Italia''. Invaluable survey of popular instruments in use in Italy, ranging from percussion, wind and plucked instruments to various noise makers. Numerous drawings and plates. Wrappers. - Lucca : Alia Musica, 8. - 502 p. ISBN 88-7096-325-x * Lombardi, Fabio, 1989, ''Mostra di strumenti musicali popolari romagnoli : Meldola Teatro Comunale G. A. Dragoni, 26-29 agosto 1989; raccolti da Fabio Lombardi nella vallata del bidente, Comuni di: Bagno di Romagna, S. Sofia, Meldola, Galeata, Forli, Civitella diR. e Forlimpopoli ; presentazione [[Roberto Leydi]]''. - Forli : Provincia di Forli, 1989. - 56 p. : ill. ; 21 cm. In testa al front.: Provincia di Forli, Comune di Meldola. *{{cite encyclopedia |last = Keller |first = Marcello Sorce |coauthor = Roberto Catalano and Giuseppina Colicci |pages = 604 - 625 |title = Italy |encyclopedia = Garland Encyclopedia of World Music |volume = Volume 8, Europe |title = Europe |year = 1996 |publisher = Garland |id = ISBN 0-8240-6034-2 }} *{{cite journal |last = Keller |first = Marcello Sorce |pages = 75–89 |title = Folk Music in Trentino: Oral Transmission and the Use of Vernacular languages |journal = Ethnomusicology |volume = 28 |issue = 1 |month = January |year = 1984 |id = |doi = 10.2307/851432 }} *{{cite journal |last = Kramer |first = Jonathan |year = 1999 |title = The Nature and Origins of Musical Postmodernism |journal = Current Musicology |volume = 66 |pages = 7–20 |id = {{ISSN|0011-3735}} }} reprinted in {{cite book|title=Postmodern Music/Postmodern Thought|year=2002|editor=Judy Lochhead and Joseph Aunder (Eds.)|publisher=Routledge|id=ISBN 0-8153-3820-1}} *{{cite book |last = Levarie |first = Siegmund |year = 1963 |title = Musical Italy Revisited |publisher = MacMillan |location = New York |id = {{LCCN|63|0|16111}} }} *{{it icon}} {{cite encyclopedia |last = Leydi |first = Robert |year = 1990 |title = Efisio Melis |encyclopedia = Le tradizioni popolari: Canti e musiche popolari in Italia |publisher = Edizioni Electa |location = Milan |id = ISBN 8843532464 }} *{{cite journal |last = Lomax |first = Alan |authorlink = Alan Lomax |year = 1956 |title = Folk Song Style: Notes on a Systematic Approach to the Study of Folk Song |journal = Journal of the International Folk Music Council |issue = VIII |pages = 48–50 |id = {{ISSN|0950-7922}} |doi = 10.2307/834750 |volume = 8 }} *{{cite journal |last = Lomax |first = Alan |authorlink = Alan Lomax |year = 1959 |title = Folk Song Style |journal = American Anthropologist |issue = 61 |pages = 927–54 |doi = 10.1525/aa.1959.61.6.02a00030 |volume = 61 }} *{{cite book |last = Maiden |first = Martin |year = 1994 |title = A Linguistic History of Italian |publisher = Longman |location = London |id = ISBN 0-582-05928-3 }} *{{cite book |last = Maiden |first = Martin |year = 1997 |title = The Dialects of Italy |publisher = Routledge |location = London |id = ISBN 0-415-11104-8 }} *{{cite book |last = Matthews |first = Jeff and David Taylor |year = 1994 |title = A Brief History of Naples and Other Tales |publisher = Fotoprogetti |location = Naples }} *{{it icon}} {{cite book |last = Mazzoletti |first = Adriano |year = 1983 |title = Jazz in Italia. Dalle Origini al dopoguerra |location = Rome |id = ISBN 88-7063-704-2 }} * {{it icon}}{{cite encyclopedia |title = Cimarosa and Ballo in maschera |encyclopedia = Il Mondo della musica |publisher = Sonzogno |location = Milan |year = 1956 }} *{{cite book |title = Napoletana, Anthologia cronologica della Canzone Partenopea |year = 1963 |format = Recorded anthology presented by Roberto Murolo |location = Milano |publisher = Durum }} *{{cite book |title = New Grove Dictionary of Music & Musicians |editor = Sadie, Stanley (ed.) |publisher = MacMillan Publishers |location = London |year = 1995 |id = ISBN 1-56159-174-2 }} *{{it icon}} {{cite book |last = Niccolodi |first = Fiamma |year = 1984 |language = Italian |title = Musica e musicisti nel ventennio fascista |publisher = Discanto |location = Fiesole }} *{{cite book |last = Olson |first = Harry F. |year = 1967 |title = Music, Physics and Engineering |publisher = Dover reprint |edition = 2nd edition |location = New York |id = {{LCCN|66|0|28730}} }} * {{it icon}} {{cite book |first = Vittorio |last = Paliotti |title = Salone Margherita |publisher = Altrastampa |location = Naples |year = 2001 |id = }} *{{it icon}} {{cite book |title = Rapporto 2005 |publisher = Economia della musica italiana del Centro Ask: dell’Università Bocconi }} *{{cite book |title=Rough Guide to World Music, Vol. 1: Africa, Europe and the Middle East |first=Alessio |last=Surian |chapter=Tenores and Tarantellas |pages=189-201 |editor=Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.) |id=ISBN 1-85828-636-0 |year=2000 |location=London |publisher=Rough Guides }} *{{cite journal |author = Ricci, Antonella and Roberto Tucci |year = 1988 |title = Folk Musical Instruments in Calabria |journal = The Galapin Society Journal |pages = 36–58 |issue = vol. 41 |month = October |volume = 41 |doi = 10.2307/842707}} *{{cite book |last = Sachs |first = Curt |authorlink = Curt Sachs |year = 1943 |title = The Rise of Music in the Ancient World East and West |publisher = Norton |location = New York |chapter = The Road to Major |id = ISBN 0-393-09718-8 }} *{{cite book |last = Sachs |first = Harvey |year = 2002 |title = Toscanini |publisher = Da Capo Press |location = New York |id = ISBN 0-306-80137-X }} *{{cite book |last = Sachs |first = Harvey |title = Music in Fascist Italy |year = 1987 |publisher = Weidenfeld & Nicolson |location = London |id = ISBN 0-297-79004-8 }} *{{it icon}} {{cite book |last = Sassu |first = Pietro |year = 1978 |title = La musica sarda |language = Italian |format = 3 LPs and booklet |publisher = Albatros VPA 8150-52 |location = Milano }} * {{cite book |first = Harold B. |last = Segel |title = Turn-of-the-Century Cabaret: Paris, Barcelona, Berlin, Munich, Vienna, Cracow, Moscow, St. Petersburg, Zurich |publisher = Columbia University Press |location = New York |year = 1987 |id = 023105128X }} *{{cite journal | last = Sparti | first = Barbara and Patrizia Veroli | title = Dance Research in Italy | journal = [[Dance Research Journal]] | volume = 27 | issue = 2 | pages = 73–77 | month = Autumn | year = 1995 | id = ISSN 01497677 | doi = 10.2307/1478040 }} *{{cite book |editor = John Shepherd, David Horn, Dave Laing, Paul Oliver and Peter Wicke (eds.) |publisher = Continuum |year = 2003 |location = London |id = ISBN 0-8264-6321-5 |first = Martin |last = Stokes |chapter = Ethnicity and Race |pages = 216 |title = Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World, Volume 1: Media, Industry and Society }} *{{cite journal |year = 1938 |title = Maestro v. Fascism |journal = Time |issue = No. 9 |volume = Vol. XXX1 }} *{{it icon}} {{cite book |last = Vajro |first = Max |year = 1962 |title = Il Fascino delle Canzoni Napoletani |publisher = Alberto Marotta (ed.) |location = Naples |language = Italian }} *{{cite journal |author = Wolfram, Richard |year = 1962 |title = Weapon Dances of Europe |journal = Ethnomusicology |pages = 186–87 |volume = vol. 6 |issue = 3 |month = September |doi = 10.2307/924462}} == Notes == {{refs|3}} == Further reading == *{{de icon}} {{cite book |last = Hirdt |first = Willi |year = 1979 |title = Italienischer Bankelsang |publisher = Vittorio Klostermann |location = Frankfurt am Main }} *{{it icon}} {{cite book |last = Bronzini |first = G.B. |year = 1956 |title = La canzone epico-lirica nell'Italia centro-meridionale |publisher = Signorelli |location = Rome }} *{{it icon}} {{cite book |last = Borgna |first = Gianni |year = 1985 |title = Storia Della Canzone Italiana |publisher = Laterza |location = Rome }} *{{it icon}} {{cite book |last = Baldazzi |first = Gianfranco |year = 1989 |title = La Canzone Italiana del Novocento: da Piedigrotta al Festival di Sanremo, dell Caffé-Concerto all'Opera Rock, una Storia della Societa Italiana Attraverso le sue Canzoni Piu Belle e i Loro Grandi Interpreti, da Enrico Caruso a Eros Ramazotti |publisher = Newton Compton |location = Rome }} *{{it icon}} {{cite book |last = Balilla Pratella |first = Francesco |year = 1941 |title = Le arti e le tradizioni popolari in Italia. Primo documentario per la storia dell'etnofonia in Italia |publisher = Edizioni Idea |location = Udine }} *{{cite book |last = Brody |first = Elaine |year = 1978 |title = The Music Guide to Italy |publisher = Dodd, Mead |id = ISBN 0-396-07436-7 }} *{{cite book |last = Gordon |first = Bonnie |year = 2005 |title = Monteverdi's Unruly Women: The Power of Song in Early Modern Italy |publisher = Cambridge University Press |id = ISBN 0-521-84529-7 }} *{{cite book |last = Levarie |first = Siegmund |year = 1963 |title = Musical Italy Revisited |publisher = MacMillan |location = New York |id = LoC 63-16111 }} *{{it icon}} {{cite book |last = Leydi |first = Roberto |year = 1967 |title = Il folk music revival |publisher = Flaccovio |location = Palermo }} *{{cite book |last = Palisca |first = Claude V. |year = 1994 |title = Studies in the History of Italian Music and Music Theory |publisher = Oxford University Press |id = ISBN 0-19-816167-0 }} *{{cite book |last = Sachs |first = Harvey |year = 1987 |title = Music in Fascist Italy |publisher = Weidenfeld & Nicolson |id = ISBN 0-297-79004-8 }} * {{cite book |last = White |first = Robert C. |title = Italian Art Song |publisher = Indiana University Press }} '''Audio recordings''' *{{cite book |last = Leydi |first = Roberto |year = 1969 |title = Italia vol. 1: i balli, gli strumenti, i canti religiosi |others = LP disk |publisher = Vedette-Albatros VPA 8082 }} *{{cite book |last = Leydi |first = Roberto |year = 1969 |title = Italia vol. 2: la canzone narrativa lo spettacolo popolare |others = LP disk |publisher = Vedette-Albatros VPA 8082 }} *{{cite book |last = Carpitella |first = Diego |other = LP disk |coauthors = Alan Lomax |year = 1957 |chapter = The Folk Music of Northern Italy. The Folk Music of Central Italy |title = The Columbia World Library of Folk and Primitive Music, 15 |publisher = Columbia KL 5173 }} *{{it icon}} {{cite book |last = Carpitella |first = Diego |other = LP disk |coauthors = Alan Lomax |year = 1957 |chapter = The Folk Music of Southern Italy and the Islands |title = The Columbia World Library of Folk and Primitive Music, 16 |publisher = Columbia KL 5174 }} *{{it icon}} {{cite book |last = Carpitella |first = Diego |other = LP disk |coauthors = Alan Lomax |year = 1958 |title = Music and Song of Italy |publisher = Tradition Records TLP 1030 }} *{{it icon}} {{cite book |last = Murolo |first = Roberto |year = 1963 |title = Napoletana, antologia cronologica della canzone partenopea |others = 12 LPs (re-released in 9 CDs) |publisher = Durium |location = Milan }} == External links == * [http://www.suonidellaterra.com ''Musica tradizionale italiana''] * {{it icon}} [http://www.netmusicitalia.it/discografiche.html Net Music Italia]: List of major recording companies * {{it icon}} [http://www.estatica.it Estatica]: Italian encyclopedia of music (English menu navigation) * {{it icon}} [http://www.siae.it/Faq_sezione.asp?sezione=Utilizzatori&divisione=Musica SIAE ''Società italiania di autori e editori'']: the Italian Society of Authors and Editors * [http://www.cilea.it/music/musserv.htm CILEA]: Music Documentation & Services: Cataloguing and Information Centres, Associations, Organizations and Institutes, Magazines, Shops * [http://www.cilea.it/music/mussigle.htm CILEA]: Italian music libraries * [http://www.cilea.it/music/musinst.htm#Music%20Schools CILEA]: Music teaching institutions * [http://www.cilea.it/music/musportal.htm CILEA]: Italian music portals * [http://www.cilea.it/music/musinst.htm#Theaters CILEA]: Theaters and concert halls * [http://www.cilea.it/music/musradio.htm#Publishers CILEA]: Music publishers * [http://www.cilea.it/music/muscompo.htm CILEA]: Italian music composers and musicians * [http://www.cematitalia.it/cemat/index.htm#english CEMAT]: Organization to promote computer music research. * [http://www.sibmas.org/idpac/europe/it.html SIBMAS]: International Directory of Performing Arts Collections and Institutions * {{it icon}} [http://www.concertoggi.it/ Concertoggi]: Frequently updated schedule of concerts * {{it icon}} [http://www.amic.it/newsletter/newsletter_4.htm Newsletter of Contemporary Italian Music]: Archive * {{it icon}} [http://www.ibimus.it/Page/chisiamo.html IBIMUS]: Institute of Musical Bibliography, Rome. {{Music of Europe}} [[Category:Italian music|*]] [[be:Італьянская музыка]] [[de:Italienische Musik]] [[es:Música de Italia]] [[pt:Música italiana]]