Necromancy
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{{Otheruses4|the general subject of necromancy|other uses|Necromancer (disambiguation)}}
'''Necromancy''' ['''nek'''-''ruh''-man-see]([[Greek language|Greek]] νεκρομαντία, ''nekromantía'') is a form of [[divination]] in which the practitioner seeks to summon "operative spirits" or "spirits of divination", for multiple reasons, from spiritual protection to wisdom. The word ''necromancy'' derives from the [[Greek language|Greek]] νεκρός (''nekrós''), "dead", and μαντεία (''manteía''), "divination".
However, since the Renaissance, necromancy has come to be associated more broadly with [[black magic]] and [[demon]]-summoning in general, sometimes losing its earlier, more specialized meaning. By popular etymology, ''nekromantia'' became ''nigromancy'' "[[black arts]]", and [[Johannes Hartlieb]] (1456) lists [[demonology]] in general under the heading.
[[Eliphas Levi]], in his book ''Dogma et Ritual'', states that necromancy is the evoking of aerial bodies ([[aeromancy]]). (page 64)
== Antiquity ==
{{main|Magic in the Greco-Roman world}}[[Image:Endor.jpg|thumb|200px|The [[Witch of Endor]] is the most famous Biblical necromancer.]]
Early necromancy is likely related to [[shamanism]], which calls upon spirits such as the ghosts of ancestors. Classical necromancers addressed the dead in "a mixture of high-pitch squeaking and low droning", comparable to the [[altered state of consciousness|trance-state]] mutterings of shamans.<ref name="arcana">Luck, Georg (2006). ''Arcana Mundi: Magic and the Occult in the Greek and Roman Worlds'' (Second Edition). The Johns Hopkins University Press: Baltimore. ISBN 0-8018-8346-6.</ref>
The historian [[Strabo]] refers to necromancy as the principal form of divination amongst the people of [[Persian Empire|Persia]] (Strabo, xvi. 2, 39, νεκρομαντία), and it is believed to also have been widespread amongst the peoples of [[Chaldea]] (particularly amongst the [[Sabians]] or star-worshipers), [[Etruria]], and [[Babylonia]]. The Babylonian necromancers were called ''Manzazuu'' or ''Sha'etemmu'', and the spirits they raised were called ''Etemmu''.
Necromancy was widespread in Western antiquity with records of practice in Babylon, Egypt, Greece, and Rome.<ref>Encyclopedia of Witchcraft the Western Tradition, ed. Richard M. Golden (California: ABC-CLIO, 2006), 808.</ref> The oldest literary account of necromancy is in Homer’s Odyssey (ca. 700 BCE).<ref>Encyclopedia of Witchcraft the Western Tradition, ed. Richard M. Golden (California: ABC-CLIO, 2006), 808.</ref> In the ''[[Odyssey]]'' (XI, [[Nekyia]]), [[Odysseus]] under the tutelage of [[Circe]], a powerful sorceress, makes a voyage to [[Hades]], the Underworld, in an effort to raise the spirits of the dead using spells which [[Circe]] has instructed (Ruickbie, 2004:24). His intention is to invoke and ask questions of the shade of [[Tiresias]], in order to gain insight on the impending voyage home. Alas, he is unable to summon the spirit without the assistance of others. In Homer's passage, there are many references to specific rituals associated with necromancy; the rites must be done during nocturnal hours, and based around a pit with fire.<ref>Encyclopedia of Witchcraft the Western Tradition, ed. Richard M. Golden (California: ABC-CLIO, 2006), 808.</ref> In addition, Odysseus has to follow a specific recipe, which included using sacrificial animals blood for ghosts to drink, while he recites prayers to both the ghosts and gods of the underworld.<ref>Encyclopedia of Witchcraft the Western Tradition, ed. Richard M. Golden (California: ABC-CLIO, 2006), 808.</ref> Rituals, such as these, were common practices associated with necromancy, and varied from the mundane to the more grotesque. Rituals in necromancy involved magic circles, wands, talismans, bells, and incantations.<ref>Rosemary Ellen Guiley, The Encyclopedia of Magic and Alchemy, (New York: Facts on File, 2006), 215.</ref> Also, the necromancer would surround himself with morbid aspects of death, which often included wearing the deceased's clothing, consumption of unsalted, unleavened black bread and unfermented grape juice, which symbolized decay and lifelessness.<ref>Rosemary Ellen Guiley, The Encyclopedia of Magic and Alchemy (New York: Facts on File, 2006), 215.</ref> Necromancers even went as far as taking part in the mutilation and consumption of corpses.<ref>Rosemary Ellen Guiley, The Encyclopedia of Magic and Alchemy (New York: Facts on File, 2006), 215.</ref> Rituals, such as these, could carry on for hours, days, even weeks leading up the summoning of spirits. Often these practices took part in graveyards or in other melancholy venues that suited specific guidelines of the necromancer. Additionally, necromancers preferred summoning the recently departed, citing that their revelations were spoken more clearly; this timeframe usually consisted of 12 months following the death of the body.<ref>James R. Lewis, Encyclopedia of Wiccan and Neopagan Traditions (California: ABC-CLIO, 1999), 201.</ref> Once this time period lapsed, necromancers would summon the deceased’s ghostly spirit to appear instead.
Although some cultures may have considered the knowledge of the dead to be unlimited, to the ancient Greeks and Romans, there is an indication that individual shades knew only certain things. The apparent value of their counsel may have been a result of things they had known in life, or of knowledge they acquired after death: [[Ovid]] writes of a marketplace in the underworld, where the dead could exchange news and gossip (''Metamorphoses'' 4.444; ''Tristia'' 4.10.87–88).<ref name="arcana"/>
There are also many references to necromancers, called "bone-conjurers", in the [[Bible]]. The [[Deuteronomy|Book of Deuteronomy]] (XVIII 9–12) explicitly warns the Israelites against the Canaanite practice of divination from the dead. This warning was not always heeded: [[Saul the King|King Saul]] has the [[Witch of Endor]] invoke the shade of [[Samuel (Bible)|Samuel]] using a magical amulet, for example. Later Christian writers rejected the idea that humans could bring back the spirits of the dead, and interpreted such shades as disguised demons, thus conflating necromancy with demon-summoning.
[[Caesarius of Arles]] (Kors and Peters, 48) entreats his audience to put no stock in any demons, or "gods" other than the Christian God, even if the working of spells appears to provide benefit. He states that demons only act with divine permission, and permitted by God to test Christian people. Caesarius does not condemn man here; he only states that the art of necromancy exists, although it is prohibited by the Bible.
== High Middle Ages ==
Many medieval writers believed resurrection was impossible without the assistance of the Christian God. They translated the practice of divination as conjuring demons who took the appearance of spirits. The practice became known explicitly as demonic magic and was condemned by the Roman Catholic Church, (Kieckhefer 152). Though the practitioners of necromancy were linked by many common threads, there is no evidence that these necromancers were ever organized as a group.
Medieval necromancy is believed to be a synthesis of astral magic derived from Arabic influences and exorcism derived from Christian and Jewish teachings. Arabic influences are evident in rituals that involve moon phases, sun placement, day and time. Fumigation and the act of burying images are also found in both astral magic and necromancy. Christian and Jewish influences are found in the symbols and conjuration formulas used in summoning rituals. (Kieckhefer 165-166)
Practitioners were often members of the Christian [[clergy]], though some nonclerical practitioners are recorded. In some instances, mere apprentices or those ordained to lower orders dabbled in the practice. They were connected by a belief in the manipulation of spiritual beings, (esp. [[demons]]), and magical practices. These practitioners were almost always literate and well educated. Most possessed basic knowledge of [[exorcism]] and had access to texts of [[astrology]] and [[demonology]]. Clerical training was informal and admission to universities was rare. Most were trained under apprenticeships and were expected to have a basic knowledge of Latin, ritual and doctrine. This education was not always linked to spiritual guidance and seminaries were almost nonexistent. This absence allowed some aspiring clerics to combine Christian rites with occult practices despite its condemnation in Christian doctrine. (Kieckhefer 153-154)
Medieval practitioners believed they could accomplish three things with necromancy: will manipulation, illusions, and knowledge. Will manipulation affects the mind and will of another person, animal, or spirit. Demons are summoned to cause various afflictions on others “to drive them mad, to inflame them to love or hatred, to gain their favor, or to constrain them to do or not do some deed,” (Kieckhefer, 158). Illusions involve reanimation of the dead, food and entertainment, or conjuring a mode of transportation. Knowledge is discovered through demons. Demons provide information on various things including identifying a criminal, finding items, or revealing future events.
The act of performing medieval necromancy usually involved magic circles, conjurations, and sacrifices as shown in the [[Munich Handbook]]. Circles were usually traced on the ground, though cloth and parchment were sometimes implemented. Various objects, shapes, symbols, and letters may be drawn or placed within that represent a mixture of Christian and occult ideas. Circles were believed to empower and protect what was contained within, including protecting the necromancer from the conjured demons. Conjuration is the method of communicating with the demons to enter the physical world. It usually employs the power of special words and stances to call out the demons and often incorporated the use of Christian prayers or biblical verses. These conjurations may be repeated in succession or repeated to different directions until the summoning is complete. Sacrifice was the payment for summoning. Though it may involve the flesh of a human being or animal, it could sometimes be as simple as offering a certain object. Instructions for obtaining these items were usually specific. The time, location, and method of gathering items for sacrifice could also play an important role in the ritual. (Kieckhefer, 159-162)
The rare confessions of those accused of Necromancy suggest that there was a range of spell casting and the related magical experimentation. It is difficult to determine if these details were due to their practices, as opposed to the whims of their interrogators. [[John of Salisbury]] is one of the first examples related by Kieckhefer, but as a Parisian [[ecclesiastical]] court record of 1323 shows, a “group who were plotting to invoke the [[demon]] Berich from inside a circle made from strips of cat skin,” were obviously participating in the church’s definition of “necromancy.” (Kieckhefer, 191)
[[Norse mythology]] also contains examples of necromancy (Ruickbie, 2004:48), such as the scene in the ''[[Völuspá]]'' in which [[Odin]] summons a seeress from the dead to tell him of the future. In [[Grógaldr]], the first part of [[Svipdagsmál]], the hero [[Svipdag]] summons his dead [[Völva]] mother, [[Gróa]], to cast spells for him. In ''[[Hrólf Kraki's saga]]'', the [[Half-elf|half-elven]] princess [[Skuld (princess)|Skuld]] was very skilled in witchcraft ([[seiðr]]), and this to the point that she was almost invincible in battle. When her warriors fell, she made them rise again to continue fighting.
[[Herbert Stanley Redgrove]] claims that necromancy was one of three chief branches of medieval [[ceremonial magic]], the others being [[black magic]] and [[white magic]].<ref>
In ''Bygone Beliefs'', chapter 7: Ceremonial magic in theory and practice</ref> This does not correspond to contemporary classifications, which use ''nigromancy'' and ''black arts'' synonymously.
==Late Middle Ages to Renaissance==
{{see|Renaissance magic}}
In the wake of inconsistencies of judgment, necromancers, sorcerers and witches were able to utilize spells with holy names with impunity, as biblical references in such rituals could be construed as prayers as opposed to spells. As a result, the necromancy discussed in the [[Munich Handbook|Munich Manual]] is an evolution of these understandings. It has even been suggested that the authors of the Munich Manual knowingly designed this book to be in discord with understood [[ecclesiastical law]].
The main recipe employed throughout the manual in the necromancy sorcery uses the same vocabulary and structure utilizing the same languages, sections, names of power alongside [[demonic]] names. The understanding of the names of God from [[apocryphal]] texts and the Hebrew [[torah]] demand that the author of such rites have at least a casual familiarity of these texts.
Within the tales related in occult manuals, we also find connections with other stories in similar cultural literature (Kieckhefer, 43). The ceremony for conjuring a horse closely relates to the Arabic [[The Thousand and One Nights]], and the French romances. [[Chaucer]]’s [[Canterbury Tales|The Squire's Tale]] also has marked similarities. This becomes a parallel evolution of spells to foreign gods or demons that were once acceptable, and framing them into a new Christian context, albeit demonic and forbidden. Most forms of Satanic Necromancy today include prayers to such demons, namely [[Naberius|Nebiros]], and [[Eurynomos]].
As the source material for these manuals is apparently derived from scholarly magical and religious texts from a variety of sources in many languages, it is easy to conclude that the scholars that studied these texts manufactured their own aggregate sourcebook and manual with which to work spells or magic.
In the notebooks of [[Leonardo da Vinci]], it is stated that:
: Of all human opinions that is to be reputed the most foolish which deals with the belief in Necromancy, the sister of Alchemy, which gives birth to simple and natural things. (taken from 12:13)
== Modern necromancy ==
In modern time necromancy is used as a more general term to describe the art (or manipulation) of death, and generally implies a magical connotation. Modern [[séance]]s, [[channeling]] and [[Spiritualism]] verge on necromancy when the invoked spirits are asked to reveal future events. Necromancy may also be dressed up as [[sciomancy]], a branch of [[theurgy|theurgic magic]].
Necromancy is extensively practiced in [[Quimbanda]] and is sometimes seen in other African traditions such as [[voodoo]] and in [[santeria]], though once a person is possessed by a spirit in the [[yoruba]] tradition he cannot rise to a higher spiritual position such as that of a [[babalawo]], but this should not be regarded as a modern tradition, in fact it predates most necromantic practices.
''An Encyclopedia of Occultism<ref>Spence, Lewis. (1920). ''An Encyclopedia of Occultism.'' Hyde Park, NY : University Books.</ref> states: <Br>
:The art is of almost universal usage. Considerable difference of opinion exists among modern adepts as to the exact methods to be properly pursued in the necromantic art, and it must be borne in mind the necromancy, which in the Middle Ages was called sorcery, shades into modern spiritualistic practice. There is no doubt, however, that necromancy is the touchstone of occultism, for if, after careful preparation the adept can carry through to a successful issue, the raising of the soul from the other world, he has proved the value of his art.
== Notes ==
{{reflist}}
==Literature==
*''[[Sabriel]]'' [[Garth Nix|Nix, Garth]]
*[http://www.ancientlibrary.com/divination/index.html Halliday, Greek Divination] (1913). Chapter 11 is on [http://www.ancientlibrary.com/divination/0247.html Necromancy]
*Ogden, Daniel, ''Greek and Roman Necromancy'' 2004. ISBN 0-691-11968-6 — [http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/bmcr/2002/2002-06-19.html Reviewed by Sarah Iles Johnston], ''Bryn Mawr Classical Review'' (6/19/2002), with stinging methodological criticism.
*[[Leo Ruickbie|Ruickbie, Leo]], ''Witchcraft Out of the Shadows''. Robert Hale, 2004. ISBN 0-7090-7567-7. See ch. 1 in general and p.24 in particular for discussion of necromancy in the encounter between Circe and Odysseus.
*Wendell, Leilah. (1997). ''Necromany 101''.
* Digitalis, Raven: ''Goth Craft: The Magickal Side of Dark Culture'' (Llewellyn, US, English, 2007) ISBN: [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=0738711047 0738711047] (softback). Covers magick, [[Witchcraft]], [[Wicca]], occultism, Necromancy (chapter 7: 'the death current'), and the Gothic subculture
*Spence, Lewis. (1920). ''An Encyclopedia of Occultism.'' Hyde Park, NY : University Books.
'''Medieval'''
*Kieckhefer, Richard. (1997). ''Forbidden Rites.'' Sutton Publishing.
*____. (1989). ''Magic in the Middle Ages.'' Cambridge : Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-78576-6
*Kors & Peters (2001). ''Witchcraft in Europe 400-1700.'' Philadelphia : University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-1751-9
*Vulliaud, Paul. (1923). ''La Kabbale Juive : histoire et doctrine'', 2 vols. Paris : Émile Nourry, 62 Rue des Écoles.
* (Knee-Crow-Mansir)
==See also==
*[[Alchemy]]
*[[Doctor Byron Orpheus]] a fictional necromancer on the U.S. TV series [[The Venture Bros.]]
*[[List of magical terms and traditions]]
*[[Magic (paranormal)|Magic]]
*[[Magick]]
*[[Parapsychology]]
*[[Quimbanda]]
*[[Undead]]
==External links==
*[http://docs.google.com/View?docid=ddwd98qd_1gh2q2z Necromancy in works of J.R.R. Tolkien]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10735a.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' Necromancy]
*[http://realmagick.com/articles/17/1817.html : Necromany 101] New Age Necromantic Practices
*[http://exu.moonfruit.com/ Quimbanda Temple in Europe] Necromancy Tradition
*[http://www.westgatenecromantic.com Westgate Necromancy]
*[http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC02657815&id=25lDvKU-vGwC&dq=necromancy&as_brr=1 Lives of the necromancers: or, An account of the most eminent persons in successive ages, who... By William Godwin, 1834]
*[http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC05091720&id=DH0hAAAAMAAJ&dq=necromancy&as_brr=1 Kate Clarendon, or, Necromancy in the wilderness: or, Necromancy in the wilderness. A tale of the... By Emerson Bennett, 1848]
[[Category:Divination]]
[[Category:Magic (paranormal)]]
[[Category:Left Hand Path]]
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