Muslim world 191429 225199304 2008-07-12T12:29:07Z Muscol 3239601 added a picture [[Image:Muslim distribution.png|thumb|right|400px|Muslim population percentage of the world.]] [[Image:Muslim world.png|thumb|400px|Map of the world with Muslim majority countries highlighted.]] [[Image:IslamicWorldNusretColpan.jpg|thumb|right|400px|a Miniature style painting depicting the Mosques around the world.]] The term '''Muslim world''' (or '''Islamic world''') has several meanings. In a [[Culture|cultural]] sense it refers to the worldwide community of [[Muslim]]s, adherents of [[Islam]]. This community [[Islam by country|numbers about 1.3-1.5 billion people]], roughly one-fifth of the [[world population]]. This community is spread across many different [[nation]]s and [[ethnic group]]s connected only by [[religion]]. In a [[History|historical]] or [[Geopolitics|geopolitical]] sense the term usually refers collectively to [[Muslim majority countries]] or countries in which Islam dominates politically. The worldwide Muslim community is also known collectively as the ''[[ummah]]''. Islam emphasizes unity and defense of fellow Muslims, although many [[divisions of Islam]] (see the [[Sunni-Shia relations]]) exist. In the past both [[Pan-Islamism]] and [[Nationalism|nationalist]] currents have influenced the status of the Muslim world. ==History== {{main|Muslim history}} {{see|Timeline of Islamic history|Spread of Islam|Muslim conquests|Caliphate|Islamic Golden Age}} ==Classical Islamic culture== {{see|Islamic Golden Age}} ===Arts=== {{main|Islamic art}} The term "Islamic art and architecture" denotes the works of art and architecture produced from the 7th century onwards by people who lived within the territory that was inhabited by culturally Islamic populations.<ref>Ettinghausen (2003), p.3</ref><ref>"Islamic Art and Architecture", ''The Columbia Encyclopedia'' (2000)</ref> ====Aniconism, Iconoclasm, and Arabesque==== {{main|Aniconism in Islam|Iconoclasm|Arabesque}} No Islamic visual images or depictions of God are meant to exist because such artistic depictions may lead to [[idolatry]]. Moreover, Muslims believe that God is [[Spiritual being|incorporeal]], making any two- or three- dimensional depictions impossible. Instead, Muslims describe God by the [[99 names of God|names and attributes]] that he revealed to his creation. All but one sura of the Qur'an begins with the phrase "[[Basmala|In the name of God, the Beneficent, the Merciful]]". Images of Mohammed are likewise prohibited. Such [[aniconism]] and [[iconoclasm]]<ref name=MUSLIM-ICONOCLASM>{{cite web|title=Muslim Iconoclasm |url=http://lexicorient.com/e.o/mus_iconoclasm.htm |publisher=Encyclopedia of the Orient |accessdate=2007-02-23 }}</ref> can also be found in Jewish and some Christian theology. Islamic art frequently adopts the use of geometrical floral or vegetal designs in a repetition known as [[arabesque]]. Such designs are highly nonrepresentational, as Islam forbids representational depictions as found in pre-Islamic pagan religions. Despite this, there is a presence of depictional art in some Muslim societies, although this is not widespread. Another reason why Islamic art is usually abstract is to symbolize the transcendence, indivisible and infinite nature of God, an objective achieved by arabesque.<ref name="JAACMadden">Madden (1975), pp.423-430</ref> [[Arabic calligraphy]] is an omnipresent decoration in Islamic art, and is usually expressed in the form of Qur'anic verses. Two of the main scripts involved are the symbolic ''[[kufic]]'' and ''[[naskh]]'' scripts, which can be found adorning the walls and domes of mosques, the sides of [[minbar]]s, and so on.<ref name="JAACMadden"/> Distinguishing [[Motif (art)|motif]]s of Islamic architecture have always been ordered repetition, radiating structures, and rhythmic, metric patterns. In this respect, [[fractal geometry]] has been a key utility, especially for mosques and palaces. Other significant features employed as motifs include columns, piers and arches, organized and interwoven with alternating sequences of niches and colonnettes.<ref>Tonna (1990), pp.182-197</ref> The role of domes in Islamic architecture has been considerable. Its usage spans centuries, first appearing in 691 with the construction of the [[Dome of the Rock]] mosque, and recurring even up until the 17th century with the [[Taj Mahal]]. And as late as the 19th century, Islamic domes had been incorporated into Western architecture.<ref>Grabar, O. (2006) p.87</ref><ref>Ettinghausen (2003), p.87</ref><!-- need to check last ref? the prev. ref is to a diff book of Grabar's--> ====Ceramics==== {{see|Alchemy (Islam)}} From between the eighth and eighteenth centuries, the use of [[Ceramic glaze|glazed ceramics]] was prevalent in Islamic art, usually assuming the form of elaborate [[pottery]].<ref>Mason (1995) p.1</ref> [[Tin-glazing|Tin-opacified glazing]] was one of the earliest new technologies developed by the Islamic potters. The first Islamic opaque glazes can be found as blue-painted ware in [[Basra]], dating to around the 8th century. Another significant contribution was the development of [[Stoneware|stonepaste ceramics]], originating from 9th century Iraq.<ref>Mason (1995) p.5</ref> Other centers for innovative ceramic pottery in the Islamic world included [[Fustat]] (from 975 to 1075), Damascus (from 1100 to around 1600) and [[Tabriz]] (from 1470 to 1550).<ref>Mason (1995) p.7</ref> [[Image:Selimiye Mosque, Dome.jpg|thumb|220px|right|Interior view of the dome in the [[Selimiye Mosque]], [[Edirne]].]] ====Architecture==== {{main|Islamic architecture}} Perhaps the most important expression of Islamic art is architecture, particularly that of the mosque.<ref name="B-I">"Islam", ''The New Encyclopedia Britannica'' (2005)</ref><!-- just to note, this Britannica subsection is signed by Fazl-ur Rahman --> Through it the effect of varying cultures within Islamic civilization can be illustrated. The North African and Spanish Islamic architecture, for example, has Roman-Byzantine elements, as seen in the [[Alhambra]] palace at Granada, or in the [[Great Mosque of Cordoba]]. Persian-style mosques are characterized by their tapered brick pillars, large [[Arcade (architecture)|arcades]], and arches supported each by several pillars. In South Asia, elements of Hindu architecture were employed, but were later superseded by Persian designs. The most numerous and largest of mosques exist in [[Turkey]], which obtained influence from Byzantine, Persian and Syrian designs, although Turkish architects managed to implement their own style of [[cupola]] domes.<ref name="B-I"/> ===Literature=== {{main|Islamic literature|Arabic literature|Arabic epic literature|Turkish literature|Persian literature}} {{see|Islamic poetry|Arabic poetry|Turkish poetry|Persian poetry}} [[Image:Ali-Baba.jpg|right|thumb|"[[Ali Baba]]" by [[Maxfield Parrish]].]] The most well known [[fiction]] from the Islamic world was ''[[The Book of One Thousand and One Nights]]'' (''Arabian Nights''), which was a compilation of many earlier folk tales. The epic took form in the 10th century and reached its final form by the 14th century; the number and type of tales have varied from one manuscript to another.<ref name="arabianNights">John Grant and John Clute, ''The Encyclopedia of Fantasy'', "Arabian fantasy", p 51 ISBN 0-312-19869-8</ref> All Arabian [[fantasy]] tales were often called "Arabian Nights" when translated into [[English language|English]], regardless of whether they appeared in ''The Book of One Thousand and One Nights''.<ref name="arabianNights"/> This epic has been influential in the West since it was translated in the 18th century, first by [[Antoine Galland]].<ref>[[L. Sprague de Camp]], ''[[Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers]]: The Makers of Heroic Fantasy'', p 10 ISBN 0-87054-076-9</ref> Many imitations were written, especially in France.<ref name="arabianNights2">John Grant and John Clute, ''The Encyclopedia of Fantasy'', "Arabian fantasy", p 52 ISBN 0-312-19869-8</ref> Various characters from this epic have themselves become cultural icons in Western culture, such as [[Aladdin]], [[Sinbad]] and [[Ali Baba]]. A famous example of [[Arabic poetry]] and [[Persian poetry]] on [[romance (love)]] is ''[[Layla and Majnun]]'', dating back to the [[Umayyad]] era in the 7th century. It is a [[Tragedy|tragic]] story of undying [[love]] much like the later ''[[Romeo and Juliet]]'', which was itself said to have been inspired by a [[Latin]] version of ''Layli and Majnun'' to an extent.<ref>[http://www.shirazbooks.com/ebook1.html NIZAMI: LAYLA AND MAJNUN - English Version by Paul Smith]</ref> [[Ferdowsi]]'s ''[[Shahnameh]]'', the national epic of [[Iran]], is a mythical and heroic retelling of [[History of Iran|Persian history]]. ''[[Amir Arsalan]]'' was also a popular mythical Persian story, which has influenced some modern works of fantasy fiction, such as ''[[The Heroic Legend of Arslan]]''. [[Ibn Tufail]] (Abubacer) and [[Ibn al-Nafis]] were pioneers of the [[philosophical novel]]. Ibn Tufail wrote the first fictional Arabic [[novel]] ''[[Hayy ibn Yaqdhan]]'' (''Philosophus Autodidactus'') as a response to [[al-Ghazali]]'s ''[[The Incoherence of the Philosophers]]'', and then Ibn al-Nafis also wrote a fictional novel ''[[Ibn al-Nafis#Theologus Autodidactus|Theologus Autodidactus]]'' as a response to Ibn Tufail's ''Philosophus Autodidactus''. Both of these narratives had [[protagonist]]s (Hayy in ''Philosophus Autodidactus'' and Kamil in ''Theologus Autodidactus'') who were [[Autodidacticism|autodidactic]] [[feral child]]ren living in seclusion on a [[desert island]], both being the earliest examples of a desert island story. However, while Hayy lives alone with animals on the desert island for the rest of the story in ''Philosophus Autodidactus'', the story of Kamil extends beyond the desert island setting in ''Theologus Autodidactus'', developing into the earliest known [[coming of age]] plot and eventually becoming the first example of a [[science fiction]] novel.<ref>Dr. Abu Shadi Al-Roubi (1982), "Ibn Al-Nafis as a philosopher", ''Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis'', Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait ([[cf.]] [http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/drroubi.html Ibn al-Nafis As a Philosopher], ''Encyclopedia of Islamic World'').</ref><ref>Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)", p. 95-101, ''Electronic Theses and Dissertation s'', [[University of Notre Dame]].[http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615]</ref> ''Theologus Autodidactus'', written by the [[Arab]]ian polymath [[Ibn al-Nafis]] (1213–1288), is the first example of a [[science fiction]] novel. It deals with various science fiction elements such as [[Abiogenesis|spontaneous generation]], [[futurology]], the [[Eschatology|end of the world and doomsday]], [[resurrection]], and the [[afterlife]]. Rather than giving supernatural or mythological explanations for these events, Ibn al-Nafis attempted to explain these plot elements using the [[Islamic science|scientific knowledge]] of [[Islamic medicine|biology]], [[Islamic astronomy|astronomy]], [[cosmology]] and [[geology]] known in his time. His main purpose behind this science fiction work was to explain [[Islam]]ic religious teachings in terms of [[Islamic science|science]] and [[Early Islamic philosophy|philosophy]] through the use of fiction.<ref name=Roubi>Dr. Abu Shadi Al-Roubi (1982), "Ibn Al-Nafis as a philosopher", ''Symposium on Ibn al Nafis'', Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait ([[cf.]] [http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/drroubi.html Ibnul-Nafees As a Philosopher], ''Encyclopedia of Islamic World'').</ref> A [[Latin]] translation of Ibn Tufail's work, ''Philosophus Autodidactus'', first appeared in 1671, prepared by [[Edward Pococke]] the Younger, followed by an English translation by [[Simon Ockley]] in 1708, as well as [[German language|German]] and [[Dutch language|Dutch]] translations. These translations later inspired [[Daniel Defoe]] to write ''[[Robinson Crusoe]]'', regarded as the [[first novel in English]].<ref>Nawal Muhammad Hassan (1980), ''Hayy bin Yaqzan and Robinson Crusoe: A study of an early Arabic impact on English literature'', Al-Rashid House for Publication.</ref><ref>Cyril Glasse (2001), ''New [[Encyclopedia of Islam]]'', p. 202, Rowman Altamira, ISBN 0759101906.</ref><ref name=Amber>Amber Haque (2004), "Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists", ''Journal of Religion and Health'' '''43''' (4): 357-377 [369].</ref><ref name=Wainwright>Martin Wainwright, [http://books.guardian.co.uk/review/story/0,12084,918454,00.html Desert island scripts], ''[[The Guardian]]'', 22 March 2003.</ref> ''Philosophus Autodidactus'' also inspired [[Robert Boyle]] to write his own philosophical novel set on an island, ''The Aspiring Naturalist''.<ref name=Toomer-222/> The story also anticipated [[Rousseau]]'s ''[[Emile: or, On Education]]'' in some ways, and is also similar to [[Mowgli]]'s story in [[Rudyard Kipling]]'s ''[[The Jungle Book]]'' as well as [[Tarzan]]'s story, in that a baby is abandoned but taken care of and fed by a mother [[wolf]].<ref>[http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=808 Latinized Names of Muslim Scholars], FSTC.</ref> [[Dante Alighieri]]'s ''[[Divine Comedy]]'', considered the greatest epic of [[Italian literature]], derived many features of and episodes about the hereafter directly or indirectly from Arabic works on [[Islamic eschatology]]: the ''[[Hadith]]'' and the ''[[Kitab al-Miraj]]'' (translated into Latin in 1264 or shortly before<ref name="Heullant">I. Heullant-Donat and M.-A. Polo de Beaulieu, "Histoire d'une traduction," in ''Le Livre de l'échelle de Mahomet'', Latin edition and French translation by Gisèle Besson and Michèle Brossard-Dandré, Collection ''Lettres Gothiques'', Le Livre de Poche, 1991, p. 22 with note 37.</ref> as ''Liber Scale Machometi'', "The Book of Muhammad's Ladder") concerning [[Muhammad]]'s ascension to Heaven, and the spiritual writings of [[Ibn Arabi]]. The [[Moors]] also had a noticeable influence on the works of [[George Peele]] and [[William Shakespeare]]. Some of their works featured Moorish characters, such as Peele's ''[[The Battle of Alcazar]]'' and Shakespeare's ''[[The Merchant of Venice]]'', ''[[Titus Andronicus]]'' and ''[[Othello]]'', which featured a Moorish [[Othello (character)|Othello]] as its title character. These works are said to have been inspired by several Moorish [[delegation]]s from [[Morocco]] to [[Elizabethan England]] at the beginning of the 17th century.<ref>Professor Nabil Matar (April 2004), ''Shakespeare and the Elizabethan Stage Moor'', [[Sam Wanamaker]] Fellowship Lecture, Shakespeare’s [[Globe Theatre]] ([[cf.]] [[Mayor of London]] (2006), [http://www.london.gov.uk/gla/publications/equalities/muslims-in-london.pdf Muslims in London], pp. 14-15, Greater London Authority)</ref> === Philosophy === {{main|Islamic philosophy|Early Islamic philosophy|Modern Islamic philosophy}} {{see|Logic in Islamic philosophy|Kalam|Avicennism|Averroism|Illuminationist philosophy|Transcendent Theosophy}} [[Image:AverroesColor.jpg|thumb|[[Averroes]], founder of the [[Averroism]] school of philosophy, was influential in the rise of [[secularism|secular thought]] in [[Western Europe]].]] One of the common definitions for "Islamic philosophy" is "the style of philosophy produced within the framework of Islamic culture."<ref name="RoutledgeEoP">[http://www.rep.routledge.com/article/H057 "Islamic Philosophy"], ''Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (1998)</ref> Islamic philosophy, in this definition is neither necessarily concerned with religious issues, nor is exclusively produced by Muslims.<ref name="RoutledgeEoP"/> The [[Iranian people|Persian]] scholar [[Ibn Sina]] (Avicenna) (980-1037) had more than 450 books attributed to him. His writings were concerned with many subjects, most notably philosophy and medicine. His medical textbook ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'' was used as the standard text in European universities for centuries. His works on [[Aristotle]] was a key step in the transmission of learning from ancient Greeks to the Islamic world and the West. He often corrected the philosopher, encouraging a lively debate in the spirit of [[ijtihad]]. He also wrote ''[[The Book of Healing]]'', an influential scientific and philosophical encyclopedia. His thinking and that of his follower [[Averroes|Ibn Rushd]] (Averroes) was incorporated into [[Christian philosophy]] during the Middle Ages, notably by [[Thomas Aquinas]]. One of the most influential Muslim philosophers in the West was [[Averroes]] (Ibn Rushd), founder of the [[Averroism]] school of philosophy, whose works and commentaries had an impact on the rise of [[secularism|secular thought]] in [[Western Europe]].<ref name=Fakhry>Majid Fakhry (2001). ''Averroes: His Life, Works and Influence''. Oneworld Publications. ISBN 1851682694.</ref> He also developed the concept of "[[existence precedes essence]]".<ref>{{citation|first=Jones|last=Irwin|title=Averroes' Reason: A Medieval Tale of Christianity and Islam|date=Autumn 2002|journal=The Philosopher|volume=LXXXX|issue=2}}</ref> [[Avicenna]] also founded his own [[Avicennism]] school of philosophy, which was influential in both Islamic and Christian lands. He was also a critic of [[Aristotelian logic]] and founder of [[Avicennism#Avicennian logic|Avicennian logic]], and he developed the concepts of [[empiricism]] and [[tabula rasa]], and distinguished between [[essence]] and [[existence]]. Another infuential philosopher who had a significant influence on [[modern philosophy]] was [[Ibn Tufail]]. His [[philosophical novel]], ''[[Hayy ibn Yaqdhan]]'', translated into Latin as ''Philosophus Autodidactus'' in 1671, developed the themes of empiricism, tabula rasa, [[nature versus nurture]],<ref>G. A. Russell (1994), ''The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England'', pp. 224-262, [[Brill Publishers]], ISBN 9004094598.</ref> [[condition of possibility]], [[materialism]],<ref>Dominique Urvoy, "The Rationality of Everyday Life: The Andalusian Tradition? (Aropos of Hayy's First Experiences)", in Lawrence I. Conrad (1996), ''The World of Ibn Tufayl: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Ḥayy Ibn Yaqẓān'', pp. 38-46, [[Brill Publishers]], ISBN 9004093001.</ref> and [[Molyneux's Problem]].<ref>Muhammad ibn Abd al-Malik [[Ibn Tufayl]] and Léon Gauthier (1981), ''Risalat Hayy ibn Yaqzan'', p. 5, Editions de la Méditerranée.[http://limitedinc.blogspot.com/2007/04/things-about-arabick-influence-on-john.html]</ref> European scholars and writers influenced by this novel include [[John Locke]],<ref>G. A. Russell (1994), ''The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England'', pp. 224-239, [[Brill Publishers]], ISBN 9004094598.</ref> [[Gottfried Leibniz]],<ref name=Wainwright/> [[Melchisédech Thévenot]], [[John Wallis]], [[Christiaan Huygens]],<ref>G. A. Russell (1994), ''The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England'', p. 227, [[Brill Publishers]], ISBN 9004094598.</ref> [[George Keith]], [[Robert Barclay]], the [[Religious Society of Friends|Quakers]],<ref>G. A. Russell (1994), ''The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England'', p. 247, [[Brill Publishers]], ISBN 9004094598.</ref> and [[Samuel Hartlib]].<ref name=Toomer-222>G. J. Toomer (1996), ''Eastern Wisedome and Learning: The Study of Arabic in Seventeenth-Century England'', p. 222, [[Oxford University Press]], ISBN 0198202911.</ref> Islamic philosophers continued making advances in philosophy through to the 17th century, when [[Mulla Sadra]] founded his school of [[Transcendent Theosophy]] and developed the concept of [[existentialism]].<ref>{{citation|title=Mulla Sadra's Transcendent Philosophy|first=Muhammad|last=Kamal|year=2006|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=0754652718|pages=9 & 39}}</ref> Other influential Muslim philosophers include [[al-Jahiz]], a pioneer in [[evolution]]ary thought; [[Ibn al-Haytham]] (Alhacen), a pioneer of [[phenomenology]] and the [[philosophy of science]] and a critic of [[Aristotelian physics|Aristotelian natural philosophy]] and [[Aristotle]]'s concept of [[place]] ([[topos]]); [[Biruni]], a critic of Aristotelian natural philosophy; [[Ibn Tufail]] and [[Ibn al-Nafis]], pioneers of the [[philosophical novel]]; [[Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi]], founder of [[Illuminationist philosophy]]; [[Fakhr al-Din al-Razi]], a critic of Aristotelian logic and a pioneer of [[inductive logic]]; and [[Ibn Khaldun]], a pioneer in the [[philosophy of history]]<ref name=Akhtar/> and [[social philosophy]]. ===Sciences=== {{main|Islamic science|Timeline of science and technology in the Islamic world}} {{see also|Alchemy and chemistry in Islam|Islamic astronomy|Islamic medicine|Islamic physics|Islamic psychology|Islamic sociology}} [[Image:Zahrawi1.png|thumb|200px|right|Illustration of medieval Muslim surgical instruments from physician [[Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi]]'s 11th century medical encyclopedia: ''Kitab al-Tasrif''.]] Muslim scientists made significant advances in the [[science]]s. The mathematician [[Al-Khwarizmi]], from whose name the word [[algorithm]] derives, is considered to be a father of [[algebra]] (which is named after his book, ''[[The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing|kitab al-jabr]]'').<ref> Ron Eglash(1999), p.61</ref> Recent studies show that it is very likely that the Medieval Muslim artists were aware of advanced decagonal quasicrystal geometry (discovered half a millennium later in 1970s and 1980s in West) and used it in intricate decorative tilework in the architecture.<ref> Peter J. Lu, [http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/2007/03.01/99-tiles.html Harvard's Office of News and Public Affairs] </ref> Muslim mathematicians also made several refinements to the [[Arabic numerals]] (which originally came from India), such as the introduction of [[Decimal separator|decimal point]] notation. Muslim scientists placed far greater emphasis on [[experiment]] than had the [[Greeks]]. This led to an early [[scientific method]] being developed in the Muslim world, where significant progress in methodology was made, beginning with the experiments of [[Ibn al-Haytham]] (Alhazen) on [[optics]] from ''circa'' 1000, in his ''[[Book of Optics]]''.<ref name=Agar>David Agar (2001). [http://users.jyu.fi/~daagar/index_files/arabs.html Arabic Studies in Physics and Astronomy During 800 - 1400 AD]. [[University of Jyväskylä]].</ref> The most important development of the scientific method was the use of experiments to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally [[empiricism|empirical]] orientation, which began among Muslim scientists. Ibn al-Haytham is also regarded as the father of optics, especially for his empirical proof of the intromission theory of light. Some have also described Ibn al-Haytham as the "first scientist" for his development of the modern scientific method.<ref>Bradley Steffens (2006), ''Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist'', Morgan Reynolds Publishing, ISBN 1599350246.</ref><ref name=Gorini>Rosanna Gorini (2003), "Al-Haytham the Man of Experience: First Steps in the Science of Vision", ''International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine''. Institute of Neurosciences, Laboratory of Psychobiology and Psychopharmacology, Rome, Italy: {{cquote|"According to the majority of the historians al-Haytham was the pioneer of the modern scientific method. With his book he changed the meaning of the term optics and established experiments as the norm of proof in the field. His investigations are based not on abstract theories, but on experimental evidences and his experiments were systematic and repeatable."}}</ref><ref>[[Robert Briffault]] (1928), ''The Making of Humanity'', p. 190-202, G. Allen & Unwin Ltd: {{cquote|"What we call science arose as a result of new methods of experiment, observation, and measurement, which were introduced into Europe by the [[Arab]]s. [...] Science is the most momentous contribution of [[Arab world|Arab civilization]] to the [[modern world]], but its fruits were slow in ripening. [...] The debt of our science to that of the Arabs does not consist in startling discoveries or revolutionary theories; science owes a great deal more to Arab culture, it owes its existence....The ancient world was, as we saw, pre-scientific. [...] The Greeks systematized, generalized and theorized, but the patient ways of investigations, the accumulation of positive knowledge, the minute methods of science, detailed and prolonged observation and experimental inquiry were altogether alien to the Greek temperament."}}</ref> Muslim [[physician]]s contributed significantly to the field of [[medicine]], including the subjects of [[anatomy]] and [[physiology]]: such as in the 15th century Persian work by [[Mansur ibn Ilyas|Mansur ibn Muhammad ibn al-Faqih Ilyas]] entitled ''Tashrih al-badan'' (''Anatomy of the body'') which contained comprehensive diagrams of the body's structural, [[Nervous system|nervous]] and [[circulatory system]]s; or in the work of the Egyptian physician [[Ibn al-Nafis]], who proposed the theory of [[pulmonary circulation]]. [[Avicenna]]'s ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'' remained an authoritative medical textbook in Europe until the 18th century. [[Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi]] (also known as ''Abulcasis'') contributed to the discipline of medical [[surgery]] with his ''Kitab al-Tasrif'' ("Book of Concessions"), a medical encyclopedia which was later translated to [[Latin]] and used in European and Muslim medical schools for centuries. Other medical advancements came in the fields of [[pharmacology]] and [[pharmacy]].<ref>Turner, H. (1997) pp. 136—138</ref> In [[Islamic astronomy|astronomy]], [[al-Battani]] improved the precision of the measurement of the [[precession]] of the earth's axis. The corrections made to the [[geocentric model]] by al-Battani, [[Averroes]], [[Nasir al-Din al-Tusi]], [[Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi]] and [[Ibn al-Shatir]] were later incorporated into the [[Copernican heliocentrism|Copernican heliocentric]] model. [[Heliocentrism|Heliocentric]] theories were also discussed by several other Muslim astronomers such as [[Abu-Rayhan Biruni]], Abu Said Sinjari, [[Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi]], and 'Umar al-Katibi al-[[Qazwini]]. The [[astrolabe]], though originally developed by the Greeks, was perfected by Islamic astronomers and engineers, and was subsequently brought to Europe. Muslim [[chemist]]s and [[Alchemy (Islam)|alchemists]] played an important role in the foundation of modern [[chemistry]]. Scholars such as [[Will Durant]] and [[Alexander von Humboldt]] regard Muslim chemists to be the founders of chemistry. In particular, [[Geber]] is regarded as the "father of chemistry". The works of Arab chemists influenced [[Roger Bacon]] (who introduced the empirical method to Europe, strongly influenced by his reading of Arabic writers), and later [[Isaac Newton]]. A number of [[chemical process]]es (particularly in [[alchemy]]) and [[distillation]] techniques (such as the production of [[alcohol]]) were developed in the Muslim world and then spread to Europe. Some of the most famous scientists from the Islamic world include [[Geber]] ([[polymath]], father of [[chemistry]]), [[al-Farabi]] (polymath), [[Abu al-Qasim]] (father of modern [[surgery]]),<ref>A. Martin-Araguz, C. Bustamante-Martinez, Ajo V. Fernandez-Armayor, J. M. Moreno-Martinez (2002). "Neuroscience in al-Andalus and its influence on medieval scholastic medicine", ''Revista de neurología'' '''34''' (9), p. 877-892.</ref> [[Ibn al-Haytham]] ([[Polymath|universal genius]], father of [[optics]], founder of [[psychophysics]] and [[experimental psychology]],<ref>Omar Khaleefa (Summer 1999). "Who Is the Founder of Psychophysics and Experimental Psychology?", ''American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences'' '''16''' (2).</ref> pioneer of [[scientific method]], "first scientist"), [[Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]] (universal genius, father of [[Indology]]<ref>Zafarul-Islam Khan, [http://milligazette.com/Archives/15-1-2000/Art5.htm At The Threshhold Of A New Millennium – II], ''The Milli Gazette''.</ref> and [[geodesy]], "first [[anthropologist]]"),<ref>Akbar S. Ahmed (1984). "Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist", ''RAIN'' '''60''', p. 9-10.</ref> [[Avicenna]] (universal genius, father of [[momentum]]<ref>Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Islamic Conception Of Intellectual Life", in Philip P. Wiener (ed.), ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'', Vol. 2, p. 65, Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1973-1974.</ref> and modern [[medicine]]),<ref>Cas Lek Cesk (1980). "The father of medicine, Avicenna, in our science and culture: Abu Ali ibn Sina (980-1037)", ''Becka J.'' '''119''' (1), p. 17-23.</ref> [[Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī]] (polymath), and [[Ibn Khaldun]] (father of [[demography]],<ref name=Mowlana>H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", ''Cooperation South Journal'' '''1'''.</ref> [[cultural history]],<ref>Mohamad Abdalla (Summer 2007). "Ibn Khaldun on the Fate of Islamic Science after the 11th Century", ''Islam & Science'' '''5''' (1), p. 61-70.</ref> [[historiography]],<ref>Salahuddin Ahmed (1999). ''A Dictionary of Muslim Names''. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 1850653569.</ref> the [[philosophy of history]], [[sociology]],<ref name=Akhtar>Dr. S. W. Akhtar (1997). "The Islamic Concept of Knowledge", ''Al-Tawhid: A Quarterly Journal of Islamic Thought & Culture'' '''12''' (3).</ref> and the [[social sciences]]),<ref>Akbar Ahmed (2002). "Ibn Khaldun’s Understanding of Civilizations and the Dilemmas of Islam and the West Today", ''Middle East Journal'' '''56''' (1), p. 25.</ref> among many others. ===Technology=== {{main|Inventions in the Muslim world|Muslim Agricultural Revolution|Timeline of science and technology in the Islamic world}} [[Image:al-jazari pump.png|thumb|The [[valve]]-operated [[reciprocating engine|reciprocating]] [[suction]] [[piston]] [[pump]] with [[crankshaft]]-[[connecting rod]] mechanism invented by [[al-Jazari]].]] In technology, the Muslim world adopted [[papermaking]] from China and further advanced the technology with their invention of [[papermill]]s many centuries before [[paper]] was known in the West.<ref name=Lucas/> The knowledge of [[gunpowder]] was also transmitted from China via Islamic countries, where the formulas for pure [[potassium nitrate]] and an [[explosive]] gunpowder effect were first developed.<ref>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]], [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%202.htm Potassium Nitrate in Arabic and Latin Sources], ''History of Science and Technology in Islam''.</ref><ref name=Gunpowder>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]], [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%203.htm Gunpowder Composition for Rockets and Cannon in Arabic Military Treatises In Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries], ''History of Science and Technology in Islam''.</ref> Advances were made in [[irrigation]] and farming, using new technology such as the [[windmill]]. Crops such as [[almond]]s and [[citrus]] fruit were brought to Europe through [[al-Andalus]], and [[sugar]] cultivation was gradually adopted by the Europeans. Arab merchants dominated trade in the [[Indian Ocean]] until the arrival of the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] in the 16th century. [[Hormuz]] was an important center for this trade. There was also a dense network of trade routes in the [[Mediterranean]], along which Muslim countries traded with each other and with European powers such as [[Venice]], [[Genoa]] and [[Catalonia]]. The [[Silk Road]] crossing [[Central Asia]] passed through Muslim states between China and Europe. Muslim engineers in the Islamic world made a number of innovative [[Industry|industrial]] uses of [[hydropower]], and early industrial uses of [[tidal power]], [[wind power]], [[steam power]],<ref>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]] (1976). ''Taqi al-Din and Arabic Mechanical Engineering'', p. 34-35. Institute for the History of Arabic Science, [[University of Aleppo]].</ref> [[fossil fuel]]s such as [[petroleum]], and early large [[factory]] complexes (''tiraz'' in Arabic).<ref>Maya Shatzmiller, p. 36.</ref> The industrial uses of [[watermill]]s in the Islamic world date back to the 7th century, while horizontal-[[Water wheel|wheeled]] and vertical-wheeled water mills were both in widespread use since at least the 9th century. A variety of industrial [[mill]]s were being employed in the Islamic world, including early [[fulling]] mills, [[gristmill]]s, [[huller]]s, [[paper mill]]s, [[sawmill]]s, shipmills, [[stamp mill]]s, [[steel mill]]s, [[Sugar refinery|sugar mills]], [[tide mill]]s and [[windmill]]s. By the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic world had these industrial mills in operation, from [[al-Andalus]] and [[North Africa]] to the [[Middle East]] and [[Central Asia]].<ref name=Lucas>Adam Robert Lucas (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", ''Technology and Culture'' '''46''' (1), p. 1-30 [10].</ref> Muslim engineers also invented [[crankshaft]]s and [[water turbine]]s, employed [[gear]]s in mills and water-raising [[machine]]s, and pioneered the use of [[dam]]s as a source of water power, used to provide additional power to watermills and water-raising machines.<ref name=Hassan>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]], [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2071.htm Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part II: Transmission Of Islamic Engineering]</ref> Such advances made it possible for many industrial tasks that were previously driven by [[manual labour]] in [[ancient times]] to be [[Mechanization|mechanized]] and driven by [[machine]]ry instead in the medieval Islamic world. The transfer of these technologies to medieval Europe had an influence on the [[Industrial Revolution]].<ref>Adam Robert Lucas (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", ''Technology and Culture'' '''46''' (1), p. 1-30.</ref> A number of industries were generated due to the Muslim Agricultural Revolution, including early industries for [[agribusiness]], [[Islamic astronomy#Instruments|astronomical instruments]], [[ceramic]]s, [[Chemical industry|chemicals]], [[distillation]] technologies, [[clock]]s, [[glass]], mechanical [[hydropower]]ed and [[wind power]]ed [[machine]]ry, [[mat]]ting, [[mosaic]]s, [[Pulp and paper industry|pulp and paper]], [[perfume]]ry, [[Petroleum industry|petroleum]], [[Pharmaceutical company|pharmaceuticals]], [[rope]]-making, [[shipping]], [[shipbuilding]], [[silk]], [[sugar]], [[Textile industry|textiles]], [[Water industry|water]], [[weapon]]s, and the [[mining]] of [[mineral]]s such as [[sulfur]], [[ammonia]], [[lead]] and [[iron]]. Early large [[factory]] complexes (''tiraz'') were built for many of these industries, and knowledge of these industries were later transmitted to [[medieval Europe]], especially during the [[Latin translations of the 12th century]], as well as before and after. For example, the first glass factories in Europe were founded in the 11th century by [[Egypt]]ian craftsmen in [[Greece]].<ref>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]], [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%207.htm Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part 1: Avenues Of Technology Transfer]</ref> The [[agricultural]] and [[handicraft]] industries also experienced high levels of growth during this period.<ref name=Labib>Subhi Y. Labib (1969), "Capitalism in Medieval Islam", ''The Journal of Economic History'' '''29''' (1), p. 79-96.</ref> ==Modern Muslim world== ===Economy and trade=== In circa 1800, the gross domestic product of the Muslim world was estimated at about 12 per cent of the world total. By the end of the 19th century, this share had plunged to about 5 per cent of the world total. This share had since then stagnated throughout the 20th century due to half-hearted economic reforms. As of 2006, the [[Arab World]] accounts for two-fifth of the gross domestic product and three-fifth of the trade of the wider Muslim World. It should be noted that oil industry and related services account for almost two-fifth of the gross domestic product of the Muslim world. ===Geographic spread===<!-- This section is linked from [[Prince Sadruddin Aga Khan]] --> {{Life in OIC}} {{seealso|Muslim majority countries}} Many Muslims not only live in, but also have an official status in the following regions: *[[Southwest Asia]]: [[Arab]] nations such as [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Iraq]], [[Oman]],[[Kuwait]] and several non-Arab nations, e.g. [[Azerbaijan]], [[Turkey]] and [[Iran]] *[[Africa]]: [[North African]] countries such as [[Morocco]], [[Algeria]], [[Tunisia]], [[Libya]], [[Egypt]]; [[Horn of Africa|Northeast African]] countries like [[Somalia]], [[Eritrea]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Djibouti]] and [[Sudan]]; and [[West African]] countries like [[Mali]], [[Senegal]] and [[Nigeria]]. *[[Southern Europe]]: [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]],[[Kosovo]] and [[Albania]]. *[[Eastern Europe]]: parts of [[Russia]] ([[North Caucasus]] and [[Idel-Ural]]) and [[Ukraine]] (especially in the [[Crimea]]) *[[Central Asia]]: [[Afghanistan]], formerly Soviet states like [[Uzbekistan]] *[[South Asia]]: [[Pakistan]], [[Bangladesh]], and the [[Maldives]] *[[East Asia]]: parts of [[China]] ([[Xinjiang]], [[Ningxia]] and [[Qinghai]]) *[[Southeast Asia]]: [[Indonesia]], [[Brunei]] and [[Malaysia]] The countries of Southwest Asia, and many in Northern and Northeastern Africa are considered part of the [[Greater Middle East]]. Also worthy of mention are provinces of [[Kosovo]] in the former [[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]. In [[Chechnya]], [[Dagestan]], [[Kabardino-Balkaria]], [[Karachay-Cherkessia]], [[Ingushetia]], [[Tatarstan]], [[Bashkiria]] in [[Russia]], Muslims are in the majority. The [[India]]n state of [[Jammu and Kashmir]] has a Muslim majority population, particularly concentrated in the Kashmir valley. Some definitions would also include the sizable Muslim minorities in: *several countries of [[Europe]] (Of which the Muslim population in [[Islam in Cyprus| Cyprus]], [[Russia]], [[Bulgaria]], [[France]], [[The Netherlands]] and [[Denmark]] make up at least [[Muslims in Western Europe| 5% of the total population]] of that country, and with more than one million Muslims living in [[Islam in Russia| Russia]], [[Islam in France| France]], [[Islam in Germany| Germany]], [[Islam in the United Kingdom| United Kingdom]], [[Islam in the Netherlands| Netherlands]],<ref>[http://www.cbs.nl/en-GB/menu/themas/bevolking/publicaties/artikelen/archief/2004/2004-1543-wm.htm| Centraal Bureau van de Statistiek (CBS) - Netherlands/ Muslimpopulation]</ref> and [[Islam in Italy| Italy]]) *several regions of Russia, other than ethnic republics above ([[Adyghea]], [[North Ossetia]] etc.) *[[India]] and [[Sri Lanka]] *[[Singapore]], [[Myanmar]], [[Thailand]], and the [[Philippines]] *The [[United States]], [[Guyana]], [[Surinam]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[Jamaica]], [[Brazil]], [[Argentina]] and [[Canada]] *Congo-Kinshasa, Burundi, Malawi, Republic of South Africa, Zambia, Cameron, CAR, Uganda, [[Ethiopia]] *[[Crimea]] in [[Ukraine]] ===Demographics=== {{Islam}} {{Main|Islam by country}} {{Main|Demographics of Islam}} One fifth of the [[world]] population share Islam as an [[ethical tradition]]. Muslims are the majority in 57 [[states|nations]]. They speak about 60 languages and come from diverse [[ethnic]] backgrounds. There are over 1.5 billion Muslims in total. See [[Islam by country]] and [[Demographics of Islam]] for more information. ===Important organizations=== The [[Organization of the Islamic Conference]] (OIC) is an inter-governmental organization grouping fifty-seven States. These States decided to pool their resources together, combine their efforts and speak with one voice to safeguard the interest and ensure the progress and well-being of their peoples and those of other Muslims in the world over. The [[Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries]] includes many nations that are also in the [[Arab League]]. A politically motivated [[1973 oil crisis|oil embargo]] in 1974 (to support Egypt and Syria in the 1973 [[Yom Kippur War]] against Israel after the [[Operation Nickel Grass|US re-equipped Israel with armaments]]) had drastic economic and political consequences in the United States and Europe. Recently Danish products faced a boycott by Muslim world after the [[Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy|2005 Prophet Muhammad cartoons controversy]], although that move was not supported by the Muslim governments, it demonstrates the power of the Muslim World acting in concert, and the key role of religion and ethnicity in the politics of oil regions, with which the Muslim world intersects. == Religion and state == [[Image:Islam attitudes.png|thumb|left|350px|The Islamic and secular countries in the Muslim World today by constitution.]] Islamic law does not distinguish between "matters of church" and "matters of state"; the ulema function as both jurists and theologians. In practice, Islamic rulers frequently bypassed the Sharia courts with a parallel system of so-called "Grievance courts" over which they had sole control. As the Muslim world came into contact with Western secular ideals, Muslim societies responded in different ways. [[Turkey]] has been governed as a secular state ever since the reforms of [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]]. In contrast, the [[1979 Iranian Revolution]] replaced a mostly secular regime with an [[Islamic republic]] led by the [[Ruholla Khomeini|Ayatollah Ruholla Khomeini]].<ref>See: * Esposito (2004), p.84 * Lapidus (2002), pp.502–507,845 * Lewis (2003), p.100</ref> Many Muslim countries still have a strong belief in the religion of [[Islam]], many have used [[Sharia]] law in the state where the law runs from the interpretations from the [[Quran]] and the [[Hadith]] in the society of politics, law, schools and others. Most countries in the Muslim world according to their constitution declare [[Islam]] as the state religion or [[Sharia]] law, but a very few who are Secular states compared with the western world. ==Islam in law and ethics== {{see|Islamic ethics|Sharia|Fiqh|Islamic economic jurisprudence}} In some nations, Muslim ethnic groups enjoy considerable [[Wiktionary:autonomy|autonomy]]. In some places, Muslims implement a form of [[Sharia|Islamic law]], called [[shariah]] in Arabic. The Islamic law exists in many variations, but the main forms are the five (four Sunni and one Shia) [[madhab|schools of jurisprudence]] ([[fiqh]]): *[[Hanafi]] school in [[Pakistan]], [[Bangladesh]], [[India]], [[Turkey]], [[Egypt]] and [[West Africa]] *[[Maliki]] in [[North Africa]] and [[West Africa]] *[[Shafi'i]] in [[Malaysia]], [[Indonesia]], and [[Horn of Africa|Northeastern Africa]] *[[Hanbali]] in [[Arabia]] *[[Jaferi]] in [[Iran]], [[Iraq]] , [[Yemen]] and [[India]] - where the majority is [[Shia]] All five are centuries old and many Muslim feel a new [[fiqh]] must be created for modern [[society]]. Islam has a method for doing this, [[al-urf]] and [[ijtihad]] are the words to describe this method, but they have not been used in a long time by Sunni Muslims, and few people are trusted enough to use them to make new laws. The Shi'i Jaferi school of fiqh never ended the tradition of ijtihad. [[Women in Islam|Muslim women]] often dress extremely modestly, mostly by choice. Thus, in some countries an interpretation of the Islamic law requires women to cover either just legs, shoulders and head or the whole body apart from the face. In strictest forms, the face as well must be covered leaving just a mesh to see through. These rules for dressing are one of the things the cause tension between the [[Western World]] and the Muslim, concerning particularly Muslim living in western countries, since many in the Western World consider these restrictions both sexist and oppressive. Most Muslims oppose this charge, and instead declare that the media-fuelled world of the West is itself sexist and oppressive in that women are forced to reveal irrational amounts of flesh to be considered attractive. [[Islamic economics]] bans [[interest]] or Riba ([[Usury]]) but in most Muslim countries Western [[banking]] is allowed. ==Islam in modern politics and conflicts== Many people in Islamic countries also see Islam manifested politically as [[Islamism]]. Political Islam is powerful in all Muslim-majority countries. [[Islamic parties]] in [[Turkey]], [[Pakistan]] and [[Algeria]] have taken power at the provincial level. Many in these movements call themselves [[Islamist]]s, which also sometimes describes more [[militant Islam]]ic groups. The relationships between these groups (in democratic countries there is usually at least one [[Islamic party]]) and their views of democracy are complex. Some of these groups are accused of practicing [[terrorism]]. ===Conflicts with Israel=== {{seealso|Projects working for peace among Israelis and Arabs|Peace process in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict|Foreign relations of Israel#Arab states}} [[Israel]] is subject to varying levels of hostility in the Muslim world due to the prolonged [[Arab-Israeli conflict]] and the [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]]. Turkey was the first Muslim-majority state to recognize Israel, just one year after its founding, and they have the [[Turkey-Israel relations|long shared close military and economic ties]]. Prior to the [[Iranian Revolution]], [[Iran]] and Israel [[Iran-Israel relations|maintained a strong political friendship]], however the current Iranian government is strongly anti-Israeli and has [[Mahmoud Ahmadinejad and Israel|repeatedly called for Israel's destruction]]. Once at war, both [[Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty|Egypt]] and [[Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace|Jordan]] have established diplomatic relations and signed peace treaties with Israel, and [[Peace process in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict|attempts to resolve]] the conflict with Palestinians have produced a [[Oslo Accords|number of interim agreements]]. Nine non-Arab Muslim states maintain diplomatic ties with Israel, and since 1994, the Gulf states have lessened their enforcement of [[Economic and political boycotts of Israel|the Arab boycott]], with [[Saudi Arabia]] even declaring its end in 2005, though it has yet to cancel its sanctions. States like Morocco that have [[History of the Jews in Morocco|large Jewish populations]] have generally been less hostile relations with Israel. ===Nuclear capabilities=== [[Pakistan]] is the only declared nuclear nation in the Muslim World. The nuclear program of Pakistan was carried out in response to [[India]]'s nuclear test in 1971. [[Pakistan]] conducted its nuclear tests in May 1998 to [[India]]'s nuclear tests of May 1998. ''See also'': [[Gulf War]] ''See also'': [[Nuclear program of Iran]] ===Recent history=== 1979 was a critical year in the Muslim world's relationship with the rest of the world. In that year, [[Egypt]] made peace with [[Israel]], the government of [[Iran]] was overthrown in the [[Iranian Revolution]], and the [[Soviet invasion of Afghanistan]] began. Some of the events pivotal in the Muslim world's relationship with the outside world in the post-[[Soviet Union|Soviet era]] were: *The [[Iran-Iraq War]] *The 1991 [[Gulf War|Persian Gulf War]] *The [[Bosnian War]] *The [[Kosovo War]] *The [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|2001 invasion of Afghanistan]] *The [[2003 invasion of Iraq]] *The [[Humanitarian response to the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake]] *The [[Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy|2005 Prophet Muhammad cartoons controversy]] *The [[2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict]] *The [[Pope Benedict XVI Islam controversy|2006 controversy over remarks]] quoted by [[Pope Benedict XVI]] *The [[2007 Lebanon conflict]] *The ongoing [[Darfur conflict]] *The ongoing standoff with [[Iran]] over its [[Nuclear program of Iran|Nuclear program]] *The ongoing [[Second Chechen War]] *The ongoing [[Islamic Insurgency in the Philippines]] *The [[2008 Kosovo declaration of independence]] The U.S.-led [[War on Terrorism]] has been criticized as a [[War on Islam]] by [[Hizb ut-Tahrir]] and other [[Islamist]] organizations. ====Political currents==== In [[Pakistan]], a prominent U.S. ally, [[Muttahida Majlis-e-Amal]] - an Islamic political party - won local elections in two out of four of the country's provinces and became in mid-2003 the third largest party in the national parliament, their strongest showing up to that point. They had support from urban areas for the first time. ''See also:'' [[Politics of Pakistan]] In [[Kuwait]] elections in July 2003 returned Islamic traditionalists and supporters of the royal family, while liberals suffered a severe defeat. ''See also:'' [[Elections in Kuwait]] In [[Indonesia]], the growth of various groups allied to those considered responsible for the [[Bali Bombing]] most of which have previously been invisible, has been marked.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} In [[Iran]] in 1979, a popular revolution saw the exile of the [[Shah]] and the rule going to [[Ayatollah Khomeini]], a cleric from the [[Shia]] school of thought. The country has what it claims is a theocratic [[democracy]], and has kept the "revolution" as part of the state's survival and growth. In [[Kosovo]] in 2008, it declared independence from Serbia. ==Major Muslim denominations== {{main|Divisions of Islam}} The two main denominations of Islam are the [[Sunni]] and [[Shia]] sects. The difference between them is primarily in terms of how the life of the ummah ("faithful") should be governed, and the role of the [[imam]]. These two main differences stem from the understanding of which [[hadith]] are to interpret the [[Quran]]. The Shia minority believes that the [[Ahlul Bayt|Family of the Prophet's]] traditions are exclusively to be followed, whereas the Sunni majority believes in traditions from the [[Sahaba|Companions of the Prophet]] and other common people to be followed. The overwhelming majority of Muslims in the world, approximately 85%, are [[Sunni]]. Shias and others (Ibadiyyas, Ahmadis, Druze) make up the rest, about 15% of overall Muslim population. Among the countries with [[Shi'a]] majority of Muslim population are [[Iran]] (90%), [[Iraq]] (65%), [[Azerbaijan]] (75%), [[Bahrain]] (60%), and [[Lebanon]] (35%). The [[Ibadi|Kharijite]] Muslims, who are less known, have their own stronghold in the country of [[Oman]] holding about 75% of the population. The rest of the population being 10% [[Sunni]] and the rest [[Shi'a]]. == Muslim majority countries == {{main|Muslim majority countries}} Countries in the Muslim world sorted by state religion: ===Islamic states=== *[[Afghanistan]]<ref>[http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/af00000_.html] Article 1 ''Islamic republic'', Article 2 ''Religions''</ref> *[[Bahrain]]<ref>[http://mahmood.tv/bahrain-politics-2/bahrain-constitution/the-constitution-of-the-kingdom-of-bahrain-2002/#article1] Article 1 ''Sovereignty, Constitutional Monarchy''</ref> *[[Iran]]<ref>[http://www.iranonline.com/iran/iran-info/Government/constitution-1.html] Article 2 ''The Islamic republic''</ref> *[[Mauritania]]<ref>[http://servat.unibe.ch/icl/mr00000_.html] Article 1 ''State Integrity, Equal Protection (1)''</ref> *[[Oman]]<ref>[http://servat.unibe.ch/icl/mu00000_.html] Article 2 ''Religion''</ref> *[[Pakistan]]<ref>[http://www.vakilno1.com/saarclaw/pakistan/Consitution/part_1.htm] Article 1 (1) ''Introductory''</ref> *[[Yemen]]<ref>[http://www.al-bab.com/yemen/gov/con94.htm] Article (1), (2), (3) ''The foundations of the state''</ref> *[[Saudi Arabia]]<ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabia</ref> ===Islam as state religion=== *[[Algeria]]<ref>[http://www.algeria-un.org/default.asp?doc=-c1p1] Article 2 ''Chapter I Algeria''</ref> *[[Bangladesh]]<ref>[http://www.pmo.gov.bd/constitution/index.htm] Article 2A ''The state religion''</ref> *[[Egypt]]<ref>[http://www.egypt.gov.eg/english/laws/Constitution/chp_one/part_one.asp] Article 2 ''The state''</ref> *[[Iraq]]<ref>[http://64.233.183.104/search?q=cache:rZKJQ6wiTLAJ:news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/24_08_05_constit.pdf+Constitution+of+Iraq&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=3&gl=uk] Article 2, 1st ''Basic principles''</ref> *[[Kuwait]]<ref>[http://www.kuwait-info.com/sidepages/cont.asp] Article 2 ''The state and the system government''</ref> *[[Libya]]<ref>[http://servat.unibe.ch/icl/ly00000_.html] Article 2 ''State religion, language''</ref> *[[Malaysia]]<ref>[http://www.trybunal.gov.pl/constit/constitu/constit/malaysia/malays-e.htm] Article 3 ''(1)''</ref> *[[Maldives]]<ref>[http://www.presidencymaldives.gov.mv/pages/default.php?ZQE5XDheYQBlEGIOYxc1BTQFZVA=] State religion (7.) ''State, sovereignty and citizens''</ref> *[[Morocco]]<ref>[http://www.al-bab.com/maroc/gov/con96.htm] Article 6 ''Basic principles''</ref> *[[Qatar]]<ref>[http://www.qatarembassy.net/constitution.asp] Article 1</ref> *[[Tunisia]]<ref>[http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/ts00000_.html] Article 1 [State] ''General Provisions''</ref> *[[United Arab Emirates]]<ref>[http://www.worldstatesmen.org/uae_const.doc] ''http://www.worldstatesmen.org/uae_const.doc'' ''Democratic regime in an Islamic and Arab society''</ref> ===Secular states=== ====Africa==== *[[Burkina Faso]]<ref>[http://64.233.183.104/search?q=cache:IIR9yrUaMFwJ:www.chr.up.ac.za/hr_docs/constitutions/docs/Burkina%2520FasoC%2520(englishsummary)(rev).doc+Burkina+Faso+constitution&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=2&gl=uk] Article 31</ref> *[[Gambia]]<ref>[http://64.233.183.104/search?q=cache:DFzfUsPbHcgJ:www.chr.up.ac.za/hr_docs/constitutions/docs/The%2520GambiaC(english%2520summary)(rev).doc+Constitution+of+Gambia&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=1&gl=uk] Article 1 (1)</ref> *[[Guinea]]<ref>[http://64.233.183.104/search?q=cache:4pEtb9MYlp0J:www.chr.up.ac.za/hr_docs/constitutions/docs/ChadC%2520(english%2520summary)(rev).doc+Constitution+of+Chad&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=2&gl=uk] Article 1</ref> *[[Mali]]<ref>[http://64.233.183.104/search?q=cache:mZO36FQn_mcJ:confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Mali.pdf+Constitution+of+Mali&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=1&gl=uk#5] Article 25</ref> *[[Senegal]]<ref>[http://64.233.183.104/search?q=cache:lTPlpP_soN8J:www.chr.up.ac.za/hr_docs/constitutions/docs/SenegalC%2520(english%2520summary)(rev).doc+Constitution+of+Senegal&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=1&gl=uk] Article 1</ref> *[[Chad]]<ref>[http://64.233.183.104/search?q=cache:4pEtb9MYlp0J:www.chr.up.ac.za/hr_docs/constitutions/docs/ChadC%2520(english%2520summary)(rev).doc+Constitution+of+Chad&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=2&gl=uk] Article 1</ref> *[[Djibouti]]<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/dj.html#People CIAWorld Factbook- Djibouti]</ref> *[[Somalia]]<ref>[http://www.civicwebs.com/cwvlib/africa/somalia/1995/reunification/appendix_1.htm] Article 1.6/2.6</ref> ====Asia==== *[[Kyrgystan]]<ref>[http://www.coe.int/t/e/legal_affairs/legal_co-operation/foreigners_and_citizens/nationality/documents/national_legislation/kyrgyzstan%20constitution%20of%20the%20kyrghyz%20republic.asp#P46_1713] Article 1 (1)</ref> *[[Tajikstan]]<ref>[http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/untc/unpan003670.htm] Article 1</ref> *[[Turkmenistan]]<ref>[http://www.uta.edu/cpsees/TURKCON.htm] Section 1: Foundations of the constitutional order, Article 1</ref> *[[Uzbekistan]] *[[Azerbaijan]]<ref>[http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/UNTC/UNPAN003700.htm] Article 7/Article 18</ref> *[[Kazakhstan]]<ref>[http://www.kazakhstanembassy.org.uk/cgi-bin/index/225] Article 1 (1)</ref><ref>Characteristics of the Republic: Article 2, Provisions Relating to Political Parties: Article 68, Oath taking: Article 81, Oath: Article 103, Department of Religious Affairs: 136, Preservation of Reform Laws: 174</ref> ====Europe==== *[[Albania]] *[[Kosovo]] *[[Turkey]] ==See also== *[[Arab world]], [[Arab nationalism]], [[Pan-Arabism]] *[[Christendom]], [[Caesaropapism]], [[Church militant and church triumphant]], [[Ecumene]], [[Res publica christiana]] *[[Divisions of the world in Islam]] *[[Hajj]] *[[Islam and other religions]] *[[Islam by country]] *[[Islamic republic]] *[[Liberal movements within Islam]] *[[Muslim majority countries]] *[[Muslim history]] *[[Organization of the Islamic Conference]] *[[Pan-Islamism]], [[Ummah]], [[caliphate]] *[[Sunni-Shia relations]] *[[Secular Muslim]] *[[Western world]] ==Notes== {{reflist|2}} == References == *{{cite book|last= Ankerl |first= Guy |title= Global communication without universal civilization |origyear= 2000 |series= INU societal research |volume= Vol.1: Coexisting contemporary civilizations : Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western |publisher= INU Press |location= Geneva |isbn= 2-88155-004-5 |pages= }} ==External links== *[http://www.dinarstandard.com Dinar Standard - Covers Muslim World Economics] *[http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/ The Islamic World to 1600] an online tutorial at the [[University of Calgary]], Canada. *[http://www.msnbc.com/news/969671.asp MSNBC report] citing [[Wesley Clark]] that the US planned to invade Iraq, then Syria, Lebanon, Libya, Iran, Somalia, and Sudan - also his own views on Egypt, Pakistan and Saudi Arabia *[http://www.truthout.org/docs_03/092403D.shtml Al-Jazeera report] {{Islam topics|state=collapsed}} [[Category:Geography]] [[Category:Islam]] [[ar:العالم الإسلامي]] [[cy:Y Byd Mwslemaidd]] [[es:Mundo islámico]] [[fa:جهان اسلام]] [[fr:Civilisation islamique]] [[id:Dunia Muslim]] [[it:Mondo islamico]] [[he:עולם האסלאם]] [[ms:Dunia Islam]] [[ja:イスラム世界]] [[no:Den muslimske verden]] [[pt:Civilização Islâmica]] [[simple:Islamic world]] [[fi:Islamilainen maailma]] [[tr:İslam ülkeleri]] [[zh:伊斯兰国家]]