Nepenthes rafflesiana 3788564 211816686 2008-05-12T06:38:01Z Mgiganteus1 808022 + wikilink {{Taxobox | name = ''Nepenthes rafflesiana'' | status = LR/lc | status_system = iucn2.3 | image = Nepenthes rafflesiana squat2.jpg | image_width = 200px | image_caption = ''Nepenthes rafflesiana'' from Borneo. | regnum = [[Plant]]ae | divisio = [[Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Magnoliopsida]] | ordo = [[Caryophyllales]] | familia = [[Nepenthaceae]] | genus = ''[[Nepenthes]]'' | species = '''''N. rafflesiana''''' | binomial = ''Nepenthes rafflesiana'' | binomial_authority = [[William Jack (botanist)|Jack]] (1835) | synonyms = *''Nepenthes hemsleyana''<br><small>Macf. ''in'' Engl. (1908)</small> *''Nepenthes hookeriana''<br><small>Low (1848) ''[[nomen nudum|nom.nud.]]''</small> *''Nepenthes kookeriana''<br><small>Low ''ex'' Becc. (1886) ''sphalm.typogr.''</small> *''Nepenthes nigropurpurea''<br><small>(Mast.) Mast. (1882)</small> *''Nepenthes rafflesiana''<br><small>''auct. non'' Jack: Haberl. (1893)<br>[=''[[Nepenthes gymnamphora|N. gymnamphora]]'']</small> *''Nepenthes rafflesiana''<br><small>''auct. non'' Jack: Hook.f. (1873)<br>[=''N. rafflesiana/[[Nepenthes x hookeriana|N. &times; hookeriana]]'']</small> *''Nepenthes rafflesiana''<br><small>''auct. non'' Jack: Low (1848)<br>[=''[[Nepenthes x hookeriana|N. &times; hookeriana]]'']</small> *''Nepenthes raflesea''<br><small>Hort. (1869) ''sphalm.typogr.''</small> *''Nepenthes sanderi''<br><small>Hort. (1908) ''sphalm.typogr.''</small> *''Nepenthes sanderiana''<br><small>Burb. (1904)</small> *'' }} '''''Nepenthes rafflesiana''''' ({{pronEng|nəˈpɛnθiːz ræfˈliːziːˌɑːnə}}, after [[Stamford Raffles]]), or '''Raffles' Pitcher-Plant''',<ref name=P&L>Phillipps, A. & A. Lamb 1996. ''Pitcher-Plants of Borneo''. Natural History Publications (Borneo), Kota Kinabalu.</ref> is a species of [[pitcher plant]]. It has a very wide distribution covering [[Borneo]], [[Sumatra]], [[Peninsular Malaysia]], and [[Singapore]]. ''N. rafflesiana'' is extremely variable (second only to ''[[Nepenthes mirabilis|N. mirabilis]]'') with numerous forms and varieties described. In Borneo alone, there are at least four distinct varieties. The giant form of this species produces enormous pitchers rivaling those of ''[[Nepenthes rajah|N. rajah]]'' in size. ==Distribution and habitat== [[Image:Nepenthes rafflesiana in habitat.jpg|thumb|left|Typical habitat of ''N. rafflesiana''.]] ''Nepenthes rafflesiana'' is a very widespread lowland species. It is common in Borneo and parts of the [[Riau Archipelago]], but has a restricted distribution in both Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra. It is only widespread in the southeastern region of the [[Malay Peninsula]], particularly in the state of [[Johor]], where it is relatively abundant. ''N. rafflesiana'' has only been recorded from the west coast of Sumatra, between [[Indrapura]] and [[Barus]].<ref name=Clarke2001>Clarke, C.M. 2001. ''Nepenthes of Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia''. Natural History Publications (Borneo), Kota Kinabalu.</ref> ''N. rafflesiana'' generally occurs in open, sandy, wet areas. It has been recorded from [[kerangas forest|''kerangas'' forest]], secondary formations, margins of [[peat swamp forest]], [[heath forest]], and seaside cliffs. It grows at elevations ranging from sea-level to 1,200 m.<ref name=Clarke2001 /> ==Description== [[Image:Nepraf33.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Detail of the peristome on a lower pitcher.]] ''Nepenthes rafflesiana'' is a scrambling vine. The stem may climb to a height of 15 m and is up to 10 mm thick. [[Plant stem|Internodes]] are up to 20 cm long.<ref name=Clarke2001 /> [[Tendril]]s may be over 110 cm long. The lower pitchers of ''N. rafflesiana'' are bulbous and possess well-developed fringed wings. These terrestrial traps rarely exceed 20 cm in height, although the giant form of ''N. rafflesiana'' is known produce pitchers up to 35 cm long and 15 cm wide. Upper pitchers are funnel-shaped and often bear a distinctive raised section at the front of the peristome. Both types of pitchers have a characteristically elongated peristome neck that may be 3 cm or more in length. Pitcher colouration varies greatly from dark purple to almost completely white. The typical form of ''N. rafflesiana'' is light green throughout with heavy purple blotches on the lower pitchers and cream-coloured aerial pitchers. The [[inflorescence]] is a [[raceme]] and grows between 16 and 70 cm tall. The red or purple flowers usually occur singly, or sometimes in pairs, on each flower-stalk. Young plants are wholly covered with long, caducous, brown or white hairs. Mature plants often have a sparse [[indumentum]] of short, brown hairs, though they may be completely glabrous. ==Biology== [[Image:Nepenthes rafflesiana ant.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Ant drinking nectar from the peristome of a ''N. rafflesiana'' pitcher]] ''N. rafflesiana'' is found in tropical lowlands. It produces two distinct types of pitchers (heavily modified leaves), which are used to capture and kill insect prey for nutrients. The lower pitchers are generally round, squat and 'winged', while the upper pitchers are more narrow at their base. The species is widely variable and comes in a variety of shapes and colors - most contain varying amounts of green, white, and maroon streaks. All ''Nepenthes'' are passive carnivores with no moving parts, unlike their distant cousins the [[Venus flytrap]].'' N. rafflesiana'' kills by luring its prey into its pitchers, whose [[peristome]]s secrete a sweet-tasting nectar. Once the insect is inside, it quickly finds the walls of the pitcher too slippery to scale and drowns. Digestive enzymes released by the plant into the liquid break down the prey and release soluble nutrients, which are absorbed by the plant through the walls of the pitcher. The carnivorous nature of ''Nepenthes'' is supposedly a consequence of living in nutrient-poor soils; since the main method of nutrient absorption in most plants (the root) is insufficient in these soils, the plants have evolved other ways to gain nutrients. As a result, the roots of ''Nepenthes'' and most other [[carnivorous plant]]s are slight and fragile; hence care must be taken when repotting. All ''Nepenthes'' are dioecious, meaning that each individual plant has only male or female characteristics. ==Discovery and early history== [[Image:Nepenthes rafflesiana Gardeners' Chronicle and Agricultural Gazette 1872.jpg|thumb|''Nepenthes rafflesiana'' cultivated in England as illustrated in the ''Gardeners' Chronicle and Agricultural Gazette'', 1872.]] ''Nepenthes rafflesiana'' was discovered by Dr. William Jack in 1819. In a letter from Singapore published in ''[[Curtis's Botanical Magazine]]'', Jack wrote the following account:<ref name=P&L>Phillipps, A. & A. Lamb 1996. ''Pitcher Plants of Borneo''. Natural History Publications (Borneo), Kota Kinabalu.</ref> <blockquote>It is impossible to conceive anything more beautiful than the approach to Singapore, through the Archipelago of islands that lie at the extremity of the Straits of Malacca. Seas of glass wind among innumerable islets, clothed in all the luxuriance of tropical vegetation and basking in the full brilliance of a tropical sky... I have just arrived in time to explore the woods before they yield to the axe, and have made many interesting discoveries, particularly of two new and splendid species of pitcher-plant [''Nepenthes rafflesiana'' and ''Nepenthes ampullaria''], far surpassing any yet known in Europe. I have completed two perfect drawings of them with ample descriptions. Sir S. Raffles is anxious that we should give publicity to our researches in one way or other and has planned bringing out something at Bencoolen. He proposes sending home these pitcher-plants that such splendid things may appear under all the advantages of elegant execution, by way of attracting attention to the subject of Sumatran botany.</blockquote> At the time the largest known species in the genus, ''N. rafflesiana'' was described in the ''Gardener's and Farmer's Journal'' for 1850 as follows:<ref name=P&L /> <blockquote>Whoever has seen this plant in a living state must undoubted be constrained to consider it as one of the most astonishing productions of the whole vegetable kingdom. The resemblance that a portion of it bears to our more familiar domestic utensils leaves a lasting impression on the minds of spectators that is not easily eradicated; it is the largest and most magnificent of the genus, far surpassing any hitherto known in Europe.</blockquote> ==Cultivation== ''N. rafflesiana'' is very popular in cultivation; it is a lowland ''Nepenthes'' (enjoying hot, humid conditions most of the time, as found in tropical jungle lowlands) but can be grown as an intermediate, with cooler nights and less humidity. It is a comparatively hardy ''Nepenthes'' that is commonly recommended as a "first plant" to new ''Nepenthes'' growers. The plant should be grown in shaded conditions, diffuse sunlight, or in a large grow chamber under artificial lights. Watering and misting should be performed frequently, and preferably with distilled water, to avoid mineral build-up that is not only unsightly but that may damage the delicate roots of ''Nepenthes'' (and most other carnivorous plants). Standing water is inadvisable. A wet, well-draining potting medium is a necessity. Methods of feeding are varied - some growers feed freeze-dried [[bloodworm]]s or Koi pellets (both available in the fish section of most pet stores); others prefer orchid mixes. No carnivorous plant should ever be fed mammalian meat - this will result not only in an unpleasant smell but also the probable rotting of the pitcher and potential death of the plant. The digestive enzymes present have not evolved to handle large prey items, and the rotting material gives opportunistic [[bacteria]] and [[fungus|fungi]] a chance to take hold. ==Infraspecific taxa== [[Image:Nepenthes rafflesiana white lower pitchers.jpg|thumb|The light coloured form of this species originally described as ''Nepenthes rafflesiana'' var. ''nivea''.]] Across its expansive range, ''N. rafflesiana'' exhibits great variability in terms of both pitcher morphology and colour. The following [[Infraspecific taxon|infraspecific taxa]] of ''N. rafflesiana'' have been described. Most of these are not considered valid today, and four represent different [[taxon|taxa]] altogether. *''Nepenthes rafflesiana'' f. ''alba'' Hort.Westphal (2000) ''[[nomen nudum|nom.nud.]]'' *''Nepenthes rafflesiana'' var. ''alata'' J.H.Adam & Wilcock (1990) *''Nepenthes rafflesiana'' var. ''ambigua'' G.Beck (1895) *''Nepenthes rafflesiana'' var. ''elongata'' Hort. (1897) *''Nepenthes rafflesiana'' var. ''excelsior'' (Hort.Williams) G.Beck (1895) [=(''[[Nepenthes ampullaria|N. ampullaria]]'' &times; ''N. rafflesiana'') &times; ''N. rafflesiana''] *''Nepenthes rafflesiana'' var. ''glaberrima'' Hook.f. (1873) *''Nepenthes rafflesiana'' var. ''hookeriana'' (''auct. non'' Low: Hort.Veitch ''ex'' Mast.) Becc. (1886) [=''[[Nepenthes x hookeriana|N. &times; hookeriana]]''] *''Nepenthes rafflesiana'' var. ''insignis'' Mast. (1882) *''Nepenthes rafflesiana'' var. ''longicirrhosa'' Tamin & M.Hotta ''in'' M.Hotta (1986) ''[[nomen nudum|nom.nud.]]'' [=''[[Nepenthes longifolia|N. longifolia]]'']<ref name=Clarke2001 /><ref>Clarke, C.[M.] 1997. [http://carnivorousplants.org/cpn/samples/v26n1p4_10.html Another Nice Trip to Sumatra]. ''[[Carnivorous Plant Newsletter]]'' '''26'''(1): 4–10.</ref> *''Nepenthes rafflesiana'' var. ''minor'' Becc. (1886) *''Nepenthes rafflesiana'' var. ''nigropurpurea'' Mast. (1882) *''Nepenthes rafflesiana'' var. ''nivea'' Hook.f. (1873) *''Nepenthes rafflesiana'' var. ''subglandulosa'' J.H.Adam & Hafiza (2006)<ref>Adam, J.H. & Hafiza A. Hamid 2006. {{PDFlink|[http://www.ansijournals.com/ijb/2006/340-352.pdf Pitcher plants of Lambir Hill in Miri, Sarawak State of Malaysia.]|10.3&nbsp;[[Mebibyte|MiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 10805623 bytes -->}} ''International Journal of Botany'' '''2'''(4): 340–352. ISSN 1811-9700</ref> *''Nepenthes rafflesiana'' var. ''typica'' G.Beck (1895) ''nom.illeg.'' *''Nepenthes rafflesiana'' var. ''vittata'' Lauffenburger (1995) ''[[nomen nudum|nom.nud.]]'' *''Nepenthes rafflesiana pallida'' Hort.Veitch ''ex'' Wilson (1877) [=(''[[Nepenthes khasiana|N. khasiana]]'' &times; ''[[Nepenthes gracilis|N. gracilis]]'') &times; ''N. rafflesiana''] ==Natural hybrids== The following natural hybrids involving ''N. rafflesiana'' have been recorded. *? ''[[Nepenthes albomarginata|N. albomarginata]]'' &times; ''N. rafflesiana''<ref name=Lowrie>Lowrie, A. 1983. {{PDFlink|[http://carnivorousplants.org/cpn/articles/CPNv12n4p88_95.pdf Sabah ''Nepenthes'' Expeditions 1982 & 1983.]|1.25&nbsp;[[Mebibyte|MiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 1313355 bytes -->}} ''[[Carnivorous Plant Newsletter]]'' '''12'''(4): 88–95.</ref> *''[[Nepenthes ampullaria|N. ampullaria]]'' &times; ''N. rafflesiana'' [=''[[Nepenthes x hookeriana|N. &times; hookeriana]]'']<ref name=Clarke97>Clarke, C.M. 1997. ''Nepenthes of Borneo''. Natural History Publications (Borneo), Kota Kinabalu.</ref> *? (''[[Nepenthes ampullaria|N. ampullaria]]'' &times; ''N. rafflesiana'') &times; ''[[Nepenthes mirabilis|N. mirabilis]]'' [=''[[Nepenthes x hookeriana|N. &times; hookeriana]]'' &times; ''[[Nepenthes mirabilis|N. mirabilis]]'']<ref name=Lowrie /> *''[[Nepenthes bicalcarata|N. bicalcarata]]'' &times; ''N. rafflesiana''<ref name=Clarke97 /> *? (''[[Nepenthes bicalcarata|N. bicalcarata]]'' &times; ''N. rafflesiana'') &times; [[Nepenthes mirabilis|''N. mirabilis'' var. ''echinostoma'']]<ref name=Clarke97 /> *''[[Nepenthes gracilis|N. gracilis]]'' &times; ''N. rafflesiana''<ref name=Clarke97 /> *''[[Nepenthes mirabilis|N. mirabilis]]'' &times; ''N. rafflesiana''<ref name=Clarke97 /> <gallery> Image:N.hookerianaWhite3.jpg|''Nepenthes &times; hookeriana'' Image:Nepenthes hookeriana upper.jpg|''Nepenthes &times; hookeriana'' Image:Nepenthes hybrid borneo.jpg|''N. mirabilis × N. rafflesiana'' Image:Nepenthes rafflesiana hybrid.jpg|''N. mirabilis × N. rafflesiana'' </gallery> ==Conservation== [[Image:NepRaf3.jpg|thumb|256px|''N. rafflesiana'' growing in a previously logged area.]] Most wild populations of ''Nepenthes'', including ''N. rafflesiana'', are endangered due to habitat destruction and (to a lesser extent) poaching. ''N. rafflesiana'' is currently listed as a [[Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna|CITES]] Appendix II plant, so it does have some international trade restrictions (though not an outright ban). Today, most ''N. rafflesiana'' plants on the market are propagated by [[plant tissue culture]] or other forms of vegetative propagation. When purchasing any plant, especially those protected by CITES, it is important to ask the vendor about the plant's provenance. ==References== {{reflist}} * Adams, R.M. & G.W. Smith 1977. An S.E.M. Survey of the Five Carnivorous Pitcher Plant Genera. ''American Journal of Botany'' '''64'''(3): 265–272. {{DOI|10.2307/2441969}} * Cannon, J., V. Lojanapiwatna, C. Raston, W. Sinchai & A. White 1980. The Quinones of ''Nepenthes rafflesiana''. The Crystal Structure of 2,5-Dihydroxy-3,8-dimethoxy-7-methylnaphtho-1,4-quinone (Nepenthone-E) and a Synthesis of 2,5-Dihydroxy-3-Methoxy-7-methylnaphtho-1,4-quinone (Nepenthone-C). ''Australian Journal of Chemistry'' '''33'''(5): 1073–1093. {{DOI|10.1071/CH9801073}} * {{IUCN2006|assessors=Clarke ''et al.''|year=2000|id=39689|title=Nepenthes rafflesiana|downloaded=12 May 2006}} * Giusto, B.D., V. Grosbois, E. Fargeas, D.J. Marshall & L. Gaume 2008. {{PDFlink|[http://ns1.ias.ac.in/jbiosci/bruno3547.pdf Contribution of pitcher fragrance and fluid viscosity to high prey diversity in a ''Nepenthes'' carnivorous plant from Borneo.]}} ''Journal of Biosciences'' '''33'''(1): 1–14. * Hansen, E. 2001. [http://discovermagazine.com/2001/oct/featplants Where rocks sing, ants swim, and plants eat animals: finding members of the ''Nepenthes'' carnivorous plant family in Borneo]. ''Discover'' '''22'''(10): 60–68. * Mogi, M. & K.L. Chan 1997. Variation in communities of dipterans in ''Nepenthes'' pitchers in Singapore: Predators increase prey community diversity. ''Annals of the Entomological Society of America'' '''90'''(2): 177–183. * Moran, J.A. 1996. Pitcher dimorphism, prey composition and the mechanisms of prey attraction in the pitcher plant ''Nepenthes rafflesiana'' in Borneo. ''Journal of Ecology'' '''84''': 515–525. * Moran, J.A. & A.J. Moran 1998. Foliar Reflectance and Vector Analysis Reveal Nutrient Stress in Prey-Deprived Pitcher Plants (''Nepenthes rafflesiana''). ''International Journal of Plant Sciences'' '''159'''(6): 996–1001. * Moran, J.A., W.E. Booth & J.K. Charles 1999. {{PDFlink|[http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/83/5/521.pdf Aspects of Pitcher Morphology and Spectral Characteristics of Six Bornean ''Nepenthes'' Pitcher Plant Species: Implications for Prey Capture.]}} ''Annals of Botany'' '''83''': 521–528. * Rizzacasa, M.A. & M.V. Sargent 1987. The structure and synthesis of nepenthone-A, a naphthoquinone from ''Nepenthes rafflesiana''. ''Journal of the Chemical Society, Perkin transactions 1'': 2017–2022. {{DOI|10.1039/P19870002017}} {{commons}} {{Nepenthes}} [[Category:Carnivorous plants of Asia]] [[Category:Nepenthes]] [[fr:Nepenthes rafflesiana]] [[lt:Plačiasparnis ąsotenis]] [[pt:Nepenthes rafflesiana]]