Nahuatl 21889 224591066 2008-07-09T15:39:40Z ClockwerkMao 7332534 /* Nouns */ {{Infobox Language |name = Nahuatl, Mexicano, Nawatl |nativename = Nāhuatlahtōlli, Māsēwallahtōlli |familycolor = American |region = '''[[Mexico]]''' <br> ([[Mexico State]], [[Mexican Federal District|Distrito Federal]], [[Puebla]], [[Veracruz]], [[Hidalgo (Mexico)|Hidalgo]], [[Guerrero]], [[Morelos]], [[Oaxaca]], [[Michoacán]] and [[Durango]])<br>[[El Salvador]]<br> [[United States]], |speakers = 1.45 million (2000)<ref>INEGI (2005), p. 3</ref> |fam1 = [[Uto-Aztecan languages|Uto-Aztecan]] |fam2 = [[Aztecan languages|Aztecan]] |fam3 = General Aztec |agency = [[Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas]] [http://www.inali.gob.mx/] |iso2=nah |lc1=nci |ld1=[[Classical Nahuatl]]<br/>For modern varieties, see [[List of Nahuan languages]]. |ll1=none |image = [[Image:Aztec woman speaking.jpg|150px]] |caption = Nahua woman from the [[Florentine Codex]]. The [[speech scroll]] indicates that she is speaking }} '''Nahuatl''' ({{Audio-IPA|nawatl.ogg|[ˈnaː.wat͡ɬ]}})<ref>This word has several variant spellings, which include: Náhuatl, Naoatl, Nauatl, Nahuatl, Nawatl. In [[Mexican Spanish]] the standard spelling is ''náhuatl'' with an accent on the first syllable.</ref> is a group of related languages and dialects of the Aztecan, or Nahuan, branch of the [[Uto-Aztecan]] language family. All Nahuan branch languages are indigenous to [[Mesoamerica]] and are spoken by an estimated 1.5&nbsp;million [[Nahua peoples|Nahua people]], most of whom live in Central [[Mexico]]. Nahuatl has been spoken in Central Mexico since at least the 7th century AD.<ref>Suárez (1983), p. 149</ref> At the time of the [[Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire|Spanish conquest of Mexico]] in the early 16th century it was the language of the [[Aztec]]s, who dominated central Mexico during the Late Postclassic period of [[Mesoamerican chronology]]. The expansion and influence of the Aztec Empire led to the dialect spoken by the Aztecs of [[Tenochtitlan]] becoming a [[Prestige dialect|prestige language]] in Mesoamerica in this period. With the introduction of the [[Latin alphabet]], Nahuatl also became a [[literary language]] and many [[chronicle]]s, [[grammar]]s, works of [[poetry]], administrative [[document]]s and [[Aztec codices|codices]] were written in the 16th and 17th centuries.<ref>Canger (1980), p. 13 </ref> This early literary language based on the Tenochtitlan dialect has been labeled [[Classical Nahuatl]] and is among the most-studied and best-documented languages of the [[Americas]].<ref>Canger (2002), p. 195</ref> Today [[Nahuatl dialects|Nahuan dialects]]<ref>See [[Mesoamerican languages#Language vs. Dialect]] for a discussion on the difference between "languages" and "dialects" in Mesoamerica.</ref> are spoken in scattered communities mostly in rural areas. There are considerable differences between dialects, and some are [[Mutual intelligibility|mutually unintelligible]]. They have all been subject to varying degrees of [[language contact|influence]] from Spanish. No modern dialects are identical to Classical Nahuatl, but those spoken in and around the [[Valley of Mexico]] are generally more closely related to it than those on the periphery.<ref>Canger (1988)</ref> Under Mexico's ''Ley General de Derechos Lingüísticos de los Pueblos Indígenas'' ("General Law on the Linguistic Rights of Indigenous Peoples") promulgated in 2003,<ref>{{cite web |year=2003 |date=2003-03-13|title=Ley General de Derechos Lingüísticos de los Pueblos Indígenas|url=http://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/pdf/257.pdf |format=[[Portable Document Format|PDF]] online reproduction |work=Diario Oficial de la Federación |publisher=Issued by the [[Chamber of Deputies (Mexico)|Cámara de Diputados del H. Congreso de la Unión]]}} {{es icon}}. </ref> Nahuatl along with the other [[indigenous languages of Mexico]] are recognized as ''lenguas nacionales'' ("national languages") in the regions where they are spoken, with the same status as Spanish.<ref>By the provisions of Article IV: ''Las lenguas indígenas...y el español son lenguas nacionales...y tienen la misma validez en su territorio, localización y contexto en que se hablen.'' ("The indigenous languages...and Spanish are national languages...and have the same validity in their territory, location and context in which they are spoken.")</ref> Nahuatl is a language with a complex [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] characterized by [[polysynthesis]] and [[Agglutinative language|agglutination]], allowing the construction of long words with complex meanings out of several stems and [[affix]]es. Nahuatl has been influenced by other [[Mesoamerican languages]] through centuries of coexistence, becoming part of the [[Mesoamerican Linguistic Area]]. Many words from Nahuatl have been borrowed into Spanish and further on into hundreds of other languages. These are mostly words for concepts indigenous to central Mexico which the Spanish heard mentioned for the first time by their Nahuatl names. English words of Nahuatl origin include "[[atlatl]]", "[[avocado]]", "[[chili pepper|chili]]", "[[chocolate]]", "[[coyote]]" and "[[tomato]]". ==History== ===Pre-Columbian period=== By a general consensus developed in the 20th century, linguists contend that the Uto-Aztecan languages originated in the [[southwestern United States]], and thereafter migrated southwards into Mexico.<ref>See Canger (1980), p. 12; Kaufman (2001), p. 1.</ref> Some recent scholars such as [[Jane H. Hill]] have challenged this view, by proposing instead that the Uto-Aztecan languages originated in central Mexico and then spread northwards at a very early date.<ref>See argument advanced in Hill (2001).</ref> This hypothesis is yet to be consolidated, and a northern origin of the Uto-Aztecan languages remains the most favored. Archaeological, ethnohistorical and linguistic evidence suggests that speakers of early Nahuan languages first migrated into central Mexico from the [[Aridoamerica|northern Mexican deserts]], most likely in several waves. Before reaching the [[Mexican altiplano|central ''altiplano'']], these early pre-Nahuan groups probably spent a period of time in contact with the [[Coracholan languages]] in northwestern Mexico ([[Cora language|Cora]] and [[Huichol language|Huichol]]).<ref>Kaufman (2001), pp. 6,12</ref> This migration of proto-Nahuatl speakers into the Mesoamerican region has been placed at sometime around AD 500, towards the end of the Early Classic period in [[Mesoamerican chronology]].<ref>See arguments in Justeson ''et al.'' (1985), ''passim.''; also notes in Kaufman (2001), pp. 3–6,12</ref> The major political and cultural influence across the region in the Early Classic had been [[Teotihuacan]], the great city which flourished in central Mexico during the first half-millennium AD. The language(s) spoken by Teotihuacan's founders has long been debated, and the relationship of Nahuatl to Teotihuacan has figured centrally in that enquiry.<ref>For summary of views on language at Teotihuacan, consult Cowgill (1992), pp. 240–242; Pasztory (1993)</ref> While in the 19th and early 20th centuries it was presumed that Teotihuacan had been founded by speakers of Nahuatl, later linguistic and archaeological research tended to discount this view. Instead, the timing of the Nahuatl influx was seen to coincide more closely with Teotihuacan's fall than its rise, and other candidates such as [[Totonac]]an identified as more likely.<ref>Campbell (1997), p. 161; Justeson ''et al.'' (1985); Kaufman (2001), pp. 3–6,12</ref> Recently discovered linguistic and [[epigraphy|epigraphic]] evidence from the Maya region has revived interest in the notion that Nahuan influences may have been significantly earlier than previously thought, opening up again the possibility of a significant Nahuatl presence at Teotihuacan.<ref>The evidence for an earlier-than-thought Nahuatl presence in Mesoamerica is in the form of words of possible Nahuatl origins found in [[Maya script|Maya inscriptions]] of an early date. For a survey of publications in this area, see for example Dakin and Wichmann (2000), Macri (2005), Macri and Looper (2003).</ref> However the exact implications of this evidence are not yet agreed upon by the Mesoamericanist community, and the linguistic affiliations of Teotihuacan's populace remain undetermined.<ref>Cowgill (2003), p. 335; Pasztory (1993)</ref> In Mesoamerica the Nahua came into contact with speakers of [[Mayan languages|Mayan]], [[Oto-Manguean languages|Oto-Manguean]] and [[Mixe-Zoquean languages]] who had coexisted for millennia, and whose languages had converged to form the [[Mesoamerican Linguistic Area]]. The earlier nomadic Nahuas adopted many aspects of Mesoamerican culture, which caused proto-Nahuatl to develop new traits similar to the other [[Mesoamerican languages]]. Those traits which are common to all Nahuatl varieties, but are absent in other Uto-Aztecan languages outside of Mesoamerica, are held to date from this period.<ref>Dakin (1994); Kaufman (2001)</ref> Examples of such adopted traits include the use of [[relational noun]]s, the appearance of [[calque]]s, or loan translations, and a form of possessive construction typical of Mesoamerican languages.<ref>Dakin (1994); Kaufman (2001)</ref> The first group to split from the main group of proto-Nahuatl speakers were the [[Pochutec]], who went on to settle on the Pacific coast of [[Oaxaca]], possibly as early as AD 400, arriving in Mesoamerica a few centuries earlier than the main bulk of Nahua peoples.<ref>Suárez (1983), p. 149</ref> The earliest migrations are thought to correspond to the modern peripheral dialects some of which are relatively conservative and do not display much influence from the central dialects.<ref>Canger (1988), p. 64</ref> Some Nahuan groups migrated south along the [[Central America]]n isthmus, reaching as far as [[El Salvador]] and [[Panama]]. They would be ancestral to speakers of modern [[Pipil language|Pipil]].<ref>Discussion on this southern migration may be found in Fowler (1985), p. 38. This is treated also in Kaufman (2001).</ref> Beginning in the 7th century Nahuan speakers rose to power in central Mexico, where they expanded into areas earlier occupied by speakers of [[Oto-Manguean languages|Oto-Manguean]], [[Totonacan languages|Totonacan]] and [[Wastek language|Huastec]] languages.<ref>Kaufman (2001)</ref> The people of the [[Toltec]] culture of [[Tula, Hidalgo]], which was active in central Mexico around the 10th century, are thought to have been Nahuatl speakers, and the traits associated with the central dialects spread within central Mexico in the epi-Toltec period migrations. By the 11th century, Nahuatl speakers were dominant in the [[Valley of Mexico]] and far beyond, with centers such as [[Azcapotzalco]], [[Culhuacan|Colhuacan]] and [[Cholula, Puebla|Cholula]] rising to prominence. Successive Nahua migrations from the north into the region continued into the [[Mesoamerican chronology|Postclassic]] period. One of the last of these migrations to arrive in the valley settled on an island in the [[Lake Texcoco]] and proceeded to subjugate the surrounding tribes. This group were the [[Mexica]] (or Mexihka), who over the course of the next three centuries founded an empire based from [[Tenochtitlan]], their island capital. Their political and linguistic influence came to reach well into Central America and it is well documented that among several non-Nahuan ethnic groups, such as the [[K'iche']] Maya, Nahuatl became a prestige language used for long distance trade and spoken by the elite groups.<ref>Carmack (1981), pp. 142–143</ref> ===Colonial period=== With the arrival of the [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] in 1519 the tables turned for the Nahuatl language, and a new language became dominant. However, because the Spanish allied themselves with the Nahuatl speakers from [[Tlaxcala (Nahua state)|Tlaxcala]] and later with the conquered Aztecs, the Nahuatl language continued spreading throughout Mesoamerica in the decades after the conquest, when Spanish expeditions with thousands of Nahua soldiers marched north and south to conquer new territories. [[Jesuit]] missions in northern Mexico and the [[Southwestern United States|southwestern US]] region often included a ''[[barrio]]'' of Tlaxcaltec soldiers who remained to guard the mission.<ref>For an account of early Spanish missionary activities and expansion into northern Mexico and the southwestern US, see Jackson (2000). The post-conquest presence of Nahua peoples well inside modern-day US territory is well documented. For example, a map of [[Santa Fe, New Mexico]], drawn ca. 1768 by José de Urrutia shows an established ''pueblo'' ("village") or ''barrio'' named Analco spread along the southern bank of the [[Santa Fe River]], opposite to the Spanish town. This settlement of Analco, labelled "E" on the map, is accompanied by the text: ''"Pueblo ò Barrio de Analco que debe su origen à los Tracaltecas que {{nowrap|acompa[ña]ron}} à los primeros Eſpañoles que entraron à la Conquiſta de eſte Reino"'' ("village or quarter of Analco, that owes its origins to the Tlaxcaltecs who accompanied the first Spaniards who entered into the conquest of this region"). See reproduction of the Urrutia map and accompanying text in Wroth (n.d.).</ref> For example, some fourteen years after the northeastern city of [[Saltillo, Coahuila]], was founded in 1577, a Tlaxcaltec community was resettled in a separate nearby village ([[San Esteban de Nueva Tlaxcala]]), to cultivate the land and aid colonization efforts that had stalled in the face of local hostility to the Spanish settlement.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=2005 |title=Saltillo, Coahuila |encyclopedia=Enciclopedia de los Municipios de México |url=http://www.e-local.gob.mx/work/templates/enciclo/coahuila/mpios/05030a.htm |author=INAFED (Instituto Nacional para el Federalismo y el Desarrollo Municipal) |publisher=[[INAFED]], [[Secretaría de Gobernación]] |edition=online version at E-Local |accessdate=2008-03-28}} {{es icon}}. The Tlaxcaltec community remained legally separate until the 19th century.</ref> Spanish conquests to the south of Mexico also often included Tlaxcatecs or other Nahuatl speaking allies.<ref>[[Pedro de Alvarado]] conquered Guatemala with the help of tens of thousands of Tlaxcaltec allies, who then settled outside of modern-day [[Antigua Guatemala|Antigua]]. Similar episodes occurred across [[El Salvador]], [[Nicaragua]] and [[Honduras]], with Nahuatl speakers settling in communities that were often named after them. In Honduras for example, two of these ''barrios'' are called "Mexicapa"; another in El Salvador is called "Mexicanos".</ref> [[Image:Codex florentino 51 9.jpg|left|300px|thumb|Page 51 of Book IX from the [[Florentine Codex]]. The text is in Nahuatl written with a Latin script.]] As a part of their missionary efforts, members of various [[religious orders]] (principally [[Franciscan order|Fransciscan]] [[friar]]s, [[Dominican order|Dominican]] friars and [[Jesuit order|Jesuits]]) introduced the [[Latin alphabet]] to the Nahuas, who were eager to learn to read and write both in Spanish and in their own language. Within the first twenty years after the Spanish arrival, texts were being prepared in the Nahuatl language written in Latin characters.<ref>Lockhart (1991), p. 12; Lockhart (1992) pp. 330–331</ref> Also during this time institutions of learning were founded, such as the [[Colegio de Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco]], inaugurated in 1536, which taught both indigenous and classical European languages to both Indians and [[priest]]s. Missionary grammarians undertook the writing of [[grammar]]s of indigenous languages for use by priests. The first Nahuatl grammar, written by [[Andrés de Olmos]], was published in 1547, three years before the first [[French language|French]] grammar. By 1645 a further four had been published: one by [[Alonso de Molina]] in 1571, one by [[Antonio del Rincón]] in 1595, one by [[Diego de Guzmán]] in 1642, and in 1645, what is today considered the most important Nahuatl grammar, that of [[Horacio Carochi]].<ref>Canger (1980), p. 14</ref> In 1570 King [[Philip II of Spain]] decreed that Nahuatl should become the official language of the colonies of [[New Spain]] in order to facilitate communication between the Spanish and natives of the colonies.<ref>Suárez (1983), p. 165</ref> This led to the Spanish missionaries teaching Nahuatl to Indians who were native speakers of other indigenous languages as far south as [[Honduras]], [[Guatemala]], and [[El Salvador]]. During the 16th and 17th centuries, Classical Nahuatl was used as a literary language, and a large corpus of texts from that period is in existence today. Texts from this period include histories, chronicles, poetry, theatrical works, Christian canonical works, ethnographic description and a wide variety of administrative and mundane documents. The Spanish permitted a great deal of autonomy in the local administration of indigenous towns during this period, and in many Nahuatl speaking towns Nahuatl was the de facto administrative language both in writing and speech. A large body of [[Nahuatl#Literature|Nahuatl literature]] was composed during this period, including the ''[[Florentine Codex]]'', a twelve-volume compendium of Aztec culture compiled by Franciscan [[Bernardino de Sahagún]]; ''[[Crónica Mexicayotl]]'', a chronicle of the royal lineage of Tenochtitlan by [[Fernando Alvarado Tezozómoc]]; ''[[Cantares Mexicanos]]'', a collection of songs in Nahuatl; a Nahuatl-Spanish/Spanish-Nahuatl dictionary compiled by [[Alonso de Molina]]; and the ''[[Huei tlamahuiçoltica]]'', a description in Nahuatl of the apparition of the [[Our Lady of Guadalupe|Virgin of Guadalupe]]. Grammars and dictionaries of indigenous languages were composed throughout the colonial period, but their quality was highest in the initial period and declined towards the ends of the 18th century.<ref>Suárez (1983), p. 5</ref> In practice, the friars found that learning all the indigenous languages was impossible and began to focus on Nahuatl. For a period the linguistic situation in Mesoamerica remained relatively stable, but in 1696 King [[Charles II of Spain|Charles II]] passed a [[decree]] banning the use of any language other than Spanish throughout the [[Spanish Empire]]. In 1770 another decree with the avowed purpose of eliminating the indigenous languages, issued by the [[Royal Cedula]], ended the existence of [[Classical Nahuatl]] as a literary language.<ref>Suárez (1983), p. 165</ref> ===Modern period=== [[Image:Nahuatl dialects map.png|600px|right|thumb|Map showing the areas of Mesoamerica where Nahuatl is spoken today (in White) and where it is known to have been spoken historically (Grey)<ref>Map based on information appearing in Lastra de Suárez (1986), and Fowler (1985).</ref>]] Throughout the modern period the situation of indigenous languages has grown increasingly precarious, and the numbers of speakers of virtually all indigenous languages have dwindled. Although the absolute number of Nahuatl speakers has actually risen over the past century, indigenous populations have become increasingly marginalized in Mexican society. In 1895, Nahuatl was spoken by over 5% of the population. By 2000, this proportion had fallen to 1.49%. Given the process of marginalization combined with the trend of migration to urban areas and to the [[United States]], some linguists are warning of impending language death.<ref>See for example Rolstad (2002), ''passim.''</ref> At present Nahuatl is mostly spoken in rural areas by an impoverished class of indigenous subsistence agriculturists.<ref>According to the Mexican national statistics institute [[INEGI]], 51% of Nahuatl speakers are involved in the farming sector and 6 in 10 receive no wages or less than the minimum wage; see INEGI (2005), pp. 63–73.</ref> Since the early 20th century and until recently, educational policies in Mexico focused on the "hispanification" of indigenous communities, teaching only Spanish and discouraging the use of Nahuatl.<ref>Suárez (1983), p. 167</ref> The result has been that today no group of Nahuatl speakers has general literacy in Nahuatl,<ref>Suárez, (1983), p. 168</ref> while their literacy rate in Spanish also remains much lower than the national average.<ref>INEGI (2005), p. 49</ref> Even so, Nahuatl is still spoken by well over a million people, of whom around 10% are monolingual. Nahuatl as a whole is not imminently endangered, but some of its dialects are severely endangered and others have become extinct within the last few decades of the 20th century.<ref>See discussions in Lastra de Suárez (1986), and Rolstad (2002).</ref> More recent government policy has encouraged the establishment of bilingual schools where at least some of the instruction is in Nahuatl. Although there are still problems, such as lack of textbooks in the Nahuatl of particular regions, or teachers from one dialect assigned to teach children in another region, there is at least some movement towards more widespread literacy in Nahuatl and use of Nahuatl in written form. The ''Ley General de Derechos Lingüísticos de los Pueblos Indígenas'' ("General Law regarding the Linguistic Rights of the Indigenous Peoples"), promulgated on [[13 March]] [[2003]], recognizes all the country's indigenous languages, including Nahuatl, as "national languages" and gives indigenous people the right to use them in all spheres of public and private life.<ref>{{cite web |author=INALI (Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas) |year=n.d. |title=Presentación de la Ley General de Derechos Lingüísticos |url=http://www.inali.gob.mx/ind-leyes.html |work =Difusión de INALI|publisher=INALI, [[Secretariat of Public Education]]|accessdate=2008-03-31}}{{es icon}}</ref> Government-sponsored broadcasting in Nahuatl is also carried by the [[National Commission for the Development of Indigenous Peoples|CDI]]'s radio stations. In February 2008 the [[Head of Government of the Federal District|mayor of Mexico City]], [[Marcelo Ebrard]], launched a drive to have all government employees learn Nahuatl. Ebrard stated he would continue institutionalizing Nahuatl, and that it was important for Mexico to remember its history and its tradition.<ref>{{citation |author=Mica Rosenberg - Reuters |year=2008 |date=[[2008-02-22]] |title=Mexico City mayor wants to revive Aztec language |url=http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/mexico/20080222-1333-mexico-language-.html |format=online edition|place=Mexico City |periodical=[[The San Diego Union-Tribune]] |publication-place=San Diego, CA |publisher=[[Copley Press]] |accessdate=2008-03-25}}</ref> ==Geographic distribution== {{main|Nahuatl dialects|List of Nahuan languages|Nahua peoples}} {| class="wikitable sortable" style="float:right; margin:0 0 0.5em 1em;" |- |+Speakers over 5 years of age in the ten states with most speakers (2000 census). Absolute and relative numbers.<ref>Source: INEGI (2005). Percentages given are in comparison to the total population of the corresponding state.</ref> |- !Region !Totals !Percentages |- |[[Federal District (Mexico)|Federal District]] |align="right"|37,450 |align="right"|0.44% |- |[[Guerrero]] |align="right"|136,681 |align="right"|4.44% |- |[[Hidalgo (Mexico)|Hidalgo]] |align="right"|221,684 |align="right"|9.92% |- |[[Mexico State|Mexico (state)]] |align="right"|55,802 |align="right"|0.43% |- |[[Morelos]] |align="right"|18,656 |align="right"|1.20% |- |[[Oaxaca]] |align="right"|10,979 |align="right"|0.32% |- |[[Puebla]] |align="right"|416,968 |align="right"|8.21% |- |[[San Luis Potosí]] |align="right"|138,523 |align="right"|6.02% |- |[[Tlaxcala]] |align="right"|23,737 |align="right"|2.47% |- |[[Veracruz]] |align="right"|338,324 |align="right"|4.90% |- |Rest of Mexico |align="right"|50,132 |align="right"|0.10% |- class="sortbottom" style="background-color:#F2F2F2;" |'''''Total:''''' |align="right"|1,448,937 |align="right"|1.49% |} A range of [[Nahuatl dialects]] are currently spoken in an area stretching from the northern state of [[Durango]] to [[Veracruz]] in the southeast. [[Pipil language|Pipil]] (also known as ''Nawat''),<ref>See description in Campbell (1985).</ref> the southernmost Nahuan language, is spoken in [[El Salvador]] by a small number of speakers.<ref>According to IRIN-International, the Nawat Language Recovery Initiative project, there are no reliable figures for the contemporary numbers of speakers of Pipil / Nawat. Numbers may range anywhere from ''"perhaps a few hundred people, perhaps only a few dozen."'' See IRIN (2004).</ref> Another Nahuan language, [[Pochutec]], was spoken on the coast of [[Oaxaca]] until [[circa]] 1930.<ref>Boas (1917); Knab (1980)</ref> Based on figures accumulated by [[INEGI]] from the national census conducted in 2000, Nahuatl is spoken by an estimated 1.45&nbsp;million people, some 198,000 (14.9%) of whom are [[monolingual]].<ref>See INEGI (2005), p. 35. In this analysis, monolinguals are counted as those who do not speak Spanish. It may be possible that some also speak other Nahuatl variants, or other indigenous languages.</ref> There is a disparity in monolingualism between males and females, with females representing nearly two-thirds of all monolinguals. The states of Guerrero and Hidalgo have the highest ratios of monolingual Nahuatl speakers, calculated at 24.2% and 22.6%, respectively. The proportion of monolinguals for most other states is less than 5%.<ref>Or put another way, more than 95% of the Nahuatl-speaking population in most states speak at least one other language, most usually Spanish. Nationally, the figure is about 86% of the total. See corresponding tables in INEGI (2005), p. 35.</ref> The largest concentrations of Nahuatl speakers are found in the states of [[Puebla]], [[Veracruz]], [[Hidalgo (Mexico)|Hidalgo]], [[San Luis Potosí]], and [[Guerrero]]. Significant populations are also found in [[Mexico State]], [[Morelos]], and the [[Mexican Federal District|Federal District]], with smaller communities in [[Michoacán]] and [[Durango]]. Nahuatl was formerly spoken in the states of [[Jalisco]] and [[Colima]], where it became extinct during the 20th century. As a result of internal migrations within the country, all Mexico's states today have some isolated pockets and groups of Nahuatl speakers. The modern influx of Mexican workers and families into the [[United States]] has resulted in the establishment of a few small Nahuatl-speaking communities, particularly in [[New York]] and [[California]].<ref>Flores Farfán (2002), p. 229</ref> ==Classification== The terminology used to describe varieties of spoken Nahuatl is inconsistently applied. Many terms are used for differing meanings, or the same groupings go under several names. Sometimes older terms are substituted with newer terms or the speakers' own name for their specific variety. The word ''Nahuatl'' is itself a Nahuatl word, probably derived from the word ''nāwatlahtolli'' ("clear language"). The language was formerly called "Aztec" because it was spoken by the Aztecs, who however didn't call themselves Aztecs but ''mexica'', and their language ''mexicacopa''.<ref>Launey (1992), p. 116</ref> Nowadays the term "Aztec" is rarely used for modern Nahuan languages, but "Aztecan" is used for the Nahuatl languages and dialects when described as the second constituent part of the Uto-Aztecan language family. (This group is also often called "Nahuan".) "General Aztec" is used by some linguists to refer to the Aztecan languages excluding [[Pochutec]].<ref>See for example Canger (1988).</ref> The speakers of Nahuatl themselves often refer to their language as either ''mexicano''<ref>Hill & Hill (1986)</ref> or a word derived from ''mācēhualli'', the Nahuatl word for "commoner". One example of the latter is the case for Nahuatl spoken in [[Tetelcingo, Morelos]], whose speakers call their language ''mösiehual<u>i</u>''.<ref>Tuggy (1979)</ref> The [[Pipil]] of El Salvador do not call their own language "Pipil", as most linguists do, but rather ''nawat''.<ref>Campbell (1985)</ref> The Nahuas of [[Durango]] call their language ''mexicanero''.<ref>Canger (2001)</ref> Speakers of Nahuatl of the [[Isthmus of Tehuantepec]] call their language ''mela'tajtol'' ("the straight language").<ref>Wolgemuth (2002)</ref> Some speech communities also use "Nahuatl" as the name for their language although this seems to be a recent innovation. Linguists commonly identify localized dialects of Nahuatl by adding as a qualifier the name of the village or area where that variety is spoken (for example, "Nahuatl of Acaxochitlan").<ref>Suárez (1983), p. 20</ref> ===Genealogy=== {{main|Uto-Aztecan languages|Nahuatl dialects}} The Nahuatl languages belong to the [[Uto-Aztecan languages|Uto-Aztecan]] [[language family]] which is one of the largest and best studied language families of the Americas. The Nahuatl languages (including Pipil and the extinct Pochutec) are the only members of the "Aztecan" or "Nahuan" subgroup of Uto-Aztecan. The subgroupings of the Nahuan dialects and languages have been the subject of discussions among linguists for the past fifty years. Early classifications rested on the assumption that the basic division of Nahuan languages lay between the languages which had the /tl/ sound and others which had /t/&nbsp;.<ref>Canger (1988)</ref> This assumption was refuted by [[Lyle Campbell]] and [[Ronald Langacker]] in 1978, who showed that all the Aztecan languages had shared the development of */t/ to /tl/ but that subsequently some dialects had changed the /tl/ back to /t/ or /l/&nbsp;.<ref>Campbell and Langacker (1978), p. 306</ref> The most recent authoritative classifications of the Nahuan languages have been done by [[Yolanda Lastra de Suárez]] and by [[Una Canger]].<ref>See Lastra de Suárez's ''Las áreas dialectales del náhuatl moderno'' (Lastra de Suárez, 1986) and Canger's article in ''[[International Journal of American Linguistics|IJAL]]'', "Nahuatl dialectology: A survey and some suggestions" (Canger, 1988).</ref> Both of these approaches were based on dialectological research that focussed on delineating [[isogloss]]es, or linguistic boundaries, based on differences in phonology, grammar and vocabulary. Both classifications define the basic split to be that between ''central'' and ''peripheral'' dialects. The hypothesis presented is that the speakers of peripheral dialects were the first Nahuatl speakers to arrive in Mesoamerica, and that they therefore preserve some slightly archaic features. The speakers of the central dialects who arrived later, among them the Aztecs, introduced linguistic innovations that then spread outwards from the Valley of Mexico aided by the expansion of Aztec hegemony and prestige.<ref>Canger (1988)</ref> The two classifications are largely similar, but differ in their treatment of the dialects from the region of [[La Huasteca]]. Canger places these in the central group, while Lastra de Suárez places them in a separate group. The classification below is based on that of Lastra de Suárez, combined with [[Lyle Campbell]]'s classification for the higher-level groupings. <div style="margin:1em auto; padding:4px; background:#efefef; display:table;"> *'''Uto-Aztecan''' ''5000 BP''<sup>*</sup> **'''Shoshonean''' (a.k.a. '''Northern Uto-Aztecan''') **'''Sonoran'''<sup>**</sup> **'''Aztecan ''' ''2000 BP'' (a.k.a. '''Nahuan''') ***'''Pochutec''' † ''Coast of Oaxaca'' *** '''General Aztec''' (a.k.a. '''Nahuatl''') ****'''Western periphery''' ''Dialects of Durango (Mexicanero), Michoacán, Western Mexico state, extinct dialects of Colima and Nayarit'' ****'''Eastern Periphery''' ''Pipil language and dialects of Sierra de Puebla, southern Veracruz and Tabasco (Isthmus dialects)'' ****'''Huasteca''' ''Dialects of northern Puebla, Hidalgo, San Luis Potosí and northern Veracruz'' ****'''Center''' ''Dialects of central Puebla, Tlaxcala, central Veracruz, Morelos, Mexico state, central and southern Guerrero'' </div> <small> :<sup>*</sup>Estimated split date by [[glottochronology]] ''(BP = years Before Present).'' :<sup>**</sup>Some scholars continue to classify Aztecan and Sonoran together under a separate group (called variously "Sonoran", "Mexican", or "Southern Uto-Aztecan"). There is increasing evidence that whatever degree of additional resemblance there might be between Aztecan and Sonoran when compared with Shoshonean is probably due to proximity contact, rather than to a common immediate parent stock other than Uto-Aztecan. </small> ==Phonology== Nahuan is defined as a subgroup of Uto-Aztecan by having undergone a number of shared changes from the [[Proto-Uto-Aztecan language|Uto-Aztecan proto-language]] (PUA) since the original speakers of Nahuan split from the main Uto-Aztecan group. These changes shared by all Nahuan languages are the basis for the reconstruction of an intermediate stage called [[Proto-Nahuan]] (PN) from which the modern Nahuan languages have since developed. The table below shows the [[Phoneme|phonemic]] inventory of Classical Nahuatl, as an example of a typical Nahuan language. Many modern dialects have undergone changes from proto-Nahuan that have resulted in different phonemic inventories. For example some dialects do not have the {{IPA|/t͡ɬ/}} phoneme that is so common in classical Nahuatl, but have instead changed it into {{IPA|/t/}} as it has happened in [[Isthmus-Mecayapan Nahuatl]], [[Mexicanero]] and [[Pipil language|Pipil]] or into {{IPA|/l/}} as it has happened in Nahuatl of [[Pómaro]], [[Michoacán]].<ref>Sischo (1979)</ref> Many dialects no longer distinguish between short and long [[vowel]]s. Some have introduced completely new vowel qualities to compensate for this, as is the case for [[Tetelcingo Nahuatl]].<ref>Tuggy (1979)</ref> Others developed a [[pitch accent]], such as Nahuatl of [[Oapan]], [[Guerrero]].<ref>Amith (1989)</ref> Many modern dialects have also introduced new phonemes such as {{IPA|/b, d, ɡ, f/}} under influence from [[Spanish language|Spanish]]. ===Sounds=== {{col-begin}} {{col-2}} {| class="wikitable" |+The consonants of classical Nahuatl ! colspan="1" | &nbsp; ! [[Labial consonant|Labial]] ! [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]] ! [[Postalveolar consonant|Post-<br>alveolar]] ! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]] ! [[Velar consonant|Velar]] ! [[Labiovelar consonant|Labio-<br>velar]] ! [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]] |-align=center ! rowspan="1" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]] | {{IPA|m}} || {{IPA|n}} || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; |-align=center ! [[Plosive consonant|Plosive]] | {{IPA|p}} || {{IPA|t}} || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|kʷ}} || {{IPA|ʔ}} ({{IPA|h}})* |-align=center ! [[Affricate consonant|Affricate]] | &nbsp; || {{IPA|t͡ɬ&nbsp;/&nbsp;t͡s}} || {{IPA|t͡ʃ}} || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; |-align=center ! [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]] | &nbsp; || {{IPA|s}} || {{IPA|ʃ}} || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; |-align=center ! [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]] | &nbsp; || {{IPA|l}} || &nbsp; || {{IPA|j}} || &nbsp; || {{IPA|w}} || &nbsp; |} {{col-2}} {| class="wikitable" |+The vowels of classical Nahuatl ! rowspan="2"| &nbsp; ! colspan="2" | [[Front vowel|Front]] ! colspan="2" | [[Central vowel|Central]] ! colspan="2" | [[Back vowel|Back]] |-align=center class=small !long || short || long || short || long || short |-align=center ![[Close vowel|Close]] |{{IPA|iː}}||{{IPA|i}}|| || ||rowspan="2"|{{IPA|oː}}||rowspan="2"|{{IPA|o}} |-align=center ! [[Mid vowel|Mid]] | {{IPA|eː}}|| {{IPA|e}} || |-align=center ! [[Open vowel|Open]] | || ||{{IPA|aː}} ||{{IPA|a}} || || |} {{col-end}} :<nowiki>*</nowiki> The glottal phoneme (called the "[[Saltillo (linguistics)|saltillo]]") only occurs after vowels. In many modern dialects it is realized as an [h], but in classical Nahuatl and in other modern dialects it is a glottal stop {{IPA|[ʔ]}}. Nahuatl generally has stress on the penultimate syllable of a word, but some varieties have changed this. Mexicanero Nahuat from Durango has lost many unstressed syllables and now has phonemic stress,<ref>Canger (2001), p. 29</ref> and Pochutec had the accent on the last syllable of the word.<ref>Boas (1917)</ref> ===Allophony=== [[Allophone|Allophony]], in Nahuatl, is not very rich in most varieties: In many dialects the voiced consonants are often devoiced in wordfinal position and in consonant clusters: /j/ devoices to a [[Voiceless postalveolar fricative|voiceless palatal sibilant]] /{{IPA|ʃ}}/,<ref>Launey (1992) p.16</ref> /w/ devoices to a [[voiceless glottal fricative]] [h] or to a [[voiceless labialized velar approximant]] {{IPA|[ʍ]}} and /l/ devoices to [[voiceless alveolar lateral]] [{{IPA|ɬ}}]. In some dialects the first consonant in almost any consonant cluster becomes [h]. Some dialects have productive [[lenition]] of [[voiceless]] consonants into their voiced counterparts between vowels. The [[Nasal consonant|nasal]]s are normally [[assimilation (linguistics)|assimilated]] to the place of articulation of a following consonant. The [[voiceless lateral affricate]] {{IPA|[t͡ɬ]}} is assimilated after /l/ and pronounced as [l].<ref>Launey (1992) p.26</ref> ===Phonotactics=== Classical Nahuatl and most of the modern varieties have fairly simple phonological systems. They allow only syllables with maximally one initial and one final consonant. Consonant clusters only occur wordmedially and over syllable boundaries. Some [[morpheme]]s have two alternating forms, one with a vowel ''i'' to prevent consonant clusters, and one without. For example, the [[absolutive]] [[suffix]] has the variant forms – ''tli'' (used after consonants) and – ''tl'' (used after vowels).<ref>Launey (1992) pp. 19–22</ref> Some modern varieties however have formed complex clusters due to vowel loss. Others have contracted syllable sequences, causing accents to shift or vowels to become long.<ref>See eg Sischo (1979) p. 312 for a brief description of these phenomena in Nahual of Michoacán</ref> ===Reduplication=== Many varieties of Nahuatl have [[Productivity (linguistics)|productive]] [[reduplication]]. By reduplicating the first syllable of a [[Root (linguistics)|root]] a new word is formed. In nouns this is often used to form plurals, e.g. /''tla:katl''/ "man" > /''tla:tla:kah''/ "men", but also in some varieties to form [[diminutive]]s, [[honorific]]s, or for [[derivation (linguistics)|derivation]]s.<ref>Launey (1992) p.27 </ref> In verbs reduplication is often used to form a reiterative (expressing repetition), or to intensify the meaning of the verb. E.g. /''kitta''/ "he sees it", /''kihitta''/ "he looks at it repeatedly" and /''ki:itta''/ "he stares at it". ==Grammar== {{see also|Classical Nahuatl grammar}} The Nahuatl languages are [[Agglutinative language|agglutinative]], [[Polysynthetic language|polysynthetic]] languages that make extensive use of compounding, incorporation and derivation. That is, they can add many different [[Prefix (linguistics)|prefixes]] and [[suffix]]es to a [[Root (linguistics)|root]] until very long words are formed – and a single word can constitute an entire sentence. The following [[verb]] shows how the verb is marked for [[Subject (grammar)|subject]], [[Patient (grammar)|patient]], [[Object (grammar)|object]], and indirect object: ::''ni-mit͡s-te:-t͡la-maki:-lti:-s'' ::I-you-someone-something-give-<small>CAUSATIVE-FUTURE</small> ::"I shall make somebody give something to you"<ref>All examples given in this section and subsections are from Suárez (1983), pp. 61–63 unless otherwise noted. Glosses have been standardized.</ref> (Classical Nahuatl) ===Nouns=== The Nahuatl noun is relatively complex with some inflectional categories.<ref>Suaréz (1983), p. 63</ref> It is only obligatorily inflected for number and possession. Noun compounds are commonly formed by combining two or more nominal stem, or combining a noun stem with other kinds of stems such as adjectives or verbs. Nahuatl has neither [[Grammatical case|case]] nor [[grammatical gender|gender]], but Classical Nahuatl and some modern dialects distinguish between [[Animacy|animate]] and inanimate nouns which behave differently with respect to pluralization. In most varieties of Nahuatl most nouns in the unpossessed singular form take a suffix traditionally called an "absolutive". The most common forms of the absolutive are ''-tl'' after vowels, ''-tli'' after consonants other than ''l'', and ''-li'' after ''l''. Nahuatl distinguishes only singular and plural forms of nouns. Plural forms of nouns are normally formed by adding a [[suffix]], although some words form irregular plurals by using [[reduplication]]. In Classical Nahuatl only animate nouns could take a plural form, whereas all inanimate nouns were uncountable (like the words "bread" and "money" are uncountable in English). Nowadays many dialects do not maintain this distinction and allow all nouns to be pluralized, although most inanimates and sometimes animates often show the common number pattern, i.e. their absolutive form can be understood as either singular or plural. {{col-begin}} {{col-2}} Singular noun: :''{{IPA|kojo-t͡l}}'' :coyote-<small>ABSOLUTIVE</small> :"coyote" (Classical Nahuatl) {{col-2}} Plural animate noun: :''{{IPA|kojo-meh}}'' :coyote-<small>PLURAL</small> :"coyotes" (Classical Nahuatl) {{col-end}} Nahuatl distinguishes between possessed and unpossessed forms of nouns. As mentioned above, the absolutive suffix is not used on possessed nouns. In all dialects possessed nouns take a prefix agreeing with number and person of its possessor. {{col-begin}} {{col-2}} Absolutive noun: :''{{IPA|kal-li}}'' :house-<small>ABSOLUTIVE</small> :"house" (Classical Nahuatl) {{col-2}} Possessed noun: :''{{IPA|no-kal}}'' :my-house :"my house" (Classical Nahuatl) {{col-end}} Nahuatl does not have [[grammatical case]] but uses what is sometimes called a [[relational noun]] to describe spatial (and other) relations. These [[morpheme]]s cannot appear alone but must always occur after a noun or a possessive prefix. They are also often called [[postposition]]s<ref>For example by Hill & Hill (1986) in their description of Malinche Nahuatl grammar</ref> or locative suffixes.<ref>for example by Launey (1992) in Chapter 13 where he describes this construction in classical Nahuatl</ref> In some ways these locative constructions resemble, and can be thought of as, locative case constructions. Most modern dialects have incorporated [[prepositions]] from Spanish that are competing with or that have completely replaced relational nouns.<ref>Suárez (1977)</ref> {{col-begin}} {{col-2}} Uses of relational noun/postposition/locative ''-pan'' with a possessive prefix: :''{{IPA|no-pan}}'' :my-in/on :"in/on me" (Classical Nahuatl) :''{{IPA|i:-pan}}'' :its-in/on :"in/on it" (Classical Nahuatl) :''{{IPA|i:-pan kal-li}}'' :its-in house-<small>ABSOLUTIVE</small> :"in the house" (Classical Nahuatl) {{col-2}} Use with a preceding noun stem: :''{{IPA|kal-pan}}'' :house-in :"in the house" (Classical Nahuatl) {{col-end}} ===Pronouns=== Nahuatl generally distinguishes three persons – both in the singular and plural numbers. In at least one modern dialect, the [[Isthmus-Mecayapan Nahuatl|Isthmus-Mecayapan]] variety, there has come to be a distinction between [[Clusivity|inclusive]] (I/we and you) and [[Clusivity|exclusive]] (we but not you) forms of the first person plural:<ref>Wolgemuth (2002)</ref> {{col-begin}} {{col-2}} First person plural pronoun in Classical Nahuatl: :''{{IPA|tehwa:ntin}}'' "we" {{col-2}} First person plural pronouns in Isthmus-Mecayapan Nahuat: :''nejamēn'' ({{IPA|[nehame:n]}}) "We but not you" :''tejamēn'' ({{IPA|[tehame:n]}}) "We, I and you (and others)"<ref>Wolgemuth (2002), p. 35</ref> {{col-end}} Much more common is an honorific/non-honorific distinction, usually applied to second and third persons but not first. {{col-begin}} {{col-2}} Non-honorific forms: :''{{IPA|tehwa:tl}}'' "you sg." :''{{IPA|amehwa:ntin}}'' "you pl." :''{{IPA|yehwatl}}'' "he/she/it" {{col-2}} Honorific forms :''{{IPA|tehwa:tzin}}'' "you sg. honorific" :''{{IPA|amehwa:ntzitzin}}'' "you pl. honorific" :''{{IPA|yehwa:tzin}}'' "he/she honorific" {{col-end}} ===Verbs=== The Nahuatl verb is quite complex and inflects many grammatical categories.<ref>Suárez (1983) p. 61</ref> The verb is composed of a root which can take both prefixes and suffixes. The person of the subject, and person and number of the object and indirect object is expressed by agreement prefixes, whereas tense, aspect, mood and subject number is expressed by suffixes. Most Nahuatl dialects distinguish present, past and future tenses and [[Perfective aspect|perfective]] and [[imperfective aspect]]s. Some varieties have [[Continuous and progressive aspects|progressive]] or habitual aspects. As for moods all dialects distinguish indicative and imperative moods and some also have optative and vetative moods. Most Nahuatl varieties have a number of ways to alter the [[Valency (linguistics)|valency]] of a verb. Classical Nahuatl had a [[passive voice]], but this is not found in most modern varieties. However the [[Applicative voice|applicative]] and [[causative voice]]s are found in many modern dialects.<ref>Suárez (1983), p. 81</ref> Many Nahuatl varieties also allow forming verbal compounds with two or more verbal roots. The following verbal form has two verbal roots and is inflected for causative voice and both a direct and indirect object: :''{{IPA|ni-kin-t͡la-kwa-lti:-s-neki}}'' :I-them-something-eat-<small>CAUSATIVE-FUTURE</small>-want :"I want to feed them" (Classical Nahuatl) Some Nahuatl varieties, notably Classical Nahuatl, can inflect the verb to show the direction of the verbal action going away from or towards the speaker. Some also have specific inflectional categories showing purpose and direction and such complex notions as "to go in order to" or "to come in order to", "go, do and return", "do while going", "do while coming", "do upon arrival", or "go around doing". Classical Nahuatl and many modern dialects have grammaticalised ways to express politeness towards addressees or even towards people or things that are being mentioned, by using special verb forms and special "honorific suffixes".<ref>Suárez (1977), p. 61</ref> {{col-begin}} {{col-2}} Familiar verbal form: :''{{IPA|ti-mo-t͡la:lo-a}}'' :you-yourself-run-<small>PRESENT</small> :"you run"(Classical Nahuatl) {{col-2}} Honorific verbal form: :''{{IPA|ti-mo-t͡la:lo-t͡sino-a}}'' :you-yourself-run-<small>HONORIFIC-PRESENT</small> :"You run"(said with respect) (Classical Nahuatl) {{col-end}} ===Syntax=== The [[syntax]] of modern and Classical Nahuatl has been a topic of numerous studies. Some linguists, notably [[Mark Baker (linguist)|Mark Baker]], have argued that Nahuatl displays the properties of a [[non-configurational language]], meaning that word order in Nahuatl is basically free.<ref>See Baker (1998) ''passim.'' for an advancement of this argument.</ref> He notes that Nahuatl allows all possible inversions of the basic sentence constituents, allows [[pro-drop]] of all direct arguments of a [[Predicate (grammar)|predicate]], and that certain kinds of syntactically discontinuous expressions are allowed. The widest accepted conclusion is that Nahuatl originally has a basic verb initial word order but with extensive freedom for variation which is then used to encode [[pragmatics|pragmatic]] functions such as [[Focus (linguistics)|focus]] and [[Topic (linguistics)|topicality]].<ref>Launey (1992), pp. 36–37</ref> For example in most varieties independent [[pronoun]]s are used only for emphasis. :''newal no-nobia'' :I my-fianceé :"'''My''' fiancée "(and not anyone else’s) (Michoacán Nahual)<ref>Sischo (1979) p.314</ref> Some Nahuatl scholars such as [[Michel Launey]]<ref>Launey (1994)</ref> and [[J. Richard Andrews]]<ref>Andrews (2003)</ref> have argued that classical Nahuatl syntax is best characterised by what Launey calls "omnipredicativity", meaning that any noun or verb in the language is in fact a full predicative sentence. This is a radical interpretation of Nahuatl syntactic typology, that nonetheless seems to account for some of its peculiarities, for example, why nouns must also carry the same agreement prefixes as verbs, and why predicates do not require any noun phrases to function as their arguments. For example the verbal form "''tzahtzi''" means "he/she/it shouts", and with the second person prefix ''titzahtzi'' it means "you shout". Nouns are inflected in the same way: the noun "''konētl''" means not just "child", but also "it is a child", and ''tikonētl'' means "you are a child". This prompts the omnipredicative interpretation which posits that all nouns are also predicates, and that a phrase such as "''tzahtzi in konētl''" should not be interpreted as meaning just "the child screams" but, more correctly, "it screams, (the one that) is a child".<ref>Launey 1994 ''passim''.</ref> ===Contact phenomena=== Nearly 500 years of intense contact between speakers of Nahuatl and speakers of [[Spanish language|Spanish]], combined with the minority status of Nahuatl and the higher prestige associated with Spanish has caused many changes in modern Nahuatl varieties, with large numbers of words borrowed from Spanish into Nahuatl, and the introduction of new syntactic constructions and grammatical categories. For example, a construction like the following, with several borrowed words and particles, is common in many modern varieties (Spanish loanwords in boldface): :'''''pero''' āmo tēch'''entender'''oah '''lo que''' tlen tictoah '''en mexicano''''' :but not they-us-understand-<small>PLURAL</small> that which what we-it-say in Nahuatl :"But they don't understand what we say in Nahuatl" (Malinche Nahuatl)<ref>Hill and Hill (1986), p.317</ref><ref>The words ''pero'', ''entender'', ''lo-que'', and ''en'' are all from Spanish. The use of the suffix -oa on a Spanish infinitive like ''entender'', enabling the use of other Nahuatl verbal affixes, is standard. The sequence ''lo que tlen'' combines Spanish ''lo que'' 'what' with Nahuatl ''tlen'' (also meaning 'what') to mean (what else) 'what'. ''en'' is a preposition and heads a prepositional phrase; traditionally Nahuatl had postpositions or relational nouns rather than prepositions. The stem ''mexihka'', related to the name ''mexihko'', 'Mexico', is of Nahuatl origin, but the suffix ''-ano'' is from Spanish, and it is probable that the whole word ''mexicano'' is a re-borrowing from Spanish back into Nahuatl.</ref> In some modern dialects basic word order has become a fixed [[Subject Verb Object]], probably under influence from Spanish.<ref>See for example Hill & Hill (1986)</ref> Other changes in the syntax of modern Nahuatl includes the usage of Spanish prepositions instead of postpositions or relational nouns and the reinterpretation of original postpositions/relational nouns into prepositions. In the following example, from Michoacán Nahual, the postposition -''ka'' meaning "with" appears used as a preposition, with no preceding object: :''ti-ya ti-k-wika ka tel'' :you-go you-it-carry with you :"are you going to carry it with you?" (Michoacán Nahual)<ref>Sischo (1979) p.314</ref> And, in this example from [[Mexicanero]] Nahuat, of [[Durango]], the original postposition/relational noun -''pin'' "in/on" is used as a preposition. "porque", a preposition borrowed from Spanish, also occurs in the sentence. :''amo wel kalaki-yá pin kal porke ¢akwa-tiká im pwerta'' : not can he-enter-<small>PAST</small> in house because it-closed-was the door :"He couldn't enter the house because the door was closed" (Mexicanero Nahuat)<ref>Canger(2001) p.116</ref> Many dialects have also undergone a degree of simplification of their morphology which has caused some scholars to consider them to have ceased to be [[polysynthesis|polysynthetic]].<ref>see discussion on the loss of polysynthesis in Malinche Nahuatl in Hill & Hill (1986) pp.249–340</ref> ==Vocabulary== {{main|Words of Nahuatl origin}} [[Image:Currant tomato.jpg|200px|left|thumb|The tomato is native to Mexico and the Aztecs called the red variety "xitōmatl" whereas the green [[Currant tomato]] was called "tōmatl" – the source for the English word "tomato".]] Many Nahuatl words have been [[Loanword|borrowed]] into the [[Spanish language]], most of which are terms designating things indigenous to the American continent. Some of these loans are restricted to Mexican or Central American Spanish, but others have entered all the varieties of Spanish in the world. A number of them, such as "chocolate", "tomato" and "avocado" have made their way into many other languages via Spanish. Likewise a number of English words have been borrowed from Nahuatl through Spanish. Two of the most prominent are undoubtedly [[chocolate]]<ref>While there is no real doubt that the word "chocolate" comes from Nahuatl, the commonly given Nahuatl etymology /''{{IPA|ʃokola:tl}}''/ "bitter water" no longer seems to be tenable. Dakin and Wichmann (2000) suggest the correct etymology to be /''čikola:tl''/ - a word found in several modern Nahuatl dialects.</ref> and [[tomato]] (from Nahuatl ''tomatl''). Other common words such as [[coyote]] (from Nahuatl ''coyotl''), [[avocado]] (from Nahuatl ''ahuacatl'') and [[Chili pepper|chile or chili]] (from Nahuatl ''chilli''). The word [[chicle]] is also derived from Nahuatl ''tzictli'' "sticky stuff, chicle". Some other English words from Nahuatl are: [[Aztec]], (from ''aztecatl''); [[cacao]] (from Nahuatl ''cacahuatl'' 'shell, rind');<ref>Dakin and Wichmann (2000)</ref> [[ocelot]] (from ''ocelotl'').<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|editor=Joseph P. Pickett ''et al.'' |year=2000 |url=http://www.bartleby.com/61/38/O0023800.html |title=ocelot |encyclopedia=The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language |edition=4th ed., online version |location=Boston, MA |publisher=Houghton Mifflin}}</ref> In Mexico many words for common everyday concepts attest to the close contact between Spanish and Nahuatl, so many in fact that entire dictionaries of "''mexicanismos''" (words particular to Mexican Spanish) have been published tracing Nahuatl etymologies, as well as Spanish words with origins in other indigenous languages. Many well-known [[wikt:toponym|toponyms]] also come from Nahuatl, including ''Mexico'' (from the Nahuatl word for the Aztec capital ''mexihco'') and ''Guatemala'' (from the word ''cuauhtēmallan'').<ref>The Mexica used the word for the [[Kaqchikel]] capital [[Iximche]] in central Guatemala, but the word was extended to the entire zone in colonial times; see Carmack (1981), p. 143.</ref> ==Writing and literature== ===Writing=== {{Main|Nahuatl orthography}} {{see also|Aztec writing|Aztec Codices}} [[Image:Aztecwriting.jpg|100p|right|thumb|The placenames ''Mapachtepec'' ("Raccoon Hill"), ''Mazatlan'' ("Deer Place") and ''Huitztlan'' ("Thorn Place") written in the Aztec writing system. From the [[Codex Mendoza]].]] Precolumbian Aztec writing used three basic means of expression: direct representation, or pictures of what was expressed; [[ideogram]]s or [[logogram]]s symbolically representing a thing or concept; and, to some degree, [[phonetic transcription]], employing [[logogram]]s meant to represent only the sound of a given word, to be interpreted according to the [[rebus]] principle. This writing system was adequate for keeping such records as genealogies, astronomical information, and tribute lists, but could not represent a full vocabulary of spoken language in the way that the writing systems of the old world or that of the [[Maya civilization]] could. Aztec writing was not meant to be read, but to be told; the elaborate codices were essentially pictographic aids for teaching, and long texts were memorized.<ref>Lockhart (1992), pp. 327–329</ref> The Spanish introduced the [[Roman script]], which was used to record a large body of Aztec prose, poetry and mundane documentation such as testaments, administrative documents, legal letters, etc. In a matter of decades pictorial writing was completely replaced with the Latin alphabet.<ref>Lockhart (1992), pp.330–335</ref> No standardized Latin orthography has been developed for Nahuatl, and no general consensus has arisen for the representation of many sounds in Nahuatl that are lacking in Spanish, such as long vowels and the [[glottal stop]].<ref>Canger (2002), see in particular discussion on pp. 200–204.</ref> The orthography most accurately representing the phonemes of Nahuatl was developed in the 17th century by the [[Jesuit]] [[Horacio Carochi]]. Carochi's orthography used two different accents: a [[macron]] to represent long vowels and a [[grave accent|grave]] for the ''saltillo'', and sometimes an acute accent for short vowels.<ref>Whorf ''et al.'' (1993)</ref> This orthography did not achieve a wide following outside of the Jesuit community. When Nahuatl became the subject of focused linguistic studies in the 20th century, linguists acknowledged the need to represent all the phonemes of the language. Several practical orthographies were developed to transcribe the language, many using the [[Americanist phonetic notation|Americanist transcription]] system. With the establishment of Mexico's [[Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas]] in 2004, new attempts to create standardized orthographies for the different dialects were resumed; however to this day there is no single official orthography for Nahuatl. Apart from dialectal differences, major issues in transcribing Nahuatl include:<ref>Canger (2002), see discussion on pp. 200–204</ref> *whether or not to follow Spanish orthographic practice and write /k/ with ''c'' and ''qu'', /{{IPA|kʷ}}/ with ''cu'', /s/ with ''c''/''z'' or ''s'', and /w/ with ''hu'' or ''u''. *how to write the "[[Saltillo (linguistics)|saltillo]]" phoneme (in some dialects pronounced as a [[glottal stop]] {{IPA|[ʔ]}} and in others as an {{IPA|[h]}}), which has been spelled with ''j'', ''h'', ' (apostrophe), or a grave accent on the preceding vowel, but which traditionally has often been omitted in writing.<ref>Canger (2002), p. 203</ref> *whether and how to represent vowel length, e.g. by double vowels or by the use of macrons. ===Literature=== {{main|Mesoamerican literature}} Among the [[indigenous languages of the Americas]], Nahuatl's extensive corpus of surviving literature dating back to the 16th and 17th centuries may be considered unique.<ref>Canger (2002), p. 300</ref> Nahuatl literature encompasses a diverse array of genres and styles, the documents themselves composed under many different circumstances. It appears that the pre-conquest Nahua had a distinction much like the European distinction between "[[prose]]" and "[[poetry]]", the first called ''tlahtolli'' "speech" and the second ''cuicatl'' "song".<ref>León-Portilla (1985), p. 12</ref> Nahuatl ''tlahtolli'' prose has been preserved in different forms. Annals and chronicles recount history, normally written from the perspective of a particular ''[[altepetl]]'' (locally based [[polity]]) and often combining mythical accounts with real events. Important works in this genre include those from [[Chalco]] written by [[Chimalpahin]], from [[History of Tlaxcala|Tlaxcala]] by [[Diego Muñoz Camargo]], from Mexico-Tenochtitlan by [[Fernando Alvarado Tezozomoc]] and those of Texcoco by [[Fernando de Alva Cortés Ixtlilxochitl|Fernando Alva Ixtlilxochitl]]. Many annals recount history year-by-year and are normally written by anonymous authors. These works are sometimes evidently based on pre-Columbian pictorial year counts that existed, such as the [[Cuautitlán|Cuauhtitlan]] annals and the [[Anales de Tlatelolco]]. Purely mythological narratives are also found, like the "Legend of the [[Five Suns]]", the Aztec [[creation myth]] recounted in Codex Chimalpopoca. One of the most important works of prose written in Nahuatl is the twelve-volume compilation generally known as the ''[[Florentine Codex]]'', produced in the mid-16th century by the [[Franciscan]] missionary [[Bernardino de Sahagún]] with the help of a number of Nahua informants. With this work Sahagún bestowed an enormous ethnographic description of the Nahua, written in side-by-side translations of Nahuatl and Spanish and illustrated throughout by color plates drawn by indigenous painters. Its volumes cover a diverse range of topics: Aztec history, material culture, social organization, religious and ceremonial life, rhetorical style and metaphors. The twelfth volume provides an indigenous perspective on the conquest itself. Sahagún also made a point of trying to document the richness of the Nahuatl language, stating: {{Cquote|This work is like a dragnet to bring to light all the words of this language with their exact and metaphorical meanings, and all their ways of speaking, and most of their practices good and evil.<ref>Sahagún (1950–82), part I:47</ref>}} Nahuatl poetry is preserved in principally two sources: the ''[[Cantares Mexicanos]]'' and the ''[[Romances de los señores de Nueva España]]'', both collections of Aztec songs written down in the 16th and 17th centuries. Some songs may have been preserved through oral tradition from pre-conquest times until the time of their writing, for example the songs attributed to the poet-king of Texcoco, [[Nezahualcoyotl]]. Lockhart and Karttunen identify more than four distinct styles of songs, e.g. the ''icnocuicatl'' ("sad song"), the ''xopancuicatl'' ("song of spring"), ''melahuaccuicatl'' ("plain song") and ''yaocuicatl'' ("song of war"), each with distinct stylistic traits.<ref>Lockhart and Karttunen (1980)</ref> Aztec poetry makes rich use of metaphoric imagery and themes and are lamentation of the brevity of human existence, the celebration of valiant warriors who die in battle, and the appreciation of the beauty of life.<ref>León-Portilla (1985), pp. 12–20</ref> ===Stylistics=== The Aztecs distinguished between the at least two social registers of language: the language of commoners (''macehuallahtolli'') and the language of the nobility (''tecpillahtolli''). The latter was marked by the use of a distinct rhetorical style. Since literacy was confined mainly to these higher social classes, most of the existing prose and poetical documents were written in this style. An important feature of this high rhetorical style of formal oratory was the use of parallelism,<ref>Bright (1990)</ref> whereby the orator structured their speech in [[couplet]]s consisting of two parallel phrases. For example: :''ye maca timiquican'' :"May we not die" :''ye maca tipolihuican'' :"May we not perish"<ref>Bright (1990), p. 440</ref> Another kind of parallelism used is referred to by modern linguists as ''[[difrasismo]]'', in which two phrases are symbolically combined to give a [[metaphor]]ical reading. Classical Nahuatl was rich in such diphrasal metaphors, and a number of the primary-source language commentaries such as Sahagún's Florentine Codex and [[Andrés de Olmos]]' ''Arte'' describe and give examples of this particular rhetoric trait. Such difrasismos include: :''in xochitl, in cuicatl'' :"The flower, the song" – meaning "poetry"<ref>Sahagún (1950–82), vol. VI fol. 202V</ref> :''in cuitlapilli, in atlapalli'' :"the tail, the wing" – meaning "the common people"<ref>Sahagún (1950–82), vol. VI fol. 202V</ref> :''in toptli, in petlacalli'' :"the chest, the box" meaning "something secret"<ref>Sahagún (1950–82), vol. VI fol. 203R</ref> :''in yollohtli, in eztli'' :"the heart, the blood" – meaning "cacao"<ref>Sahagún (1950–82), vol. VI fol. 211V</ref> :''in iztlactli, in tenqualactli'' :"the drool, the spittle" – meaning "lies"<ref>Sahagún (1950–82), vol. VI fol. 207V</ref> ==Sample text== The sample text below is an excerpt from a statement issued in Nahuatl by [[Emiliano Zapata]] in 1918 in order to convince the Nahua towns in the area of Tlaxcala to join the [[Mexican Revolution|Revolution]] against the regime of [[Venustiano Carranza]]. It is quoted from [[Miguel León-Portilla|León-Portilla]]'s book ''Los Manifiestos en Náhuatl de Emiliano Zapata'' (1978). The orthography employed in the letter is improvised, and does not distinguish long vowels and only sporadically marks "saltillo" (with both <nowiki><h></nowiki> and accute accent), The original orthography has been retained.<ref>It has only been modified to reflect word boundaries better than the original.</ref> {| border="0" width="100%" text-align: center;" |- {{col-begin}} {{col-2}} '''''Tlanahuatil Panoloani''''' ''An Altepeme de non cate itech nin tlalpan'' <br> ''de netehuiloya den tlanahuatiani Arenas. '' ''Axcan cuan nonques tlalticpacchanéhque'' <br> ''de non altepeme tlami quitzetzeloa'' <br> ''neca tliltic amo cuali nemiliz Carrancista,'' <br> ''noyolo pahpaqui'' <br> ''ihuan itech nin mahuiztica, '' <br> ''intoca netehuiloanime tlatzintlaneca,'' <br> ''ihuan nanmechtitlanilia'' <br> ''ze páhpaquilizticatlápaloli'' <br> ''ihuan ica nochi noyolo'' <br> ''niquinyolehua nonques altepeme'' <br> ''aquihque cate quichihuazque netehuiliztle'' <br> ''ipampa meláhqui tlanahuatil'' <br> ''ihuan amo nen motenecahuilia <br> ''quitlahtlaczazque''<br> ''in anmocualinemiliz.'' <br> ''tiquintlahpaloa nonques netehuiloanime'' <br> ''tlen mocuepan ican nin yolopaquilizticatequi,'' <br> ''ihuan quixnamiqui in nexicoaliztle'' <br> ''ipan non huei tehuile'' <br> ''tlen aic hueliti tlami nian aic tlamiz'' <br> ''zeme ica nitlamiliz in tliltic oquichtlanahuatiani, '' <br> ''de neca moxicoani, teca mocaya '' <br> ''de non zemihcac teixcuepa'' <br> ''tlen itoca Venustiano Carranza'' <br> ''que quimahuizquixtia in netehuiliztle'' <br> ''ihuan quipinahtia totlalticpacnantzi "Mexico"'' <br> ''zeme quimahuizpolóhtica.'' <br>'' {{col-2}} '''Message to be passed around''' To the towns that are located in the area <br> that fought under General Arenas. Now, that the dwellers of this earth, <br> of those towns, finish shaking out <br> that black, evil life of the Carrancismo <br> my heart is very happy <br> and with the dignity <br> in the name of those who fight in the ranks, <br> and to You all I send <br> a happy greeting. <br> and with all of my heart <br> I invite those towns, <br> those who are there, to join the fight <br> for a righteous mandate <br> to not vainly issue statements, <br> to not allow to be done away with <br> your good way of life. <br> We salute those fighters<br> who turn towards this joyous labour <br> and confront the greed <br> in this great war, <br> which can never end, nor will ever end <br> until the end of the black tyrant<br> of that glutton, who mocks <br> and always cheat people <br> and whose name is Venustiano Carranza, <br> who takes the glory out of war <br> and who shames our motherland, Mexico <br> completely dishonouring it. {{col-end}} |} ==See also== *[[List of Spanish words of Indigenous American Indian origin]] *[[Mexican Spanish]] ==Notes== {{reflist|2}} ==Bibliography== {{ref indent}}<!-- BEGIN hanging indent style. Please use a colon (:) instead of asterisk (*) for bullet markers in the references list --> {{refbegin}} <!--Begin refs-small style --> :{{cite conference|author={{aut|Amith, Jonathan D.}}|year=1989| title = Acento en el nahuatl de Oapan|booktitle=Presentation to the Seminario de Lenguas Indígenas, Instituto de Investigaciones Filológicas-UNAM |publisher=[[National Autonomous University of Mexico]]|location=México D.F.}} {{es icon}} :{{cite book |author={{aut|Baker, Mark C.}} |authorlink=Mark Baker (linguist)|year=1996|title=The Polysynthesis Parameter|series=Oxford Studies in Comparative Syntax|location=New York|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn= 0-19-509308-9|oclc=31045692}} : {{cite book |author={{aut|Beller, Richard}} |coauthors=and {{aut|Patricia Beller}} |year=1979 |chapter=Huasteca Nahuatl |editor=[[Ronald Langacker]] (ed.) |title=Studies in Uto-Aztecan Grammar 2: Modern Aztec Grammatical Sketches |pages=pp.199–306 |series=Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics, 56 |location=Dallas, TX |publisher=[[Summer Institute of Linguistics]] and the [[University of Texas at Arlington]] |isbn=0-88312-072-0 |oclc=6086368}} : {{cite journal |author={{aut|Boas, Franz}} |authorlink=Franz Boas |year=1917 |title=El dialecto mexicano de Pochutla, Oaxaca |journal=[[International Journal of American Linguistics]] |volume=1 |issue=1|pages=pp.9–44 |location=New York|publisher=Douglas C. 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Hill (eds.) |title=Making dictionaries: Preserving Indigenous Languages of the Americas |pages=pp.195–218 |location=Berkeley, CA |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |isbn=0-520-22995-9 |oclc=47863283}} : {{cite book |author={{aut|Cowgill, George L.}} |authorlink=George Cowgill |year=1992 |chapter=Teotihuacan Glyphs and Imagery in the Light of Some Early Colonial Texts |title=Art, Ideology, and the City of Teotihuacan: A Symposium at Dumbarton Oaks, 8th and 9th October 1988 |editor=Janet Catherine Berlo (ed.) |location=Washington, DC |publisher=[[Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection]] |pages=pp.231–246 |isbn=0-88402-205-6 |oclc=25547129}} : {{cite book |author={{aut|Cowgill, George L.}} |authorlink=George Cowgill |year=2003 |chapter=Teotihuacan and Early Classic Interaction: A Perspective from Outside the Maya Region |title=The Maya and Teotihuacan: Reinterpreting Early Classic Interaction |editor=Geoffrey E. Braswell (ed.) |location=Austin |publisher=University of Texas Press |pages=pp.315–336||isbn=0-292-70587-5 |oclc=49936017}} : {{cite book |author={{aut|Dakin, Karen}} |year=1982 |title=La evolución fonológica del Protonáhuatl |publisher=[[National Autonomous University of Mexico]], Instituto de Investigaciones Filológicas |location=México D.F. |isbn=968-58-0292-0 |oclc=10216962}} {{es icon}} : {{cite book |author={{aut|Dakin, Karen}}|year=1994|chapter=El náhuatl en el yutoazteca sureño: algunas isoglosas gramaticales y fonológicas|title=Investigaciones lingüísticas en Mesoamérica |series=Estudios sobre Lenguas Americanas, no. 1|editor=Carolyn MacKay and Verónica Vázquez (eds.)|publisher=[[National Autonomous University of Mexico]], Instituto de Investigaciones Filológicas, Seminario de Lenguas Indígenas|location=México D.F.|pages=pp.3–86 |isbn=968-36-4055-9 |oclc=34716589}} {{es icon}} :{{cite journal |author={{aut|Dakin, Karen}} |coauthors=and {{aut|[[Søren Wichmann]]}} |year=2000 |title=Cacao and Chocolate: A Uto-Aztecan Perspective |url=http://email.eva.mpg.de/~wichmann/CacaoChocolate.pdf |format=[[Portable Document Format|PDF]] online reprint|journal=Ancient Mesoamerica|volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=pp.55–75|location=Cambridge and New York|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |oclc=88396015 |doi=10.1017/S0956536100111058}} : {{cite book |author={{aut|Flores Farfán, José Antonio}} |year=1999 |title=Cuatreros Somos y Toindioma Hablamos. 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Hill}} |year=1986 |title=Speaking Mexicano: Dynamics of Syncretic Language in Central Mexico |location=Tucson |publisher=[[University of Arizona Press]] |isbn=0-816-50898-4 |oclc=13126530}} :{{cite book |author={{aut|INEGI (Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas, Geografia e Informática)}} |authorlink=Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Geografía e Informática |year=2005 |title=Perfil sociodemográfica de la populación hablante de náhuatl |url=http://www.inegi.gob.mx/prod_serv/contenidos/espanol/bvinegi/productos/censos/poblacion/poblacion_indigena/Hablantes_Nahuatl.pdf |format=[[Portable Document Format|PDF]]|series=XII Censo General de Población y Vivienda 2000 |edition=Publicación única|publisher=INEGI|location=Aguascalientes, Mex. |isbn=970-13-4491-X|accessdate=2008-12-02}} {{es icon}} : {{cite web |author={{aut|IRIN (Iniciativa para la Recuperación del Idioma Náhuat)}} |year=2004 |title=IRIN-International homepage |url=http://www.compapp.dcu.ie/~mward/irin/index.htm |work=The Nawat Language Recovery Initiative |publisher=IRIN |accessdate=2008-03-31}} :{{cite book |author={{aut|Jackson, Robert H.}} |year=2000 |title=From Savages to Subjects: Missions in the History of the American Southwest |series=Latin American Realities hardcover series|location=Armonk, NY|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|isbn=0-7656-0597-X |oclc=49415084}} :{{cite book |author={{aut|Justeson, John S.}} |coauthors={{aut|William M. Norman, [[Lyle Campbell]]}}, and {{aut|[[Terrence Kaufman]]}} |year=1985 |title=The Foreign Impact on Lowland Mayan Language and Script |series=Middle American Research Institute Publications, no. 53 |location=New Orleans, LA |publisher=Middle American Research Institute, [[Tulane University]] |isbn=0-939238-82-9 |oclc=12444550}} : {{cite journal|author={{aut|Karttunen, Frances}}|coauthors=and {{aut|[[James Lockhart (historian)|James Lockhart]]}}|year=1980|title=La estructura de la poesía nahuatl vista por sus variantes|journal=Estudios de Cultura Nahuatl|location=México, D.F. |publisher=Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas, [[National Autonomous University of Mexico]]|volume=14|pages=pp.15–64 |issn=0071-1675 |oclc=1568281}}{{es icon}} : {{cite paper |author={{aut|Kaufman, Terrence}} |authorlink=Terrence Kaufman |date=2001 |title=The history of the Nawa language group from the earliest times to the sixteenth century: some initial results |url=http://www.albany.edu/anthro/maldp/Nawa.pdf |format=[[Portable Document Format|PDF]] |version=Revised March 2001|publisher=Project for the Documentation of the Languages of Mesoamerica |accessdate=2007-10-07}} : {{cite journal|author={{aut|Knab, Tim}} |year=1980 |title=When Is a Language Really Dead: The Case of Pochutec|journal=[[International Journal of American Linguistics]] |volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=pp.230–233 |location=Chicago |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]], in cooperation with the Conference on American Indian Languages |doi=10.1086/465658 |oclc=1753556}} : {{cite book |author={{aut|Langacker, Ronald W}} |authorlink=Ronald W. Langacker |year=1977 |title=Studies in Uto-Aztecan Grammar 1: An Overview of Uto-Aztecan Grammar |series=Summer Institute of Linguistics publications in linguistics, publication no. 56 |publisher=[[Summer Institute of Linguistics]] and [[University of Texas at Arlington]] |location=Dallas |isbn=0-88312-070-4 |oclc=6087919}} : {{cite book |author={{aut|Lastra de Suárez, Yolanda}}|year=1986|title=Las áreas dialectales del náhuatl moderno |series=Serie antropológica, no. 62 |location=Ciudad Universitaria, México, D.F. |publisher=[[National Autonomous University of Mexico]], Instituto de Investigaciones Antropológicas|isbn=968-8377-44-9 |oclc=19632019}}{{es icon}} : {{cite book |author={{aut|Launey, Michel}} |year=1979 |title=Introduction à la langue et à la littérature aztèques, vol. 1: Grammaire |series=Série ethnolinguistique amérindienne|location=Paris |publisher=L'Harmattan |isbn=2-85802-107-4}} {{fr icon}} : {{cite book |author={{aut|Launey, Michel}} |year=1980 |title=Introduction à la langue et à la littérature aztèques, vol. 2: Littérature|series=Série ethnolinguistique amérindienne|location=Paris |publisher=L'Harmattan |isbn=2-85802-155-4 }} {{fr icon}} {{nah icon}} : {{cite book |author={{aut|Launey, Michel}} |year=1992 |title=Introducción a la lengua y a la literatura náhuatl |location=México D.F.|publisher=[[National Autonomous University of Mexico]], Instituto de Investigaciones Antropológicas |isbn=968-36-1944-4 |oclc=29376295 }} {{es icon}} : {{cite book |author={{aut|Launey, Michel}} |year=1994|title=Une grammaire omniprédicative: Essai sur la morphosyntaxe du nahuatl classique|location=Paris |publisher=[[CNRS Editions]] |isbn=2-271-05072-3|oclc=30738298}} {{fr icon}} : {{cite book |author={{aut|León-Portilla, Miguel}}|authorlink=Miguel León-Portilla|year=1978|title=Los manifiestos en náhuatl de Emiliano Zapata. |location=Cuernavaca, Mex.|publisher=[[National Autonomous University of Mexico]], Instituto de Investigaciones Antropológicas |oclc=4977935}} {{es icon}} : {{cite book |author={{aut|León-Portilla, Miguel}} |authorlink=Miguel León-Portilla|year=1985 |chapter=Nahuatl literature |pages=pp.7–43 |title=Supplement to the Handbook of Middle American Indians, Vol. 3: Literatures |editor=Munro S. Edmonson (Volume ed.), with Patricia A. Andrews |others=Victoria Reifler Bricker (General ed.) |publisher=[[University of Texas Press]] |location=Austin |isbn=0-292-77577-6 |oclc=11785568}} : {{cite book |author={{aut|Lockhart, James}} |authorlink=James Lockhart (historian) |year=1991 |title=Nahuas and Spaniards: Postconquest Mexican History and Philology |series=UCLA Latin American studies vol. 76, Nahuatl studies series no. 3|publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] and UCLA Latin American Center Publications|location= Stanford and Los Angeles, CA |isbn=0-8047-1953-5 |oclc=23286637}} : {{cite book |author={{aut|Lockhart, James}} |authorlink=James Lockhart (historian) |year=1992 |title=The Nahuas After the Conquest: A Social and Cultural History of the Indians of Central Mexico, Sixteenth Through Eighteenth Centuries |location=Stanford, CA |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |isbn=0-8047-1927-6 |oclc=24283718}} :{{cite journal |author={{aut|Macri, Martha J.}} |year=2005 |title=Nahua loan words from the early classic period: Words for cacao preparation on a Río Azul ceramic vessel|journal=Ancient Mesoamerica|volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=pp.321–326|location=London and New York |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|doi=10.1017/S0956536105050200 |oclc=87656385}} :{{cite journal |author={{aut|Macri, Martha J.}}|coauthors= and {{aut|Matthew G. Looper}} |year=2003 |title=Nahua in ancient Mesoamerica: Evidence from Maya inscriptions|journal=Ancient Mesoamerica|volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=pp.285–297 |location=London and New York|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|doi=10.1017/S0956536103142046 |oclc=89805456 |doi_brokendate=2008-06-25}} : {{cite book |author={{aut|Olmos, Fray Andrés de}} |authorlink=Andrés de Olmos |year=1993 |origyear=1547 MS. |title=[[Arte para aprender la lengua mexicana|Arte de la lengua mexicana: concluido en el Convento de San Andrés de Ueytlalpan, en la provincia de la Totonacapan que es en la Nueva España, el 1<sup>o</sup>. de enero de 1547]], 2 vols. |others=Ascensión León-Portilla and [[Miguel León-Portilla]] (intro., transliteration, and notes) |format=Facsimile edition of original MS. |location=Madrid |publisher=Ediciones de Cultura Hispánica, Instituto de Cooperación Iberoamericana |isbn=84-7232-684-5 |oclc=165270583}} {{es icon}} : {{cite book |author={{aut|Pasztory, Esther}} |year=1993 |chapter=An Image Is Worth a Thousand Words: Teotihuacan and the Meanings of Style in Classic Mesoamerica |title=Latin American horizons: a symposium at Dumbarton Oaks, 11th and 12th October 1986 |editor=Don Stephen Rice (ed.) |location=Washington DC |publisher=[[Dumbarton Oaks]] Research Library and Collection, Trustees for [[Harvard University]] |pages=pp.113–146 |isbn=0-88402-207-2 |oclc=25872400}} : {{cite book |author={{aut|Rincón, Antonio del}} |authorlink=Antonio del Rincón |year=1885 |origyear=1595 |title=Arte mexicana compuesta por el padre Antonio Del Rincón de la compañia de Jesus: Dirigido al illustrissimo y reverendissimo s. Don Diego Romano obispo de Tlaxcallan, y del consejo de su magestad, &c. En Mexico en casa de Pedro, Balli. 1595 |url=http://storage.lib.uchicago.edu/pres/2005/pres2005-033.pdf |edition=Reprinted 1885 under the care of Dr. Antonio Peñafiel |format=[[Portable Document Format|PDF]] facsimile, University of Chicago Library digital collections|location=México D.F. |publisher=Oficina tip. de la Secretaría de fomento |oclc=162761360 }} {{es icon}} :{{cite journal |author={{aut|Rolstad, Kellie}} |year=2002|title=Language death in Central Mexico: The decline of Spanish-Nahuatl bilingualism and the new bilingual maintenance programs|journal=The Bilingual review. La Revista bilingüe|volume=26|issue=1 |location=Tempe |publisher=Hispanic Research Center, [[Arizona State University]]|pages=pp.3–18 |issn=0094-5366 |oclc=1084374}} : {{cite book |author={{aut|Sahagún, Bernardino de}} |authorlink=Bernardino de Sahagún |year=1950–82 |origyear=ca. 1540–85 |title=[[Florentine Codex|Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain]], 13 vols. in 12 |edition=translation of ''Historia General de las Cosas de la Nueva España'' |others=[[Charles E. Dibble]] and [[Arthur J. O. Anderson|Arthur J.O. Anderson]] (eds., trans., notes and illus.) |series=vols. I-XII |location=Santa Fe, NM and Salt Lake City |publisher=School of American Research and the [[University of Utah Press]] |isbn=0-87480-082-X |oclc=276351}} : {{cite book |author={{aut|Sahagún, Bernardino de}} |authorlink=Bernardino de Sahagún |year=1997 |origyear=ca.1558–61 |title=[[Primeros Memoriales]] |others=Thelma D. Sullivan (English trans. and paleography of Nahuatl text), with [[H.B. Nicholson]], [[Arthur J.O. Anderson]], [[Charles E. Dibble]], [[Eloise Quiñones Keber]], and Wayne Ruwet (completion, revisions, and ed.) |series=The Civilization of the American Indians Series vol. 200, part 2 |location=Norman |publisher=[[University of Oklahoma Press]] |isbn=978-0-8061-2909-9 |oclc=35848992}} : {{cite book |author={{aut|Sischo, William R.}} |year=1979 |chapter=Michoacán Nahual |editor=[[Ronald W. Langacker]] (ed.) |title=Studies in Uto-Aztecan Grammar 2: Modern Aztec Grammatical Sketches |pages=pp.307–380 |series=Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics, 56 |location=Dallas, TX |publisher=[[Summer Institute of Linguistics]] and the [[University of Texas at Arlington]]|isbn=0-8831-2072-0 |oclc=6086368}} : {{cite journal |author={{aut|Suárez, Jorge A.}}|year=1977|title=La influencia del español en la estructura gramatical del náhuatl |journal=Anuario de Letras. Revista de la Facultad de Filosofía y Letras |location=Ciudad Universitaria, México, D.F. |publisher=[[National Autonomous University of Mexico]], Centro de Linguística Hispánica |volume=15 |pages=pp.115–164 |issn=0185-1373 |oclc=48341068}} {{es icon}} : {{cite book |author={{aut|Suárez, Jorge A.}} |year=1983 |title=The Mesoamerian Indian Languages |series=Cambridge Language Surveys |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge and New York|isbn=0-521-22834-4 |oclc=8034800}} : {{cite book |author={{aut|Sullivan, Thelma D.}} |year=1988 |title=Compendium of Náhuatl Grammar |others=Thelma D. Sullivan and Neville Stiles (trans.), Wick R. Miller and Karen Dakin (eds.) |edition=English translation of ''Compendio de la gramática náhuatl'' |location=Salt Lake City |publisher=[[University of Utah Press]] |isbn=0-874-80282-2 |oclc=17982711}} : {{cite book |author={{aut|Tuggy, David H.}} |year=1979 |chapter=Tetelcingo Náhuatl |editor=[[Ronald Langacker]] (ed.) |title=Studies in Uto-Aztecan Grammar 2: Modern Aztec Grammatical Sketches |pages=pp.1–140 |series=Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics, 56 |location=Dallas, TX |publisher=[[Summer Institute of Linguistics]] and the [[University of Texas at Arlington]]|isbn=0-88312-072-0 |oclc=6086368}} : {{cite book |author={{aut|Voegelin, Charles F.}}|coauthors={{aut|Florence M. Voegelin}} and {{aut|[[Kenneth L. Hale]]}} |year=1962 |title=Typological and Comparative Grammar of Uto-Aztecan I: Phonology |format=Supplement to International Journal of American linguistics, vol. 28, no. 1 |series=Indiana University publications in anthropology and linguistics, Memoir 17 |location=Baltimore MD |publisher=Waverly Press |oclc=55576894}} : {{cite journal |author={{aut|Whorf, Benjamin Lee}} |authorlink=Benjamin Whorf|coauthors={{aut|Frances Karttunen}} and {{aut|[[Lyle Campbell]]}}|year=1993 |title=Pitch Tone and the "Saltillo" in Modern and Ancient Nahuatl |journal=[[International Journal of American Linguistics]] |volume=59 |issue=2 |pages=pp.165–223 |location=Chicago |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|doi=10.1086/466194}} : {{cite book |author={{aut|Wichmann, Søren}} |authorlink=Søren Wichmann |year=1998 |chapter=A conservative look at diffusion involving Mixe-Zoquean languages |title=Archaeology and Language, vol. II: Correlating archaeological and linguistic hypotheses |series=One World Archaeology series, no. 29 |editor=Roger Blench and Matthew Spriggs (eds.) |location=London and New York |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=0-415-11761-5 |oclc=35673530}} : {{cite web |author={{aut|Wimmer, Alexis}} |year=2006 |url=http://sites.estvideo.net/malinal/nahuatl.page.html |title=Dictionnaire de la langue nahuatl classique |format=online version, incorporating reproductions from ''Dictionnaire de la langue nahuatl ou mexicaine'' [1885], by Rémi Siméon|accessdate=2008-02-04}} {{fr icon}} {{nah icon}} : {{cite book |author={{aut|Wolgemuth, Carl}} |year=2002 |title=Gramática Náhuatl ({{IPA|melaʼtájto̱l}}): de los municipios de Mecayapan y Tatahuicapan de Juárez, Veracruz |url=http://www.sil.org/mexico/nahuatl/istmo/G027a-GramNahIst-nhx.htm |format=[[Portable Document Format|PDF]] online edition|edition=2nd edition |others=Sharon Stark and Albert Bickford (online eds.) |location=México D.F. |publisher=[[Instituto Lingüístico de Verano]] |isbn=968-31-0315-4 |oclc=51555383}} : {{cite web |author={{aut|Wroth, William H.}} |year=n.d. |title=Santa Fe |url=http://www.newmexicohistory.org/filedetails.php?fileID=392 |work=New Mexico Digital History Project |publisher=New Mexico Office of the State Historian |accessdate=2008-03-31}} {{refend}} <!--End refs-small style --> {{ref indent-end}}<!-- END hanging indent style --> ==Further reading== :'''Dictionaries of Classical Nahuatl''' *de Molina, Fray Alonso: ''Vocabulario en Lengua Castellana y Mexicana y Mexicana y Castellana''. [1555] Reprint: Porrúa México 1992 *Karttunen, Frances, ''An analytical dictionary of Náhuatl''. Norman 1992 *Siméon, Rémi: ''Diccionario de la Lengua Náhuatl o Mexicana''. [Paris 1885] Reprint: México 2001 :'''Grammars of Classical Nahuatl''' *Carochi, Horacio. ''Grammar of the Mexican Language: With an Explanation of its Adverbs (1645)'' Translated by James Lockhart. Stanford University Press. 2001. *Lockhart, James: ''Nahuatl as written: lessons in older written Nahuatl, with copious examples and texts'', Stanford 2001 *Campbell, Joe and Frances Karttunen, ''Foundation course in Náhuatl grammar''. Austin 1989 *Launey, Michel. ''Introducción a la lengua y a la literatura Náhuatl''. México D.F.: UNAM. 1992 (Spanish) *Andrews, J. Richard. ''Introduction to Classical Nahuatl'' University of Oklahoma Press: 2003 (revised edition) :'''Modern Dialects''' * Herrera, Fermin. ''Nahuatl (Aztec)-English / English-Nahuatl (Aztec) Concise Dictionary'', Hippocrene Books, Inc., 2004 *Ronald W. Langacker (ed.): ''Studies in Uto-Aztecan Grammar 2: Modern Aztec Grammatical Sketches'', Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics, 56. Dallas, TX: Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington, pp. 1–140. ISBN 0883120720. OCLC 6086368. 1979. (Contains studies of Nahuatl from Michoacan, Tetelcingo, Huasteca and North Puebla) * Canger, Una. ''Mexicanero de la Sierra Madre Occidenta''l, Archivo de Lenguas Indígenas de México, #24. México D.F.: El Colegio de México. ISBN 968-12-1041-7. OCLC 49212643. 2001 (Spanish) * Campbell, Lyle. ''The Pipil Language of El Salvador'', Mouton Grammar Library (No. 1). Berlin: Mouton Publishers. 1985. ISBN 0-89925-040-8. OCLC 13433705. *Wolgemuth, Carl. [http://www.sil.org/mexico/nahuatl/istmo/G027a-GramNahIst-nhx.htm ''Gramática Náhuatl (melaʼtájto̱l) de los municipios de Mecayapan y Tatahuicapan de Juárez, Veracruz'',] 2nd edition. 2002. {{es icon}} :'''Miscellaneous''' *The Nahua Newsletter: edited by the Center for Latin American and Caribbean Studies of the Indiana University (Chief Editor Alan Sandstrom) *Estudios de Cultura Náhuatl: ''special interest-yearbook of the Instituto de Investigaciones Historicas (IIH) of the Universidad Autónoma de México (UNAM)'', Ed.: Miguel Leon Portilla ==External links== {{InterWiki|code=nah}} {{Wiktionary|nahuatl}} {{wiktionarycat|type=of the Nahuatl language|category=Nahuatl language}} {{wiktionarycat|type=of Nahuatl origin|category=Nahuatl derivations}} {{Wikibooks|Nahuatl}} *[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=91299 Ethnologue Náhuatl dialects] *[http://www.sil.org/americas/mexico/nahuatl/00i-nahuatl.htm Nahuatl (Aztec) family, SIL-Mexico, with subsites on some specific variants] *[http://sites.estvideo.net/malinal/nahuatl.page.html Náhuatl-French dictionary] Includes basic grammar *[http://www.gutenberg.org/browse/languages/nah Books at [[Project Gutenberg]] in Nahuatl] {{featured article}} <!--Categories--> [[Category:Nahuatl|*]] [[Category:Agglutinative languages]] [[Category:Polysynthetic languages]] [[Category:Indigenous languages of Mexico]] [[Category:Uto-Aztecan languages]] [[Category:Mesoamerican languages]] {{Link FA|nah}} <!--Other languages--> [[am:ናዋትል]] [[ay:Nawa aru]] [[br:Nahouatleg]] [[bg:Нахуатъл]] [[ca:Nàhuatl]] [[cs:Nahuatl]] [[da:Nahuatl]] [[de:Nahuatl]] [[nv:Méhigo bizaad]] [[dsb:Rěc nahuatl]] [[el:Ναχουάτλ γλώσσα]] [[es:Náhuatl]] [[eo:Naŭatla lingvo]] [[eu:Nahuatlera]] [[ext:Luenga náhuatl]] [[fr:Nahuatl]] [[gl:Lingua nahuatl]] [[ko:나후아틀어]] [[hi:नावातल]] [[id:Bahasa Nahuatl]] [[it:Lingua nahuatl]] [[he:נאוואטל]] [[sw:Kinahuatl]] [[la:Lingua Navatlaca]] [[lt:Nahuatlių kalba]] [[hu:Azték nyelv]] [[mk:Наватл]] [[nah:Nāhuatlahtōlli]] [[nl:Nahuatl]] [[ja:ナワトル語]] [[no:Nahuatl]] [[nn:Nahuatl]] [[oc:Nahuatl]] [[pl:Język nahuatl]] [[pt:Língua náuatle]] [[ro:Limba nahuatl]] [[qu:Nawa simi]] [[ru:Астекские языки]] [[simple:Nahuatl language]] [[sk:Nahuatl]] [[sl:Nahuatl]] [[sr:Наватл]] [[fi:Nahuatl]] [[sv:Nahuatl]] [[tr:Nahuatl dili]] [[uk:Науатль]] [[wa:Nawatl]] [[zh:納瓦特爾語]]