Native American name controversy 2579018 225093778 2008-07-11T21:10:54Z Jg og 2@yahoo.com 521105 Changed "anyone born the US could be called a 'Native American'" to "anyone born in the US could be called a 'Native American'" {{weasel}} The '''Native American name controversy''' is an ongoing dispute over the acceptable ways to refer to the [[indigenous peoples of the Americas]] and to the broad subsets thereof, such as those living in a specific country or sharing certain cultural attributes. Once-common terms like "Indian" remain in use, despite the introduction of terms such as "Native American" during the latter half of the 20th century. <!-- This is not a comprehensive list, but a short overview of the most widely used handful of terms --> Many [[English language|English]] terms have been used or considered for such purposes, such as ''Red Indians'', ''American Indians'' (or simply ''Indians''), the ''American Indian race'', ''[[Native Americans (disambiguation)|Native Americans]]'', Original Americans, ''[[First Nations]]'', ''Indigenous Peoples of America'', ''Amerindians'', ''[[Amerinds]]'', and more. However, none have found universal acceptance. Typical reasons for contesting a name are * ambiguity or accepted multiple meanings of the words used, like ''American'' or ''indigenous''; * prior use for a different set of people, as in the case of ''Indian''; * existence of unrelated common meanings, like ''native''; * conflict with prior legal definitions, like ''Aboriginal''; * sentimental attachment to a previous name; * that the term is often considered [[wikt:quaint|quaint]] or [[pejorative]], as for ''[[Eskimo]]''; * resentment about having a name imposed by outsiders; * presumed political implications of the name, as with ''Native''; * reluctance of individual groups to be referred to by a collective name; and several others. Further complications arise when translating names between different languages, since even words that are [[cognate|closely related linguistically]] may have very different cultural loads in the respective speaker communities. "The People", "First Men" and "Original People" are the most common translations for various Indigenous American tribes.<ref> {{cite book | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | editor = | year =[1974] 1993 | title =The World of the American Indian | accessdate =not recorded | publisher =National Geographic Society | location =Washington D.C. | id =ISBN 0-87044-972-9 (reg. ed.), ISBN 0-87044-973-7 (deluxe ed.) | pages ={{Fact|date=March 2007}} | chapter = }} <br>Series: Story of man library <br>1st ed. 1974, ISBN 0-87044-151-5; rev. ed. 1993; 1997 edition not found, [[06 August]] 2006</ref> In some countries, certain broad names have been defined by law, such as ''First Nations'' and ''Aboriginal peoples'' in [[Canada]]. Even in those cases, there may be lingering debates on whether certain groups fit the legal definition or not, or whether the name or its definition are adequate. == Endonyms and exonyms == Where controversy exists over the naming of a group of people, one solution is to use the name preferred by the people in question themselves. However, this principle applies poorly to large multi-ethnic groups, since different sub-groups often have incompatible preferences. Moreover, every natural language has traditionally ignored this principle, exerting its privilege to invent its own ethnic terms for other peoples. [[English language|English]] is no exception, and uses terms such as ''German'', ''Dutch'', and ''Albanian'', disregarding the self-appellations and preferences of those subjects (''Deutsch'', ''Nederlands'', and ''Shqip''). Not surprisingly, English names for the pre-Columbian Americans are largely assigned by tradition, and are not always accepted by the peoples themselves. == Meanings of basic terms == A major source of confusion and controversy is that many of the words that are or could be used in naming those peoples are inherently ambiguous or inappropriate. === Indian === The term ''Indian'' is commonly thought to have begun with the misconception by [[Christopher Columbus]] that the [[Caribbean]] islands were the islands in [[Southeast Asia]] known to Europeans as the [[East Indies|Indies]], which he had hoped to reach by sailing west across the [[Atlantic]]. Even though Columbus's mistake was soon recognized, the name stuck, and for centuries the native people of the Americas were collectively called ''Indians''. Much of the use of the word has to do with connotation more than definition. <blockquote>2. Of or pertaining to the aborigines, or Indians, of America; as, Indian wars; the Indian tomahawk. [1913 Webster]</blockquote> <blockquote>2. One of the aboriginal inhabitants of America; &mdash; so called originally from the supposed identity of America with India. [1913 Webster]<ref name=Dyck>Dyck (2002)</ref></blockquote> ''The American Heritage Dictionary'' excludes "[[Eskimo]]s, [[Aleut]]s, and [[Inuit]]" from Indian in an American context.<ref name="American_Heritage">[[American Heritage Dictionary]] (2000)</ref> The 2006 [[AP Stylebook|Associated Press Stylebook]] recommends use of the term ''American Indian'' and reserves ''Native American'' only for direct quotations and names of organizations. The terms "Indian" and "American Indian" are used by the U.S. government as standard descriptors. There is a [[Bureau of Indian Affairs]] (BIA), for example. Similarly, the [[Smithsonian Institution|Smithsonian's]] new [[National Museum of the American Indian]] in Washington, DC (2004), uses the older term, as does its quarterly full-color publication, ''American Indian''.<ref name="nmai">[http://www.nmai.si.edu/subpage.cfm?subpage=support&second=membership&third=magazine American Indian Magazine]. Retrieved on [[06 August]] 2006.</ref> In Canada, although all governments are now careful to use the terms [[First Nations]] (for "Indians") and aboriginals (First Nations, plus [[Métis people (Canada)|Métis]] and [[Inuit]]), the federal ministerial portfolio in charge of their affairs is the [[Department of Indian and Northern Affairs]], and "[[Indian Reserve]]" is still a legal land description. Some First Nations also use "Indian Band" in their official names. The usage "Red Indian", common outside of North America {{fact|date=June 2008}}, is offensive to many, and somewhat archaic in the United States and Canada. In Mexico, the use of "[[Indio]]" is offensive to many, and sometimes cause of dispute. === American === The [[use of the word American|meaning of ''American'']] has two common meanings: while it may refer to the [[Americas]] in general (meaning 1), it often refers specifically (therefore not exclusively) to the [[United States of America]] and its territories (meaning 2).<ref name=Dyck /> Further, <blockquote>A native of America; &mdash; originally applied to the aboriginal inhabitants, but now applied to the descendants of Europeans born in America, and especially to the citizens of the United States. [1913 Webster]<ref name=Dyck /></blockquote> WordNet gives the primary meaning as the U.S., the secondary as the language, and the tertiary as the Americas.<ref name="Miller_WordNet">{{cite book|url=http://wordnet.princeton.edu | author=George A. Miller |date=August 2003|title=WordNet (r) 2.0|publisher=Princeton University|accessdate=2006-04-21}}</ref> ''Merriam-Webster'' gives (1) an American Indian of the Americas; (2) an inhabitant of the Americas, native or not; (3) a U.S. citizen; and (4) the language.<ref name="Merriam-Webster">{{cite book | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | editor = | year =2004 | title =The Merriam-Webster dictionary. | accessdate =2006-08-06 | publisher =Merriam-Webster | location =Springfield, MA | id =ISBN 0-87779-930-X, ISBN 0-87779-931-8 (pbk.) | pages = | chapter =}}</ref> ''The American Heritage Dictionary'' gives three meanings as ''Merriam-Webster'', without "an American Indian".<ref name="American_Heritage" /> === Native === The word ''native'' (from Latin ''natus'' meaning ''born'') has often been applied to ethnic groups to mean "a group who lived in some place before the arrival of other groups"; in this context, specifically, "before the arrival of the Europeans". However, a more specific meaning of "native" is "born in," and thus the term ''native American'' or ''native of the Americas'' could be equally applicable to anyone born in the Americas or in United States. The word probably acquired the other (ethno-historical) sense in the early years of European naval exploration and colonial expansion, when the "natives"&mdash;the people "born in" the foreign countries&mdash;were indeed non-Europeans. Expressions such as ''native-born'' may be used to further qualify that the intended meaning is the common one (i.e., "born in or originating from a given place"), and not the formal, specific designation (i.e., "Native" in the sense of belonging to an identified indigenous group), if the context does not otherwise make this distinction clear. Whether such nicety of definition justifies a tautologous neologism only time will tell. Furthermore, in the United States the expression ''Native American'' has acquired a specific technical and legal meaning, which is discussed in a later section. In principle this narrower sense is indicated by capitalizing the word ''native''. However, one must be aware that this [[typography|typographical]] detail is easily lost on careless readers, and of course ineffective in speech. The term "Native American" as a sort of disfranchisement applies to most people born in the United States after 1776. For example, a living person born in the United States whose great-great grandparents were all born in Europe would be neither Native American nor Native European. The word native is also problematic because of its political implications, since "native" ethnic groups sometimes claim to have more rights&mdash;to natural resources, political offices, indemnities, cultural prestige, etc.&mdash;than the "non-native" groups who arrived later; the implication being that the "non-natives" are "aliens," "foreigners," "usurpers," etc.&mdash;even if their ancestors have lived in the place for many generations.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} "Many" is relative. Native Americans have lived and travelled their "usual and accustomed grounds" (a common treaty term)<ref> {{cite web | last = | first = | coauthors = | date = | year = | month = | url =http://www.goia.wa.gov/Treaties/Treaties/pointelliot.htm | title ="Treaty of Point Elliott, 1855" | work = | publisher =Governors Office of Indian Affairs, State of Washington | accessdate =2006-07-21 }} </ref> since the end of the last [[Ice age#Glaciation in North America|glacial period]] (c. 8,000 B.C.&mdash;10,000 years ago),<ref>Talbert (2006-05-01)</ref> along the northern tier of what is now the United States, definitively at least 4,000 years B.C. in what is now [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]], for one example.<ref>(1) Map with village 33, referencing Dailey footnotes 2, 9, and 10. (1.1) Dailey (2006-06-14) <br>(2) See also [[Seattle before the city]]. <br>(3) See also Mann (2005)</ref> Native Americans have lived elsewhere in the Americas far longer. When the people of the Norte Chico were building at least seven large-scale settlements on the Peruvian coast between 3200 B.C. and 2500 B.C., there was only one other urban complex on the planet: Sumer, in the Tigris-Euphrates valley.<ref>Mann (A.D. 2005), p. 177</ref> Such claims (or the possibility thereof) may lead to rejection of the label by the "non-natives". These may argue, e.g., that the "natives" themselves were invaders to even earlier inhabitants; or that they are no longer residing on their "native" land; or that there is insufficient historical evidence of their native status; and so on. The issue boils down to the undecidable question of how long a group should reside in a place before it deserves the label "native". This reaction has actually occurred in the US, for example, against the term ''Native Americans''.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} ===Indigenous=== Even though the term "indigenous" may sound similar to "Indian," the two are quite unrelated. The term comes from Latin ''indigena'', "native," formed from ''indu'' "in" and ''gen-'' "beget". According to The American Heritage Dictionary: "Indigenous specifies that something or someone is native rather than coming or being brought in from elsewhere: an indigenous crop; the Ainu, a people indigenous to the northernmost islands of Japan."<ref>native. Dictionary.com. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/native (accessed: November 18, 2007).</ref> ===Aboriginal and Aborigine=== The English adjective "aboriginal" and the noun "aborigine" come from a Latin phrase meaning "from the origin," which was first applied to native peoples of central [[Italy]] who were contemporaries of the [[Ancient Rome|ancient Romans]]. According to this etymology, therefore, it could be used for ethnic groups who "were there since the beginning," i.e. the first to arrive in a region, or those who can be identified in the earliest historical or archaeological records. Indeed, it has been occasionally used in this sense in English, at least since the 19th century, for indigenous populations all over the world, including the Americas.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Aboriginal may imply a more direct or ancient link to the past (especially one that predates recorded history) than indigenous, but there is considerable overlap in meaning between the two terms. However, this general use has been largely preempted by narrower legal or common usage definitions that it has received in some countries. Throughout most of the English-speaking world, it is commonly understood to refer to the [[Indigenous Australians]]. It has also special legal status in Canada (see below). == Names for United States native peoples == In the United States, ''Native American'' and ''American Indian'' are commonly used to denote the [[indigenous peoples in the United States]]. Both terms are almost exclusively used to describe the natives of the ''contiguous'' United States, usually excluding the indigenous peoples of [[Hawaii|Hawai{{okina}}i]] and the [[Aleut]], [[Inuit]], and [[Yupik]] peoples of the far north. The terms ''[[Alaska Natives]]'' is used for the indigenous peoples in [[Alaska]] (including the Inuit, Yupik, and Aleut), and ''[[Native Hawaiians]]'' is used for those of Hawai{{okina}}i.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} === Indian and American Indian === "American Indian" is often a legal term. It is the phrase used to describe indigenous people of the western hemisphere in United States Federal as well as many state and local laws. Most treaties refer to "American Indians" of a particular tribe. It makes sense to refer to "American Indians" when referencing legal issues. (I.e. The United States signed treaties with more than 800 "American Indian" tribes.) In the 1960s and 1970s efforts were made to change "Indian" to "Native American" or, sometimes, "Amerindian".<ref name=Mann>[[Charles Mann]] (2005). ''[[1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus]]''. Appendix A: "Loaded Words"</ref> It was not entirely successful, with the new name being as problematic as the old.<ref name=Mann/> For one, it can on the literal level mean anyone born in the Western Hemisphere, not just Indians.<ref name=Mann/> For another, users of the old term "Indian" had not typically included the people of the far north (Inuit, Aleut, etc.), but the new term implicitly grouped them with their neighbors to the south, thus losing a distinction that some had found useful.<ref name=Mann/> Many of those involved prefer ''Indian'' or ''American Indian'' to ''Native Americans''.<ref>Brunner (2006)<br>Includes sources (including quotes: Russell Means at [http://www.peaknet.net/~aardvark/means.html "I am an American Indian, Not a Native American!"], and Christina Berry at [http://www.allthingscherokee.com/atc_sub_culture_feat_events_070101.html "What's in a Name? Indians and Political Correctness"]; both are also referenced on this page).</ref> [[Charles C. Mann]] noted in his 2005 book ''[[1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus]]'' that "every native person whom I have met (I think without exception) has used 'Indian' rather than 'Native American'."<ref name=Mann/><!-- page number? --> [[Russell Means]], an activist in the [[American Indian Movement]], said in 1998, "I abhor the term Native American...I prefer the term American Indian because I know its origins."<ref name=Mann/><ref>"I AM AN AMERICAN INDIAN, NOT A NATIVE AMERICAN!", Russell Means, http://www.peaknet.net/~aardvark/means.html</ref> One historical basis for the distaste that many Indians have for the designation "Native American" stems from non-Christian aspects of the early [[Native American Church]]. In its ''Annual Report'' for the year 1916, the Indian Rights Association (IRA) included an article entitled "The Ravages of Peyote," which attacked the "baneful" effects of the peyote religion: "[a farmer's] health is often affected, and interest is lost in the things which tend to better living." The Report describes Native American Church practices as unchristian, indulgent, and sexualized.<ref>{{cite book | title=The Search for an American Indian Identity: Modern Pan-Indian Movements|publisher=Syracuse University Press|date=1971|author=Hazel W. Hertzberg|pages=255&ndash;256}}</ref>(As a defensive measure, in 1918, the peyote religion adopted its current name, Native American Church, first in [[Oklahoma]], and in at least six other states by 1925). The term ''American Indian'' is often shortened to ''Indian'' when the context allows, e.g. in the name of the [[Bureau of Indian Affairs|United States Bureau of Indian Affairs]]. The derivative term ''[[Injun]]'' is considered offensive. === Native American === ====Description and usage==== The term ''Native American'' was introduced in the [[United States]] in the 1960s and 1970s by those who hoped it would be more accurate than ''Indian'' and free from its negative stereotypes. What it means exactly depends on the context of its use, and who is using it, and is thus often a great source of confusion. It can mean: #All Indians of the Americas #All Indians of the Americas, excluding the Inuit, Aleut, native Hawaiians and some others who arrived later. #Indians indigenous to pre-Columbian America who are presently living in the United States, including Inuit, Aleuts, Hawaiians and native Pacific Islanders (Native American Languages Act of 1990). #All Indians of the Americas, including the U.S. and Canada but not including Mexico or further south #Anyone born in the Americas, including those of European descent for example. Many of those who are covered by the term strongly prefer "American Indian" over "Native American". <ref>{{cite news|publisher=PBS|accessdate=2007-10-17|title="American Indian" or "Native American": Which Is Correct?|author=Dennis Gaffney|date=2006|url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/roadshow/series/highlights/2006/bismarck/fts_hour3_4.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Indian Eristic|date=January 5, 2007|accessdate=2007-10-17|publisher=Wisconsin Office of State Employment Relations|url=http://oser.state.wi.us/pgsub_detail.asp?linksubcat2id=639&linksubcatid=1023&linkcatid=352&linkid=|}}</ref> According to the [[US Census Bureau]], as of 1995 50% preferred "American Indian", 37% "Native American", and the remainder preferred other terms or had no preference.<ref>{{cite book|author=|title=A statistical analysis of the CPS supplement on race and ethnic origin|author=Clyde Tucker, Brian Kojetin, and Roderick Harrison|publisher=Bureau of Labor Statistics, Bureau of the Census|date=May, 1995|accessdate=2007-10-18|url=http://www.census.gov/prod/2/gen/96arc/ivatuck.pdf}}</ref> The term has also been contested by some non-Native U.S. citizens, both for the perception that the name diminished their own status or rights (anyone born in the US could be called a "Native American"), and also as part of the general backlash against "[[political correctness]]", for which the term was often cited as an example. However, there is a growing consensus that either term is correct and that the terms may be used interchangeably.<ref name="bb">{{cite news|title=American Indian versus Native American:A once-heated issue has sorted itself out|publisher=American Indian Heritage Month|accessdate=2007-10-18|author=Borgna Brunner|url=http://www.infoplease.com/spot/aihmterms.html|}}</ref> However, many now prefer to be designated by their specific tribe.<ref name="bb"/> ====History==== Prior to 1918, and predominantly until the 1960s, "Native American" meant "originating in America," as in the titles of books (from the Online Catalog of the Library of Congress database, OCLC): <blockquote> ''Native American Balladry'' (G. Malcolm Laws, 1964) <BR> ''Native American Humor'' (Walter Blair, 1960) <BR> ''Native American: the Book of My Youth'' (Ray Stannard Baker, 1941) <BR> ''A Native American'' (William Saroyan, 1938) <BR> ''Native American Anarchism'' (Eunice Minette Schuster, 1932, 1970) </blockquote> In ''The Peyote Cult,'' (Yale University Press, 1938, 5th ed. 1989), Weston La Barre traces the meaning of "Native American" as "American Indian" to the year 1918, when leaders of the Peyote Religion in Oklahoma incorporated as the Native American Church (of Oklahoma), followed by incorporation of the [[Native American Church]] of North America in 1950. In 1918, an earlier ban against the sacramental use of [[psychotropic]] [[peyote]] had been repealed by the State of Oklahoma. However, the same year, the national Bureau of Indian Affairs sought to impose a federal ban. In response, a group of Oto, Kiowa, and Arapaho met at Cheyenne, Oklahoma to "decide upon measures of defense for peyotism." The proposed name "First-born Church of Christ" was rejected. "The title ultimately chosen was the 'Native American Church,' which emphasized the intertribal solidarity of the cult, as well as its aboriginality." (Quoted material is from La Barre, page 169.) Among the earliest titles (in the OCLC database) in which "Native American" means "American Indian" are these: <blockquote> ''Peyote Songs: Music of the Native American Church of North America (Indian)'' (sound recording, 1967) <BR> ''Native American Arts'' (Indian Arts and Crafts Board, Washington, D.C., 1968) <BR> ''Buffalo Hearts, A Native Amerian's View of Indian Culture, Religion and History'' (Sun Bear, 1970) <BR> ''Indian Voices: the Native American Today'' (Convocation of American Indian Scholars, 1971) <BR> ''Native American tribalism; Indian Suvivals and Renewals'' (D'Arcy McNicle, 1973) </blockquote> The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' (article on "Native", note 15) offers the year 1956 as earliest usage of "Native American" meaning "North American Indian", the example being a letter in which Aldous Huxley mentioned the "Native American churchmen." The only other early-usage examples are dated 1973&ndash;1974 and are from the ''Black Panther'' and ''New Society'' magazines. One of the articles refers to the Native American Church and the other two do not. To summarize: "Native American" originally meant "originating in America," without reference to American Indians. In 1918, the "Native American Church" was incorporated, and in beginning in the 1960s the term "Native American," sometimes pertaining to the Church and sometimes not, began to appear in titles of books, magazine articles, and musical recordings. ===Alaska Native=== In [[Alaska]], the term ''Alaska Native'' predominates, because of its legal use in the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act ([[ANCSA]]) and because it includes the Aleut, Inuit and Yupik peoples, the three groups of native Alaskan peoples. ''[[Eskimos]]'' was once used for those groups, but this term is in disfavor because it is perceived by many of them as derogatory. This is further complicated by the fact that the term Inuit is sometimes used to refer to any of the groups, leading non-Inuit (particularly amongst the Yupik peoples) to actually prefer Eskimo, comparatively speaking.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Inuit are "a people inhabiting the Arctic (northern Canada or Greenland or Alaska or eastern Siberia); the Algonquians called them Eskimo ('eaters of raw flesh') but they call themselves the Inuit ('the people') [syn: {Esquimau}, {Eskimo}]"<ref name="Miller_WordNet"/> ===Amerind=== The term ''Amerind'' is a blended form of ''American Indigenous''.{{Fact|date=October 2007}} However, this term also has been controversial, as it might be confused with a similar-sounding term, ''Amerindian.'' ===Discredited terms=== ====Redskin==== The name '''[[redskin]]''' was a term for Native Americans and one of the color metaphors for race used in North America and Europe throughout history. It is a counterpart to "pale face" or "pale skin", a term that some Native Americans supposedly used for Caucasians. Both are often considered pejorative. As with any term perceived to be discriminatory, different individuals may hold differing opinions of the term's appropriateness. The term's use was not restricted to the United States or North America. Redskin and a similar term, "red Indian", were in use throughout the English-speaking world and, in equivalent transliterations, in Europe throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries as a common term of reference for indigenous Americans. For example, the French translation ''peaux-rouges'' was used in [[Arthur Rimbaud]]'s ''[[Le Bateau ivre]]'' and several of the travelogues of [[Jean Raspail]]. ====Savage==== The term ''Savage'' was once used in [[anthropology]] as a blanket term for indigenous peoples worldwide (e.g. [[Bronislaw Malinowski]]'s 1929 study, ''The Sexual Life of Savages''). As late as the beginning of the Nineteenth Century, the United States government often used the term in dealing with Indian nations (see, e.g., the Justice Baldwin's dissenting opinion in ''[[Cherokee Nation v. Georgia]]''<ref>{{cite web|title=Cherokee Nation v. Georgia|publisher=United States Supreme Court|url=http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=US&vol=30&invol=1|date=1831}}</ref>) ====Other derogatory terms==== Another pejorative term that was once broadly accepted is "heathens", referring to the Native Americans' presumed non-Judeo-Christian religious beliefs. "Injun" is an intentional-mispronunciation of "Indian", generally used in a joking way to mock or impersonate Native Americans' supposed accented English (e.g. "Honest Injun", "Injun time").<ref>{{cite news|title=Kagen apologizes for remark Congressional candidate says use of 'Injun time' wasn't meant to offend|publisher=Milwaukee Journal-Sentinel|author=Steve Schultze|date=Oct. 23, 2006|url=http://www.jsonline.com/story/index.aspx?id=522021|accessdate=2007-10-17}}</ref> These terms are now universally considered derogatory and bigoted. Most Native Americans now agree that "Squaw" is a derogatory word as well with negative connotations of Native American women. "Indian princess" is increasingly out of popular usage among Native Americans and held demeaning to Native American women. == Names for Canadian native peoples == In Canada, the term ''[[Aboriginal peoples in Canada]]'' is used for all indigenous peoples established in the country, including the [[Inuit]] and [[Inuvialuit]], as well as the [[Métis people (Canada)|Métis]]. The term ''[[First Nations]]'' is used in a more restricted sense, for all the indigenous peoples in Canada except the Inuit, Inuvialuit, and Métis. === First Nations === In Canada, the term "[[First Nations]]" (most often used in the plural) has come into general use for the [[Indigenous peoples]] of [[North America]] located in what is now Canada, and their descendants, who are neither [[Inuit]] nor [[Métis people (Canada)|Métis]]. The singular commonly used on culturally politicized reserves is the awkward "First Nations person" (when gender-specific, First Nations man or First Nations woman). A more recent trend is for members of various nations to refer to themselves by their tribal/national identity only, e.g. "I'm Haida," "we're Kwantlens," in recognition of the distinctiveness and diversity of First Nations ethnicities. However, some tribal governments of Canada also use the term ''First Nations'' to refer to any indigenous, tribal or nomadic society. In this usage, the [[Roma people|Roma]], [[Sinti]], [[Sami people|Saami]], [[Māori]], [[Hmong people|Hmong]], and the Australian Aborigines are also considered "First Nations". === Canadian Indians === The term ''Indians'' was once used to refer to the peoples now called First Nations, but it has fallen largely in disuse. However, it is still relevant in many legal and administrative contexts. The Canadian [[Indian Act (Canada)|Indian Act]], which defines the rights of recognized First Nations, does refer to them as ''Indians''. The federal government department in charge of First Nations affairs is the [[Department of Indian and Northern Affairs]] headed by the [[Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development]]. People officially recognized by the [[Indian Register (Canada)|Indian Register]] under that act are commonly known as "Status Indians", although "Registered Indian" is the official term. Land set aside for the use of First Nations are known as [[Indian reserve]]s. The term ''Indian'' is also used in the official names of many . === Aboriginal Peoples in Canada === The term ''Aboriginal'' is defined in the [[Canadian Constitution]] to include "all Indian, Inuit, and Métis peoples of Canada" (Constitution Act, 1982, Subsection 35(2). The term is understood to include also the Inuvialuit. The term is also used in the U.S., though much less frequently. It is occasionally used in the UK The term ''Aborigines'' is not used in Canada to refer to indigenous American peoples. The alternative term ''Indigenous Peoples'' (or ''Tribes'', or ''Nations'') has been used as equivalent to ''Aboriginal Peoples''.<!--WHO PROPOSED IT? WHAT IS ITS STATUS?--> ==== Native Canadians ==== "Native" or "Native Canadian" is an ambiguous term, but it is often used in conversation or informal writing. However, First Nations and Aboriginal Peoples seem to be more widely used. ==== Anishinaabe ==== The [[Algonquin language|Algonquin]] term for "Original People", ''[[Anishinaabe]]'' or ''Anishinabe'', is used as a cross tribal term in Algonquian majority areas such as "Anishnabe Health" and "Anishnabe Education and Training Circle". The term is also used in the [[Upper Midwest]] region of the United States. ====Canadian French nomenclature==== In [[Canadian French]], the terms are ''première(s) nation(s)'' for "First Nations" and ''autochtone'' instead of "Aboriginal" (used both as a noun and adjective).<!--IS THIS THE PROPER CAPITALIZATION?--> The term ''indien'' or ''indienne'' is used in the legislation, although the preferred term is now ''amérindien''. The term ''indigène'' is not used as it is seen as having negative connotations because of its similarity to the French equivalent of "indigent", i.e. "lazy". The old French term ''sauvage'' (meaning "wild") is no longer used either, as it is considered racist. ====Chinook Jargon nomenclature==== The [[Chinook Jargon]], the old trade language of the Pacific Northwest, uses ''siwash''&mdash;an adaptation of the French ''sauvage''&mdash;to mean Indian/Native American/First Nation, either as adjective or noun. While normally meaning a male native, it is used in certain combinations, e.g. ''siwash cosho'', meaning a seal, but literally "Indian pig" or "Indian pork". Like ''sauvage'', ''siwash'' has come to have negative connotations in many native communities, while it remains in common parlance in others. When used by non-natives it is considered entirely derogatory except in placenames and certain other usages. In the creolized form of Chinook Jargon spoken at the Grand Ronde Agency in Oregon, a distinction is made between ''siwash'' and ''sawash''. The accent in the latter is on the second syllable, resembling the French original, and is used in Grand Ronde Jargon with the benign meaning of "anything native/Indian", while ''siwash'' is considered defamatory. The Chinook Jargon term for a native woman is ''klootchman'', an originally [[Nuu-chah-nulth|Nootkan]] word which became commonplace in regional English to mean a native woman, or (as in the Jargon), all women and also anything female. ''Hyas klootchman tyee'', "queen", ''klootchman cosho'', "sow"; ''klootchman tenas'' or ''tenas klootchman'', girl or little girl. Generally when used by itself in regional English ''klootchman'' means a native woman only, and did not acquire a derisive context as has ''siwash'' or ''squaw''. The short form ''klootch'', encountered only in English-Chinook hybrid phrasings, is often derisive, however, especially with modifiers (e.g. "blue-eyed klootch"). <!--I'll get the ref for that; heard on a vintage radio drama recently on radio CKNW here in BC, referring to a Metis girl-->. == Names by continent == === North America === There is no accepted special name for all indigenous peoples in North America as a whole, although Native American is sometimes used. The term ''North American Indian'' is often used for a member of the more restricted group comprising the First Nations in Canada together with the Native Americans in the United States. This term is usually understood to exclude the Alaskan Natives and the Inuit and Métis of Canada, and the indigenous peoples of Mexico. In [[Mexico]], the preferred expression is ''Indigenous Peoples'' (''pueblos indígenas'' in [[Spanish language|Spanish]], however, ''Indians'' (''indios'', ''índios'') is often used too, even by indigenous peoples themselves, since this expression is not seen as derogatory. === South America === In [[South America]], like in Mexico, the preferred expression is ''Indigenous Peoples'' (''pueblos indígenas'' in [[Spanish language|Spanish]], ''povos indígenas'' in [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]). However, ''Indians'' (''indios'', ''índios'') is often used too, even by indigenous peoples themselves, since this expression is not seen as derogatory. ====Indigenous Peoples and Indians of Latin America==== In [[Mexico]], [[Brazil]], and several other countries, these names are normally applied only to the ethnic groups that have maintained their identity and, to a some extent, their original way of life. In those countries there is also a large segment of the population with mixed native and European ancestry, who are largely integrated in mainstream society, and no longer identify themselves with their ancestral native groups. There are also [[Ladino (social group)|Ladino]]s who do not have significant European ancestry, but have adopted the culture of the White and Mestizo population. These people were originally called ''[[mestizo]]s'' in Mexico, ''caboclos'' in Brazil; however, those terms have largely fallen in disuse as that segment has come to predominate among the population. ====Aborigines==== The Spanish ''aborigen'', cognate of English ''Aborigine'', is also used in Spanish America, particularly in [[Chile]] and [[Argentina]]. The corresponding Portuguese term, ''aborígenas'', is almost never used in Brazil. ====Pre-Columbian and Pre-Cabraline Peoples==== The term "Pre-Columbian Peoples" (Sp. ''pueblos precolombinos'', Pt. ''povos pré-colombianos'') is used to refer to the ethnic groups that existed before the arrival of the Europeans, but not for their modern descendants. The term refers to [[Christopher Columbus|Columbus]], who landed in [[Hispaniola]] in 1492. In Brazil, ''Pre-Columbian'' is often replaced by "Pre-Cabraline" (Pt. ''pré-cabralinos''), after ''[[Pedro Álvares Cabral|Cabral]]'' who first landed in Brazil in 1500. === In both Americas === For the natives of the Americas as a whole, the phrase ''indigenous peoples of the Americas'' can be considered self-defined by the accepted meanings of "[[indigenous peoples]]" and "[[Americas]]," and seems to be the current preferred term in some anthropological and linguistic circles. Still, its precise meaning can be disputed. For example, it is debatable whether it includes the indigenous people of [[Hawaii|Hawai{{okina}}i]] and other [[United States|US]] territories outside the Americas. While those peoples have no known historical, cultural, or genetic connection with the indigenous peoples of the Americas, from a political and legal viewpoint they should arguably be considered "indigenous peoples" of their respective countries. Other names that have been used or proposed for the indigenous peoples of both continents include: ====Indian==== As discussed above ([[Native American name controversy#Indian and American Indian|# Indian and American Indian]]), this term has much precedence in the United States, but is considered offensive by some. However some older generations of Native Americans call themselves that. ====American Indian==== Given the ambiguity of ''Indian'', it was often necessary to use ''American Indian'' in order to distinguish those peoples from the natives of the East Indies, or the West Indies. However, as noted above, ''American'' itself is ambiguous. ====Red Indian==== In [[Great Britain|Britain]] and some other English-speaking countries outside the Americas, the term ''Red Indian'' is still used to differentiate the American natives from the "East Indians". However, in North America the term is now considered an offensive racial slur, and is rarely if ever used.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} ====Amerindian==== In the [[French language|French]]-speaking world, the term ''Amérindien'' was coined for the same purpose. The term was imported into English as ''Amerindian'', sometimes abbreviated ''Amerind''. This term gained some popularity among linguists, anthropologists, and other social scientists. The term is officially used by ''[[World Almanac|The World Almanac]]''. However, in scientific circles the term ''Amerind'' is often restricted to a subset of the indigenous peoples of the Americas, mostly from South and Central America, Mexico and the Southern United States. The peoples in this group share many genetic and cultural features that set them apart from the [[Na-Dene peoples]], which comprise the majority of the U.S. and southern Canada indigenous peoples, and from the [[Eskimo]] peoples in [[Alaska]] and the [[Canadian Arctic]]: ([[Inuit]], [[Yupik]], and [[Aleut]]). Many anthropologists believe that these Amerind peoples are the descendants of the first [[models of migration to the New World|immigrant wave from Siberia]] (15,000–10,000 years ago).{{Fact|date=February 2007}} ====Native American or American Native==== At face value, ''Native American'' and ''American Native'' could be taken to mean indigenous peoples of the Americas. This meaning is used in this article; however, some restrict its meaning to refer specifically for peoples in the United States, as discussed above, ([[Native American name controversy#Meanings of basic terms|# Meanings of basic terms]]). This term is also regarded as offensive by some, as discussed above, ([[Native American name controversy#Indian and American Indian|# Indian and American Indian]]). ==See also== *[[Abya Yala]], a proposed native (from the Panama [[Kuna]]s) name for the Americas, avoiding the mention of [[Amerigo Vespucci]]. * Individual tribal or ethnic groups which have their own naming controversies: ** [[Cherokee]] ** [[Haida]] ** [[Yanomami]] ** [[Taino]] == Notes and references == <!--<nowiki> See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the <ref> and </ref> tags, and the template below </nowiki>--> {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * {{cite book | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | editor = | year =2000 | title =The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language | accessdate =2006-08-06 | publisher =Houghton Mifflin | location =Boston | id =ISBN 0-395-82517-2 (hardcover), ISBN 0-618-08230-1hardcover with CD ROM) | pages = | chapter =}} <br>Fourth Edition * {{cite web | last =Brunner | first =Borgna | coauthors = | date = | year =2006 (c) | month = | url =http://www.infoplease.com/spot/aihmterms.html | title ="American Indian versus Native American: A once-heated issue has sorted itself out" | work = | publisher = | accessdate =not recorded }} <br>Includes sources (including quotes Russel Means at [http://www.peaknet.net/~aardvark/means.html "I am an American Indian, Not a Native American!"] and Christina Berry at [http://www.allthingscherokee.com/atc_sub_culture_feat_events_070101.html "What's in a Name? Indians and Political Correctness"], also referenced on this page). * {{cite book | last =Carlin | first =George | authorlink = | coauthors = | editor = | year =1997 | title =Brain droppings | accessdate = | publisher =Hyperion | location =New York | id =ISBN 0-7868-6313-7 | pages = | chapter =}} * {{cite web | last =Dailey | first =Tom | date =2006-06-14 | year = | month = | url=http://coastsalishmap.org/new_page_6.htm | title ="Duwamish-Seattle" | work=[http://coastsalishmap.org/start_page.htm "Coast Salish Villages of Puget Sound"] | publisher = | accessdate =2006-04-21}} <br>Page links to Village Descriptions Duwamish-Seattle section [http://coastsalishmap.org/Village_Descriptions_Duwamish-Seattle.htm]. <br>Dailey referenced "Puget Sound Geography" by T. T. Waterman. Washington DC: National Anthropological Archives, mss. [n.d.] [ref. 2]; <br>''Duwamish et al vs. United States of America, F-275''. Washington DC: US Court of Claims, 1927. [ref. 5]; <br>"Indian Lake Washington" by David Buerge in the ''Seattle Weekly'', 1-7 August 1984 [ref. 8]; <br>"Seattle Before Seattle" by David Buerge in the ''Seattle Weekly'', 17-23 December 1980. [ref. 9]; <br>''The Puyallup-Nisqually'' by Marian W. Smith. New York: Columbia University Press, 1940. [ref. 10]. <br>Recommended start is "Coast Salish Villages of Puget Sound" [http://coastsalishmap.org/start_page.htm]. * {{cite news | first =Peter | last =d'Errico | author = | coauthors = | url =http://www.indiancountry.com/content.cfm?id=1096412113 | title =An interview with Charles C. Mann | work = | publisher =Indian Country Today | pages = | page = | date =2005-12-20 | accessdate =2006-08-06 }} <br>Part 1 and [http://www.indiancountry.com/content.cfm?id=1096412156 Part 2 of 2] * {{cite web | last =d'Errico | first =Peter, Legal Studies Department, [[University of Massachusetts]] | coauthors = | date =2005-07-11 | year = | month = | url =http://www.umass.edu/legal/derrico/name.html | title ="Native American Indian Studies - A Note on Names" | work = | publisher =[[University of Massachusetts]] | accessdate =2006-08-06 }} <br>Provides references. * Dyck, Michael (ed.) (16 June 2002). [http://www.ibiblio.org/webster/ "GCIDE_XML"], the GNU version of ''The Collaborative International Dictionary of English'', presented in the Extensible Markup Language. Based on GCIDE version 0.46 (15 April 2002). Retrieved 21 April 2006. * {{cite web | last =George; staff report, ''Straight Dope Science Advisory Board'' | first = | coauthors = | date =2001-10-25 | year = | month = | url =http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mgenteindios.html | title ="Does 'Indian' derive from Columbus's description of Native Americans as ''una gente in Dios''?" | work = | publisher =Chicago Reader, Inc. | accessdate =2006-04-21 }} * {{cite book | last =Mann | first =Charles C. | authorlink = | coauthors = | editor = | year =2005 | title =1491 : new revelations of the Americas before Columbus | accessdate =2006-08-06 | publisher =Knopf | location =New York | id =ISBN 1-4000-4006-X (alk. paper) | pages = | chapter = }} * {{cite web | last =Means | first =Russell | coauthors = | date = | year =1996 (c), last update 2000-12-16 | month = | url =http://www.peaknet.net/~aardvark/means.html | title ="I am an American Indian, Not a Native American!" | work = | publisher =[http://www.peaknet.net/~aardvark/index2.html Jim Hickinbotham (Rabid Wolf, Choctaw)] | accessdate =not recorded }} * {{cite web | last =Talbert | first =Paul | coauthors = | date =2006-05-01 | year = | month = | url=http://www.sewardpark.org/sewardpark/history.html | title ="SkEba'kst: The Lake People and Seward Park" | work =The History of Seward Park | publisher =SewardPark.org | accessdate =2006-06-06}} == Further reading == *[http://www.nativeweb.org/pages/legal/shoshone/indian.html "American Indians - Native Americans: A Note on Terminology"], Peter d'Errico ([[22 August]] 2002), NativeWeb.org. <br>Condensed version of d'Errico (2005) *[http://www.umass.edu/legal/derrico/name.html "Native American Indian Studies - A Note on Names"], Peter d'Errico ([[11 July]] 2005), Legal Studies Department, [[University of Massachusetts]]. References provided. *[http://www.allthingscherokee.com/atc_sub_culture_feat_events_070101.html "What's in a Name? Indians and Political Correctness"], Christina Berry ([[12 July]] 2006), [http://www.allthingscherokee.com/ All Things Cherokee]. (''The above are also listed bibliographic references.'') *{{cite web | last =Hickinbotham | first =Jim | coauthors = | date =2000-12-16 updated | year = | month = | url=http://www.peaknet.net/~aardvark/index2.html | title ="A Testimony to the Survival of Original Peoples <nowiki>[...]</nowiki>" | work = | publisher = | accessdate =2006-08-06}} <br>"Trails" section heading is a table of contents to people and sources related to the naming controversy. (Not [[WP:NPOV|neutral point of view]], but provides good leads.) {{IndigPeopleAmericas nav}} [[:Category:First Nations governments|First Nations governments]] [[Category:Indigenous peoples of the Americas]] [[Category:Native American]] [[Category:Naming controversies]]