Neopaganism 21686 226089234 2008-07-16T19:51:03Z Totnesmartin 1785980 /* Terminology and definition */ rm citecheck tag, and details unsupported by references {{for|other uses|Neo-Pagan (disambiguation)}} {{Neopaganism2}} '''Neopaganism''' or '''Neo-Paganism''' is an [[umbrella term]] used to identify a wide variety of modern [[religion|religious]] movements, particularly those influenced by historical pre-Christian European "[[Paganism|pagan]]" religions.<ref>Lewis, James R. ''The Oxford Handbook of New Religious Movements'' (Oxford University Press, 2004). p. 13. ISBN 0195149866.</ref><ref>Hanegraaff, Wouter J. ''New Age Religion and Western Culture: Esotericism in the Mirror of Secular Thought'' (Brill Academic Publishers, 1996). p. 84. ISBN 9004106960.</ref> Neo-Pagan religious movements are extremely diverse, with beliefs that range widely from [[polytheism]] to [[animism]], to [[pantheism]] and other paradigms. Many Neopagans practice a spirituality that is entirely modern in origin, while others attempt to accurately [[Polytheistic reconstructionism|reconstruct]] or revive indigenous, ethnic religions as found in historical and folkloric sources.<ref name="Adler">{{cite book | last = Adler | first = Margot | title = Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess Worshippers and Other Pagans in America | publisher = Penguin Books | date = 1979, revised and updated 1986, 1996, 2006 | location = New York, NY | id = ISBN 0143038192 | pages = pp. 3-4 (1986 ed.)}}</ref> ''(see also [[List of Neopagan movements]])'' Neopaganism is particularly strong in the [[Neopaganism in the United States|United States]], [[Neopaganism in the United Kingdom|Britain]], [[Latvia]], [[Greece]], [[Lithuania]], [[Iceland]], [[Scandinavia]], [[Ukraine]] and [[Russia]]. The largest Neopagan movement is [[Wicca]]. ==Terminology and definition== The word "pagan" comes from the Latin ''paganus'', originally meaning "rustic" or "from the country", and later also used for "civilian". The [[pejorative]] meaning, "uneducated non-Christian", emerges in [[Vulgar Latin]] from the 4th century.<ref>[[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]], ''Divers. Quaest.'' 83.</ref> Since Christianity first spread to the cities, the rural Europeans, were the last to convert to Christianty. The term ''neo-pagan'' was coined in the 19th century in reference to [[Italian Renaissance|Renaissance]] and [[Romanticist]] [[Hellenophile]] classical revivalism.<ref>''The very persons who would most writhe and wail at their surroundings if transported back into early Greece, would, I think, be the neo-pagans and Hellas worshipers of today. '' ([[William James|W. James]], letter of 5 April 1868, cited after OED); ''The neopagan impulse of the classical revival. '' ([[John Addington Symonds|J. A. Symonds]], ''Renaissance in Italy'' 1877, iv. 193); ''[[Pre-Raphaelitism]] [...] has got mixed up with æstheticism, neo-paganism, and other such fantasies.'' ([[Justin McCarthy|J. McCarthy]] ''A history of our own times'', 1880, iv. 542)</ref> "Pagan" and "Neopagan", when capitalized, refer to religions, or members of a Pagan or Neopagan religion, "in the same way as one would describe a 'Christian' or a 'Jew'."<ref name="Adler"/> This usage has been common since the Neopagan revival in the 1970s, and is now used by academics and adherents alike to identify [[new religious movement]]s that emphasize pantheism or nature-worship,<ref>[[OED]], s.v. "pagan"</ref> or that revive or reconstruct aspects of historical polytheism. The term "Neopagan" provides a means of distinguishing between historical Pagans of ancient cultures and the adherents of modern religious movements. The category of religions known as "Neopagan" includes syncretic or eclectic approaches like [[Wicca]], [[Neo-druidism]], and [[Neoshamanism]] at one end of the spectrum, as well as culturally specific traditions, such as the many varieties of [[polytheistic reconstructionism]], at the other.<ref name="Adler3">{{cite book | last = Adler | first = Margot | title = Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess Worshipers and Other Pagans in America | publisher = | date = | location = | id = | pages = }}</ref> Some Reconstructionists reject the term "Neopagan" because they wish to set their historically oriented approach apart from generic "Neopagan" eclecticism.<ref name="Adler4">Adler (2006) pp.243-299</ref><ref name="Bonewits">Bonewits (2006) pp.128-140</ref> [[Image:YSEE ritual.jpg|thumb|300px|right|A ceremony at the annual Prometheia festival of the Greek polytheistic group [[Supreme Council of Ethnikoi Hellenes]], June 2006.]] "Pagan" as a self-designation of Neopagans appeared in 1964 and 1965, in the publications of the Witchcraft Research Association; at that time, the term was in use by "revivalist Witches" in the United States and the United Kingdom, but unconnected to the broader, counter-culture Neopagan movement.<ref name="Adler p.295">Adler (1996) p.295</ref> The modern popularization of the terms "Pagan" and "Neopagan", as they are currently understood, is largely traced to [[Oberon Zell-Ravenheart]], co-founder of "the 1st Neo-Pagan [[Church of All Worlds]]" who, beginning in 1967 with the early issues of ''[[Green Egg]]'', used both terms for the growing movement.<ref name="Adler p.295"/> Increasingly, however, scholarly writers prefer the term "contemporary Paganism" to cover all new polytheistic religious movements, a usage favored by [http://www.equinoxjournals.com/ojs/index.php/pom ''The Pomegranate: The International Journal of Pagan Studies''], the leading [[peer review|peer-reviewed]] [[Academic journal|journal]] in the field. "Heathen", "Heathenism" or "Heathenry" as a self-designation of adherents of [[Germanic neopaganism]] ([[Theodism]] in particular) appeared in the late 1990s.<ref>Eric Wodening, ''We Are Our Deeds: The Elder Heathenry, Its Ethic and Thew'' (1998), ISBN 1929340001</ref> ==History== ;'''Origins''' The roots of Neopaganism begin with the [[Renaissance]], and the reintroduction of [[Classicism]] and the resurgence of interest in [[Graeco-Roman polytheism]] in the wake of works like the ''[[Theologia mythologica]]'' of 1532.{{Fact|date=May 2008}} The [[Romanticism|Romantic]] movement of the 18th century led to the re-discovery of [[Old Gaelic]] and [[Old Norse literature]] and [[Germanic poetry|poetry]]. [[Neo-druidism]] can be taken to have its origins as early as 1717 with the foundation of [[The Druid Order]]. The 19th century saw a surge of interest in [[Germanic paganism]] with the [[Viking revival]] in the [[British Isles]] and [[Scandinavia]]. In [[Germany]] the [[Völkisch movement]] was in full swing. These Neopagan currents coincided with Romanticist interest in [[folklore]] and [[occultism]], the widespread emergence of pagan themes in popular [[literature]], and the rise of [[nationalism]].<ref>{{cite book | last =Hutton | first =Ronald | authorlink = | coauthors = | year =2001 | title =The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft | publisher = | location = | id =ISBN 0-19-285449-6 }} p.22</ref> ;'''Occultic Revival''' During this resurgence in the [[United Kingdom]], [[Neo-druidism]] and various Western occult groups emerged, such as the [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]] and the [[Ordo Templi Orientis]], who attempted to syncretize "exotic" elements like [[Egypt]]ian cosmology and [[Kabbalah]] into their belief systems, although not necessarily for purely religious purposes. Influenced by the anthropologist Sir [[James George Frazer]]'s ''[[The Golden Bough]]'', several prominent writers and artists were involved in these organizations, including [[William Butler Yeats]], [[Maud Gonne]], [[Arthur Edward Waite]], and [[Aleister Crowley]]. Along with these early occult organizations, there were other social phenomena such as the interest in [[medium (spirituality)|mediumship]], [[magic (paranormal)|magic]], and other supernatural beliefs which was at an all time high in the late 19th century and early 20th century. Another important influence during this period was the [[Romanticism|Romantic]] aesthetic movement, which venerated the natural world and frequently made reference to the deities of antiquity.{{Fact|date=May 2008}} The Romantic poets, essayists, artists and authors who employed these themes in their work were later associated with socially progressive attitudes towards [[Human sexuality|sexuality]], [[feminism]], [[pacifism]] and similar issues.{{Fact|date=May 2008}} ;'''Witchcraft Revival''' In the 1920s [[Margaret Murray]] theorized that a [[Witchcraft]] religion existed underground and in secret, and had survived through the witchcraft prosecutions that had been enacted by the [[ecclesiastical court|ecclesiastical]] and secular [[courts]]. Most historians now reject Murray's theory, as she based it partially upon the similarities of the accounts given by those accused of witchcraft; such similarity is now thought to actually derive from there having been a standard set of questions laid out in the [[witch-hunt]]ing manuals used by interrogators.<ref>Hutton, ''Triumph of the Moon'' pp.194-201</ref> Murray's ideas nevertheless exerted great influence on certain Neopagan currents; in the 1940s, Englishman [[Gerald Gardner]] claimed to have been initiated into a [[New Forest coven]]. ''[[Gardnerian Wicca]]'' is used to refer to the traditions of Neopaganism that adhere closely to Gardner's teachings, differentiating it from similar traditions, such as [[Alexandrian Wicca]] or more recent Wiccan offshoots. ;'''Germanic Mysticism''' In the meantime, [[Germanic mysticism]] in Germany and Switzerland had developed into baroque forms such as [[Guido von List]]'s "Armanism", from the 1900s merging into [[Antisemitism|antisemitic]] and [[national mysticist]] (''[[völkisch]]'') currents, notably with [[Lanz von Liebenfels]]' ''[[Guido von List Society]]'' and ''[[Ostara (magazine)|Ostara]]'' magazine, which with the rise of [[Nazism]] were partially absorbed into [[Nazi occultism]]. Other Germanic mysticist groups, such as the ''[[Germanische Glaubens-Gemeinschaft]]'' of [[Ludwig Fahrenkrog]] were disendorsed by the Nazi regime. Such distortions of Germanic mythology were denounced by [[J. R. R. Tolkien]], e.g. in a 1941 letter where he speaks of Hitler's corruption of "...that noble northern spirit, a supreme contribution to Europe, which I have ever loved and tried to present in its true light."<ref name="tolkien">[[J. R. R. Tolkien|Tolkien, JRR]], ''[[The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien|Letters]]'', pp.55-56</ref> Because of such connections with Nazism, interest in Neopaganism was virtually eclipsed for about two decades following [[World War II]]. ;'''Neopagan emergence''' The 1960s and 1970s saw a resurgence in [[Neodruidism]] as well as the rise of [[Germanic Neopaganism]] and [[Ásatrú]] in the [[USA]] and in [[Iceland]]. In the 1970s, [[Wicca]] was notably influenced by [[feminism]], leading to the creation of an eclectic, [[Goddess]]-worshipping movement known as [[Dianic Wicca]].<ref name="Adler 2006 178">Adler (2006) pp.178-239: "Women, Feminism and the Craft"</ref> The 1979 publication of [[Margot Adler]]'s ''[[Drawing Down the Moon (book)|Drawing Down the Moon]]'' and [[Starhawk]]'s ''[[The Spiral Dance]]'' opened a new chapter in public awareness of Neopaganism.<ref name="Adler 2006 ix">Adler (2006) p.ix</ref> With the growth and spread of large, Neopagan gatherings and festivals in the 1980s, public varieties of [[Neo-Wicca]] continued to further diversify into additional, eclectic sub-denominations, often heavily influenced by the [[New Age]] and [[Counterculture|counter-culture]] movements. These open, loosely-structured or unstructured traditions contrast with [[British Traditional Wicca]], which emphasizes secrecy and initiatory lineage.<ref name="Adler 2006 429">Adler (2006) p.429-456: "Pagan Festivals - The Search for a Culture"</ref> The 1980s and 1990s also saw an increasing interest in serious academic research and [[Polytheistic reconstructionism|Reconstructionist Pagan]] traditions. The establishment and growth of the Internet in the 1990s brought rapid growth to these, and other Neopagan movements.<ref name="Adler 2006 429"/> == Historicity == Many Neopagans and Neopagan traditions attempt to incorporate elements of historical religions, cultures and mythologies into their beliefs and practices, often emphasizing the hoary age of their sources. Thus, Wicca in particular is sometimes referred to by its proponents as ''"The Old Religion"'', a term popularized by Margaret Murray in the 1920s, while [[Germanic Neopaganism]] is referred to in some of its varieties as ''(Forn Sed)'' ("Old Custom"). Such emphasis on the antiquity of religious tradition is not exclusive to Neopaganism, and is found in many other religions. For example the terms ''[[Purana]]'', ''[[Sanatana Dharma]]'', and the emphasis on the antiquity of the [[Ancient Egypt]]ian sources of the [[Religion in Ancient Greece|Hellenistic]] [[Mystery religion]]s. Some claims of continuity between Neopaganism and older forms of Paganism have been shown to be spurious, or outright false, as in the case of [[Iolo Morganwg]]'s [[Druid's Prayer]]. Wiccan beliefs of an ancient monotheistic [[Goddess]] were inspired by [[Marija Gimbutas]]'s description of [[Neolithic Europe]]. The factual historical validity of her theories have been disputed by many scholars, including historian [[Ronald Hutton]]. While most Neopagans draw from old religious traditions, they also adapt them. The mythologies of the ancient traditions are not generally considered to be literally factual by Neopagans, in the sense that the [[Bible]] and other Abrahamic texts are often thought of by their followers. Eclectic Neopagans in particular are resistant to the concept of [[scripture]] or excessive structure, considering personal freedom to be one of the primary goals of their spirituality.<ref name="AdlerFreedom">Adler (1986) p.23</ref> In contrast, some Reconstructionist movements, like those who practice [[Theodism]], take a stricter religious approach, and only recognize certain historical texts and sources as being relevant to their belief system, intentionally focusing on one culture to the exclusion of others, and having a general disdain for the eclectic mentality. The [[mythology|mythological]] sources of the various Neopagan traditions are similarly varied, including [[Celtic mythology|Celtic]], [[Norse mythology|Norse]], [[Greek mythology|Greek]], [[Roman mythology|Roman]], [[Sumerian Mythology|Sumerian]], [[Egyptian mythology|Egyptian]] and others. Some groups focus solely on one cultural tradition, while others draw from several. For example, [[Doreen Valiente]]'s text ''The [[Charge of the Goddess]]'' used materials from ''The Gospel of Aradia'' by Charles G. Leland (1899), as well as material from Aleister Crowley's writings. Some Neopagans also draw inspiration from modern traditions, including [[Christianity]], [[Buddhism]] and others, creating syncretisms like "Christian Witchcraft"<ref name="ChristianWitchcraft">Telesco, Patricia (ed) (2005) ''Which Witch is Which?'' Franklin Lakes, NJ, New Page Books. ISBN 1-56414-754-1 pp.94-8</ref> or "Buddheo-Paganism". Since many Neopagan beliefs do not require exclusivity, some Neopagans practice other faiths in parallel. Since eclectic Neopagans take a rather undogmatic religious stance,<ref name="AdlerFreedom"/> and sometimes see no one as having authority to deem a source "apocryphal", Neopaganism has been notably prone to [[fakelore]], especially in recent years, as information and misinformation alike have been spread on the [[Internet]] and in [[Publishing|print media]]. A number of [[Wicca]]n, Neopagan and even some "Traditionalist" or "Tribalist" groups have a history of spurious "Grandmother Stories" &ndash; usually involving initiation by a Grandmother, Grandfather, or other elderly relative who is said to have instructed them in the secret, millennia-old traditions of their ancestors. As this "secret wisdom" has almost always been traced to recent sources, or been quite obviously concocted even more recently, most proponents of these stories have eventually admitted they made them up.<ref name="Adler">{{cite book | last = Adler | first = Margot | title = Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-Worshippers, and Other Pagans in America Today | publisher = Beacon Press | date = 1979 | location = Boston | pages = pp.94-5 (Sanders) p.78 (Anderson) p.83 (Gardner) p.87 (Fitch) p.90 (Pendderwen)| id = ISBN 0-8070-3237-9 }} Author quotes [[Alex Sanders]] claim of initiation by grandmother as a child in 1933, yet the Alexandrian rituals, "so resemble the Gardnerian rituals [written in the 1940s] that Alex's story of their origin is often questioned." [[Victor Anderson]] of the [[Feri Tradition|Feri tradition]] tells similar story, but his rituals also seem largely based on Gardner's writings. Author adds: "Gardner, for whatever reasons, preferred to maintain the fiction that he was simply carrying on an older tradition. This fiction, wrote Aidan [Kelly], has put modern Craft leaders 'into the uncomfortable position of having to maintain that stance also, despite the fact that doing so goes, I suspect, against both their [[common sense]] and better judgement.'" Quoting Ed Fitch, "I think all of us have matured somewhat. After a while you realize that if you've heard one story about an old grandmother, you've heard six or seven just like it." Quoting [[Gwydion Pendderwen]], "Yes, I wrote a fantasy. It was a desire. It was something I wished would happen. Perhaps that's why there are so many of these fantasies running around in the Craft today, and people trying to convince other people that they're true. It is certainly so much more pleasant and 'magical' to say 'It happened this way,' instead of 'I researched this. I wrote these rituals. I came up with this idea myself.'"</ref> == Concepts of the divine == Most Neopagan traditions are [[Polytheism|polytheistic]], but interpretations of the nature of a [[deity]] may vary widely. In principle, there is the distinction of [[hard polytheism|hard]] vs. [[soft polytheism|soft]] (also, "strong" vs. "weak" or "radical" vs. "moderate") polytheism. Hard polytheism is the notion of the existence of gods and goddesses independent from the human mind and from one another, or as distinct entities but however part of a greater unity, such as [[The One]] of [[Neoplatonism]] and [[Panentheism]]. The mythology of antiquity reflects this kind of understanding of the gods' natures. Soft polytheism considers the plurality of gods as "aspects" of other notions of the divine, including [[Monism]], [[Pantheism]], [[Panentheism]] or [[Deism]], [[Psychologism]] ([[Jungianism]]). Historically polytheistic religious traditions in the west were not solely concerned with [[religious belief]] in gods, but focussed on [[ritual]], [[tradition]] (''[[ethos]]'') and notions of [[virtue]] (''[[arete]]'', ''[[pietas]]''). As Christianity became a rising force, Pagan thinkers such as [[Celsus]] and the [[Roman Emperor]] [[Flavius Claudius Julianus|Julian]] wrote arguments against Christian ideas and in defense of the traditional religions, which give us insight into their contrasting beliefs.{{Fact|date=November 2007}} Hutton states that the historical Pagans did not see ''"All Goddesses as one Goddess; all Gods as one God"'', but some types of modern Neopagans believe that there is but a single [[divinity]] or life force of the universe, which is [[Immanence|immanent]] in the world. The various manifestations and [[archetype]]s of this divinity are not viewed as wholly separate, but as different aspects of the divine which are ineffable.{{Fact|date=November 2007}} In Wicca, (especially [[Dianic Wicca]]) the concept of an Earth or Mother [[Goddess]] similar to the Greek [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]] is emphasized. Male counterparts are usually also evoked, such as the [[Green Man]] and the [[Horned God]] (who is loosely based on the Celtic [[Cernunnos]].) These [[ditheism|Duotheistic]] philosophies tend to emphasize the God and Goddess' (or Lord and Lady's) genders as being analogous to a concept similar to that of [[yin and yang]] in ancient [[Chinese philosophy]]; ie, two complementary opposites. Many Oriental philosophies equate weakness with femininity and strength with masculinity; this is not the prevailing attitude in Neopaganism and Wicca.<ref>York, Michael. ''Pagan Theology: Paganism as a World Religion''. New York: NYU Press, 2003. Pg 22-23. ISBN 0814797083.</ref> Among many Neopagans, there is a strong desire to incorporate the female aspects of the divine in their worship and within their lives, which can partially explain the attitude which sometimes manifests as the [[sacred feminine|veneration of women]].<ref>Clifton, Chas. "A Goddess Arrives." Gnosis Fall 1988: 20-29.</ref> Other Neopagans reject the concept of binary [[gender role]]s. == Worship and ritual == Many Neopagan traditions include [[occultism|occult]] or "magical" elements in their beliefs and practices. Wicca in particular emphasises the role of [[witchcraft]] and ritual. Other Neopagan traditions may include a belief in the supernatural, but place much less emphasis on the working of magic. Most Neopagan religions celebrate the cycles and seasons of nature through a festival calendar that honours these changes. The timing of festivals, and the rites celebrated, may vary from climate to climate, and will also vary (sometimes widely) depending upon which particular Neopagan religion the adherent subscribes to. ==Main currents and denominations== {{see|List of Neopagan movements}} The term "Neopaganism" encompasses a very broad range of groups and beliefs. [[syncretism|Syncretic]] or [[wiktionary:Eclectic|eclectic]] approaches are often inspired by historical traditions, but not bound by any strict identification with a historical religion or culture. These are contrasted by a focus on historicity ([[Polytheistic reconstructionism|reconstructionism]]), on [[folklore]], or on [[occultist]] or [[national mysticist]] claims of continuity from [[racial memory]]. [[Gardnerian Wicca|Gardnerian]] and [[Alexandrian Wicca]], [[British Traditional Wicca]], and variations such as [[Dianic Wicca]] are examples of eclectic traditions, as are [[Neo-druidism|Neo-druid]] groups like [[Ár nDraíocht Féin]]. ===Wicca=== {{main|Wicca}} [[Wicca]] is the largest Neopagan religion in the [[USA]]. Wicca is a modern religion first publicized in 1954 by [[Gerald Gardner]]. Gardner claimed that the religion was a modern survival of an old [[witchcraft|witch]] cult, originating in the pre-Christian Paganism of Europe and existing in secret for centuries. Various forms of Wicca have since evolved or been adapted from Gardner's British Traditional Wicca or [[Gardnerian Wicca]] such as [[Alexandrian Wicca]]. Other forms loosely based on Gardner's teachings are [[Faery Wicca]], [[Kemetic Wicca]], [[Judeo-Paganism]] or "jewitchery", [[Dianic Wicca]] or "Feminist Wicca" - which emphasizes the divine feminine, often creating women-only or lesbian-only groups.<ref>Telesco (2005) p.114</ref> The common denominator amongst all the variants of Wicca are a reverence for nature and active ecology, venerations of a [[Goddess]] and/or [[Horned God]], elements of a variety of ancient [[mythology|mythologies]], a belief in and practice of [[Magic (paranormal)|magic]] and sometimes the belief in [[reincarnation]] and [[karma]]. [[Image:Romuvan ritual 11.PNG‎|thumb|Members of a [[Romuva (church)‎|Romuva]] ([[Lithuania]]n reconstructionist) group conduct an indigenous Spring ''Jorė'' ritual in [[Kulionys]], Lithuania.]] ===Neo-Druidism=== {{main|Neo-Druidism}} Neo-Druidism forms the largest neopagan sub-denomination after Wicca, and like Wicca in turn shows significant heterogeneity. It draws several beliefs and inspirations from the [[Druids]], the priest caste of the ancient Pagan [[Celts]]. With the first ''[[The Druid Order|Druid Order]]'' founded as early as 1717, the history of Neo-Druidism reaches back to the earliest origins of Neopaganism. The [[Ancient Order of Druids]] founded in 1781 had many aspects of [[freemasonry]], and practiced rituals at [[Stonehenge]] since 1905. The [[Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids]] was established in 1964 and the [[British Druid Order]] in 1979. Neo-Druidism reached the United States together with Wicca, in the 1960s. The [[Reformed Druids of North America]] was established in 1963 and [[Ár nDraíocht Féin]] in 1983 by [[Isaac Bonewits]]. ===New Age syncretism and nature worship=== {{main|Syncretism}} Neopaganism emerged as part of the [[counter-culture]], [[New Age]] and [[Hippie]] movements in the 1960s to 1970s. Reconstructionism rose to prominence in the 1980s and 1990s. The majority of Neopagans are not committed to a single defined tradition, but understand Paganism as encompassing a wide range of non-institutionalized spirituality, as promoted by the [[Church of All Worlds]], the [[Feri Tradition]] and other movements. Notably, Wicca in the United States since the 1970s has largely moved away from its [[Gardnerian Wicca|Gardnerian]] roots and diversified into [[eclectic Wicca|eclectic variants]]. Neopaganism generally emphasizes the sanctity of the [[Earth]] and Nature. Neopagans often feel a duty to protect the Earth through [[activism]], and support causes such as [[rainforest]] protection, [[Organic agriculture|organic farming]], [[permaculture]], [[animal rights]] and so on. Some Neopagans are influenced by [[Animism|Animist]] traditions of the indigenous [[Native American mythology|Native Americans]] and [[African traditional religion|Africans]] and other indigenous or shamanic traditions. Eco-Paganism and Eco-magic, which are [[Spin-off|off-shoots]] of [[direct action]] environmental groups, have a strong emphasis on [[fairy]] imagery and a belief in the possibility of intercession by the fae (fairies, [[pixie (folklore)|pixies]], [[gnome]]s, [[elf|elves]], and other spirits of nature and the [[Other World|Otherworlds]]).<ref name="Letcher">Letcher, Andy, "[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2386/is_2_112/ai_79548469/pg_1 The Scouring of the Shire]: Fairies, Trolls and Pixies in Eco-Protest Culture", in ''Folklore'' (Oct, 2001)</ref> Some [[Unitarian Universalism|Unitarian Universalists]] are eclectic Pagans. Unitarian Universalists look for spiritual inspiration in a wide variety of religious beliefs. The [[Covenant of Unitarian Universalist Pagans]], or CUUPs, encourages their member chapters to "''use practices familiar to members who attend for worship services but not to follow only one tradition of Paganism.''"<ref name="CUUPS">[http://www.cuups.org/content/chapters/chapter.html#how Official Website of CUUPS]</ref> ===Occultism and ethnic mysticism=== Historically the earliest self-identified revivalist pagans were inspired by [[Renaissance occultism]]. Notably in early 20th century Germany with [[Germanic mysticism]], which branched into [[Ariosophy]] and related currents of [[Nazi occultism]]. Outside Germany, occultist Neopaganism was inspired by [[Crowleyan Thelema]] and [[Left-Hand Path]]s, a recent example being the "Dark Paganism" of [[John J. Coughlin]]. In the United States, ethnic mysticist approaches are advocated in the form of anti-racist [[Asatru Folk Assembly]] founder [[Stephen McNallen|Stephen McNallen's]] "[[metagenetics]]" and by [[David Lane (white nationalist|David Lane]]'s openly [[white supremacist]] [[Wotanism]]. Occultist currents persist in [[neo-fascist]]{{Fact|date=January 2008}} and [[national mysticist]] Neopaganism, since the 1990s revived in the European ''[[Nouvelle Droite]]'' in the context of the "[[Integral Traditionalism]]" of [[Julius Evola]] and others ([[Alain de Benoist]], [[Werkgroep Traditie]]; see [[Neopaganism and the New Right]]). ===Reconstructionism=== {{main|Polytheistic reconstructionism}} In contrast to the eclectic traditions, [[Polytheistic Reconstructionism|Reconstructionists]] are very culturally oriented and attempt to reconstruct historical forms of Paganism, in a modern context. Thus, Hellenic, [[Nova Roma|Roman]], [[Kemetic reconstructionism|Kemetic]], [[Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism|Celtic]], [[Germanic neopaganism|Germanic]], [[Baltic Neopaganism|Baltic]] and [[Slavic neopaganism|Slavic]] Reconstructionists aim for the revival of historical practices and beliefs of [[Religion in ancient Greece|Ancient Greece]], [[Ancient Rome]], [[Ancient Egyptian religion|Ancient Egypt]], the [[Celtic polytheism|Celts]], the [[Germanic Paganism|Germanic peoples]], the [[Baltic mythology|Balts]] and the [[Slavic mythology|Slavs]], respectively.<ref name="Adler4"/> ===Folklorism=== In the early 2000s, a "Traditionalist" or "Folklorist" current of Neopaganism emerged in [[Neopaganism in Scandanavi|Scandinavian Neopaganism]], advocated by Jon Julius Filipusson (of [[Foreningen Forn Sed]], Norway), Paul Jenssen (Denmark) and Keeron Ögren ([[Samfälligheten för Nordisk Sed]], Sweden), which rejects Reconstructionism and syncretism alike, advocating a strict focus on regional [[folklore]] and [[folk religion]].{{Fact|date=November 2007}} == Demographics == [[Adherents.com]] estimates that there are roughly one million Neopagans worldwide (as of 2000), including "Wicca, Magick, Druidism, Asatru, neo-Native American religion and others".<ref>[http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html#Neo-Paganism Adherents.com]</ref> High estimates by Neopagan authors may reach several times that number.<ref> Curott, Phyllis (1998) ''The Book of Shadows: A Modern Woman's Journey Into the Wisdom of Witchcraft and the Magic of the Goddess'', estimates there are 3 to 5 million Wiccans in the USA alone.</ref> A precise number is impossible to establish, because of the largely uninstitutionalised nature of the religion and the secrecy observed by some traditions,<ref>Edwards, Catherine. "Wicca Casts Spell on Teen-Age Girls " in Insight online magazine, Vol. 15, No. 39 -- October 25, 1999: "There is much to-do about secrecy, and groups do not release membership rolls."[http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_666.html]</ref> - sometimes explained by fear of [[religious discrimination against Neopagans|religious discrimination]]. ===North America=== {{see|Neopaganism in the United States}} In the United States, the ARIS 2001 study, based on a poll conducted by The Graduate Center at [[City University of New York|The City University of New York]] found that an estimated 140,000 people self-identified as Pagans; 134,000 self-identified as Wiccans; and 33,000 self-identified as Druids.<ref name="Aris">[http://www.gc.cuny.edu/faculty/research_briefs/aris/key_findings.htm ARIS 2001 study]</ref> This would bring the total of groups largely accepted under the modern popular western definition of Neopagan to 307,000. Other groups measured in the report, such as [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]], [[New Age]]rs and a significant portion of [[Unitarian Universalism|Unitarian Universalists]], could be categorized under this definition, but many of these adherents would not consider themselves Pagan, nor would the mainstream Pagan communities accept them as such. The Covenant of the Goddess, "an international organization of cooperating, autonomous Wiccan congregations and solitary practitioners,"<ref name="cog1">[http://www.cog.org/ Covenant of the Goddess website]</ref> conducted a poll of U.S. and Canadian "Wiccan/Pagan" respondents in 2005 and 2006. This poll was not scientific and represents a self selected subset of all Neopagans, but it does provide some interesting insights that confirm what many Neopagans have observed anecdotally: *39% of respondents were between 26 and 39 years of age *37% were between the ages of 40 and 49 *94% were registered to vote, a figure much higher than the national average *There were nearly three times as many women as men (74%) *6% have served in the [[Armed forces|Armed Forces]]<ref name="COGpoll">[http://www.cog.org/05poll/poll_results.html The 2005-06 Wiccan/Pagan Poll Results] [http://www.cog/org/ Covenant of the Goddess]. Accessed 6 November 2007</ref> ===Britain=== {{main|Neopaganism in the United Kingdom}} [[Image:Paganavebury.jpg|thumb|Wiccans gather for a [[handfasting]] ceremony at [[Avebury]] in [[England]]]] A study by [[Ronald Hutton]] compared a number of different sources (including membership lists of major UK organizations, attendance at major events, subscriptions to magazines, etc.) and used standard models for extrapolating likely numbers. This estimate accounted for multiple membership overlaps as well as the number of adherents represented by each attendee of a Neopagan gathering. Hutton estimated that there are 250,000 Neopagan adherents in [[United Kingdom|the United Kingdom]], roughly equivalent to the national [[Hindu]] community.<ref name="Hutton2001">Hutton (2001)</ref> A smaller number is suggested by the results of the [[United Kingdom Census 2001|2001 Census]], in which a question about religious affiliation was asked for the first time. Respondents were able to write in an affiliation not covered by the checklist of common religions, and a total of 42,262 people from England, Scotland and Wales declared themselves to be Pagans by this method. These figures were not released as a matter of course by the [[Office of National Statistics]], but were released after an application by the [[Pagan Federation]] of Scotland.<ref name="PFScotland">[http://www.scottishpf.org/census.html Pagans and the Scottish Census of 2001] Accessed 18 October 2007</ref> From a British population of 59 million this gives a rough proportion of 7 pagans per 100,000 population. This is more than many well known traditions such as [[Rastafari movement|Rastafarian]], [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'í]] and [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] groups, but fewer than the 'Big Six' of [[Christianity]], [[Islam]], [[Hinduism]], [[Sikhism]], [[Judaism]] and [[Buddhism]]. It is also fewer than the adherents of the so-called [[Jedi census phenomenon|Jedi religion]], whose campaign made them the largest of the religions after the Big Six..<ref>[http://www.statistics.gov.uk/CCI/nugget.asp?ID=297&Pos=&ColRank=2&Rank=1000 National Statistics Office] (2001): '390,000 Jedi There Are'. Accessed 18 October 2007</ref> The UK Census figures do not allow an accurate breakdown of traditions within the Pagan heading, as a campaign by the [[Pagan Federation]] before the census encouraged Wiccans, Heathens, Druids and others all to use the same write-in term 'Pagan' in order to maximise the numbers reported.{{Fact|date=July 2008}} ===Scandinavia=== {{main|Neopaganism in Scandinavia}} Neopaganism in Scandinavia is dominated by [[Ásatrú]] ([[Forn Sed]], [[Folketro]]). The ''[[Swedish AsatruSociety]]'' formed in 1994, and in Norway the [[Åsatrufellesskapet Bifrost]] formed in 1996 and [[Foreningen Forn Sed]] formed in 1999. They have been recognized by the Norwegian government as a religious society, allowing them to perform "legally binding civil ceremonies" (i. e. marriages). In Denmark [[Forn Siðr]] also formed in 1999, recognized in 2003<ref>[http://www.fornsidr.dk/dk/60 Forklaring til Forn Siðr´s ansøgning om godkendelse som trossamfund.]</ref> and in Sweden ''Nätverket Gimle'' formed in 2001, as an informal community for individual heathens. ''Nätverket Forn Sed'' formed in 2004, and has a network consisting of local groups (blotlag) from all over the Sweden. ===Continental Europe=== {{see|Neopaganism in Germany and Austria}} In [[German-speaking Europe]], Germanic and Celtic neopaganism co-exist with Wicca and Neoshamanism. Neopaganism in [[Latin Europe]] (France, Italy, Spain) focusses on Neo-Druidism and Esotericism based on [[megalith]] culture besides some Germanic neopagan groups in areas historically affected by Germanic migrations ([[Lombardy]]). Neopaganism in Eastern Europe is dominated by Baltic and [[Slavic neopaganism|Slavic]] movements, rising to visibility after the [[fall of the Soviet Union]]. Since the 1990s, there have been organized [[Hellenic Neopaganism|Hellenic]] groups practising in Greece. ==See also== * [[Paganism]] * [[Polytheism]] * [[Hermeticism]] * [[Animism]] * [[Pantheism]] * [[List of new religious movements]] * [[Romanticism]] * [[New Age]] * [[Spiritualism]] ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==Further reading== * {{cite book | last =Bonewits | first =Isaac | authorlink =Isaac Bonewits | coauthors = | year =2003 | title = Rites of Worship: A Neopagan Approach | publisher = | location = | id =ISBN 1-59405-501-7}} *Bonewits, Isaac (2006) ''Bonewits's Essential Guide to Druidism''. New York, Kensington Publishing Group ISBN 0-8065-2710-2. * {{cite book | last =Ronald | first =Hutton | authorlink = | coauthors = | year =2001 | title =The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft | publisher = | location = | id =ISBN 0-19-285449-6 }} * {{cite book | last =Strmiska | first =Michael F.| authorlink = | coauthors = | year =2005 | title =Modern Paganism in World Cultures: Comparative Perspectives | publisher =ABC-CLIO | location = Santa Barbara | id = }} * {{cite book | last =Seznec | first =Jean | authorlink = | coauthors = | year =1953 | title =The Survival of the Pagan Gods: The Mythological Tradition and Its Place in Renaissance Humanism and Art | publisher = | location = | id =ISBN 0-691-02988-1 }} * {{cite book | last =York | first =Michael | authorlink = | coauthors = | year =2003 | title =Pagan Theology: Paganism as a World Religion | publisher = NYU Press| location = | id =ISBN 978-0814797020 }} *Douglas E. Cowan, ''Cyberhenge: Modern Pagans on the Internet'', Routledge (2004), ISBN 0415969115. ==External links== <!-- PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE ADDING LINKS HERE. Due to the rising popularity of Neopaganism, this article runs the risk of becoming nothing more than a links page to every Web site vaguely connected with Neopaganism, even if that Web site has a rather limited audience or deals only with relatively limited subject matter. Many links have already been removed. If you would like to add a link here, please read the guidelines on linking and then discuss the merits of adding your link on this article's talk page. If you don't there is a strong possibility your link will be removed. Thank-you. 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Blessings. --> * [http://www.cuups.org/ CUUPS] - Covenant of Unitarian Universalist Pagans * [http://www.kithofyggdrasil.org/ The Kith of Yggdrasil] - UK-based Heathen website * [http://www.mythinglinks.org/ Mything Links] - A meta page about myths and mythology around the world * [http://www.neopagan.net Neopagan.net] - Neopagan author [[Isaac Bonewits]]'s thoughts on the development of Neopaganism, modern druidry and public perceptions * [http://www.paganfed.org/ Pagan Federation] A UK-based organization promoting awareness and acceptance of Paganism in Europe and the world. * [http://www.paganassociation.co.uk/ Pagan Association UK] Promoting paganism in the Community. * [http://www.pfsa.org.za PFSA] The Pagan Federation of South Africa * [http://www.paganwiki.org PaganWiki] - ''"Striving to be the most complete pagan resource"'' *[http://pagan.wikia.com/wiki/Main_Page WikiPagan A free content wiki-based website for Neopagans] ---- {{Neopaganism}} [[Category:Neopaganism| ]] [[Category:Paganism]] [[Category:New religious movements|Pagan]] [[af:Neopaganisme]] [[ar:وثنية جديدة]] [[an:Neopaganismo]] [[ca:Neopaganisme]] [[cs:Novopohanství]] [[da:Nyhedenskab]] [[de:Neopaganismus]] [[et:Uuspaganlus]] [[es:Neopaganismo]] [[eo:Novpaganismo]] [[fr:Néopaganisme]] [[gl:Neopaganismo]] [[it:Neopaganesimo]] [[li:Modern heidedóm]] [[hu:Újpogányság]] [[mk:Неопаганство]] [[nl:Neopaganisme]] [[pl:Neopogaństwo]] [[pt:Neopaganismo]] [[ru:Неоязычество]] [[sk:Novopohanstvo]] [[sr:Неопаганизам]] [[sv:Nyhedendom]] [[zh:新異教主義]]