Nobel Prize 21201 225612056 2008-07-14T15:34:19Z 76.97.163.77 this image is PD in the United States due to age; there is no reason whatsoever not to show it in the infobox {{Infobox award | name = Nobel Prize | image = Nobel medal dsc06171.jpg | imagesize = 150px | description = Outstanding contributions in [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Physics]], [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Chemistry]], [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Literature]], [[Nobel Peace Prize|Peace]], and [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Physiology or Medicine]].<br>[[The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel]], commonly identified with the Nobel Prize, is awarded for outstanding contributions in [[Economics]]. | presenter = [[Swedish Academy]]<br>[[Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences]]<br>[[Karolinska Institutet]]<br>[[Norwegian Nobel Committee]] | country = [[Sweden]], [[Norway]] | year = 1901 | website = http://nobelprize.org }} The '''Nobel Prize''' ({{lang-sv|Nobelpriset}}) was established in [[Alfred Nobel]]'s will in 1895, and it was first awarded in [[Nobel Peace Prize|Peace]], [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Literature]], [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Chemistry]], [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Physiology or Medicine]], and [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Physics]] in 1901. An associated prize, [[The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel]], was instituted by [[Sveriges Riksbank|Sweden's central bank]] in 1968 and first awarded in 1969.<ref name=Britannica>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9056008 "Nobel Prize]" (2007), in ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'', accessed [[November 14]], [[2007]], from ''Encyclopædia Britannica Online'': <nowiki><http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9056008></nowiki>. {{quote|An additional award, the Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, was established in 1968 by the Bank of Sweden and was first awarded in 1969. Although not technically a Nobel Prize, it is identified with the award; its winners are announced with the Nobel Prize recipients, and the Prize in Economic Sciences is presented at the Nobel Prize Award Ceremony.}}</ref> The Nobel Prizes in the specific disciplines (Chemistry, Physics, Physiology or Medicine, and Literature) and the Prize in Economics, which is commonly identified with them, are widely regarded as the most prestigious award one can receive in those fields.<ref name=Britannica/> The [[Nobel Peace Prize]] conveys social prestige, and that award also is often politically controversial. With the exception of the Nobel Peace Prize, the Nobel Prizes and the Prize in Economics are presented in [[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]], at the annual Prize Award Ceremony on [[December 10]], the [[anniversary]] of Nobel's death. The recipients' lectures are presented in the days prior to the award ceremony.<ref name=ceremony>[http://nobelprize.org/award_ceremonies/ "The Nobel Prize Award Ceremonies"], ''nobelprize.org'', accessed [[November 5]], [[2007]].</ref> The Nobel Peace Prize and its recipients' lectures are presented at the annual Prize Award Ceremony in [[Oslo]], [[Norway]], also on [[December 10]].<ref>[http://nobelprize.org/prize_awarders/ "The Nobel Prize Awarders"], ''nobelprize.org'', accessed [[November 6]], [[2007]].</ref><ref name=Peace2007>[http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/2007/ Nobel Peace Prize 2007], ''nobelprize.org'', accessed [[October 18]], [[2007]].</ref> "Since the Nobel Prize is regarded as the most prestigious prize in the world by far, the Award Ceremonies as well as the Banquets in Stockholm and Oslo on [[10 December]] have been transformed from local Swedish and Norwegian arrangements into major international events that receive worldwide coverage by the print media, radio and television."<ref name=ceremony/> ==Alfred Nobel's will== [[Image:AlfredNobel.jpg|thumb|Alfred Nobel.]] The five Nobel Prizes were instituted by the final [[will (law)|will]] of [[Alfred Nobel]], a [[Sweden|Swedish]] chemist and industrialist, who was the [[inventor]] of the high explosive [[dynamite]]. Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last was written a little over a year before he died, and signed at the Swedish-Norwegian Club in [[Paris]] on [[November 27]], [[1895]]. Nobel [[bequeath]]ed 94% of his total assets, 31&nbsp;million Swedish Kronor (4,223,500 USD<sub>1896</sub>~103,931,888 USD<sub>2007</sub>), to establish and endow the five Nobel Prizes.<ref name=Nobelwill>[http://nobelprize.org/alfred_nobel/will/index.html "The Will of Alfred Nobel"], ''nobelprize.org'', accessed [[November 6]], [[2007]].</ref> {{cquote|The whole of my remaining realizable estate shall be dealt with in the following way:<br /> The capital shall be invested by my executors in safe securities and shall constitute a fund, the interest on which shall be annually distributed in the form of prizes to those who, during the preceding year, shall have conferred the greatest benefit on mankind. The said interest shall be divided into five equal parts, which shall be apportioned as follows: one part to the person who shall have made the most important discovery or invention within the field of physics; one part to the person who shall have made the most important chemical discovery or improvement; one part to the person who shall have made the most important discovery within the domain of physiology or medicine; one part to the person who shall have produced in the field of literature the most outstanding work of an idealistic tendency; and one part to the person who shall have done the most or the best work for fraternity among nations, for the abolition or reduction of standing armies and for the holding and promotion of peace congresses.<br /> The prizes for physics and chemistry shall be awarded by the Swedish Academy of Sciences; that for physiological or medical works by [[Karolinska Institutet]] in Stockholm; that for literature by the Academy in Stockholm; and that for champions of peace by a committee of five persons to be elected by the Norwegian [[Storting]]. It is my express wish that in awarding the prizes no consideration whatever shall be given to the nationality of the candidates, so that the most worthy shall receive the prize, whether he be Scandinavian or not.<ref name=fullNobelwill>[[Alfred Nobel]], [http://nobelprize.org/alfred_nobel/will/will-full.html "Alfred Nobel's Will"], ''nobelprize.org'', accessed [[February 15]], [[2007]]. ([[English language|English version]]).</ref>}} Although Nobel's will established the prizes, his plan was incomplete and, due to various other hurdles, it took five years before the [[Nobel Foundation]] could be established and the first prizes awarded on December 10, 1901.<ref>"First Nobel Prizes: December 10, 1901", ''[http://www.historychannel.com/tdih/tdih.jsp?month=10272964&day=10272975&cat=10272946 This Day in History]'', ''[[The History Channel]]'', accessed [[July 30]], [[2006]].</ref> ==Nomination and selection== Compared with some other prizes, the Prize nomination and selection process is long and rigorous. This is a key reason why the Prizes have grown in importance over the years to become the most important prizes in their field.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/art-18050 "Nobel Prizes: Selection Process"], ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] Online'' (2007), accessed [[October 18]], [[2007]].</ref> The [[Nobel Laureate]]s are selected by their respective committees. For the Prizes in Chemistry, Physics and Economics, a committee consists of five members elected by [[The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences]]; for the Prize in Literature, a committee of four to five members of the Swedish Academy; for the Prize in Physiology or Medicine, the committee consists of five members selected by The Nobel Assembly, which consists of 50 members elected by [[Karolinska Institutet]]; for the Peace Prize, the [[Norwegian Nobel Committee]] consists of five members elected by the Norwegian [[Storting]] (the Norwegian parliament).<ref>[http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/economics/ "The Nobel Prize in Economics"], ''nobelprize.org'', accessed [[March 4]],[[2007]].</ref> In its first stage, several thousand people are asked to nominate candidates. These names are scrutinized and discussed by experts in their specific disciplines until only the winners remain. This slow and thorough process, insisted upon by [[Alfred Nobel]], is arguably what gives the prize its importance. Despite this, there have been questionable awards and questionable omissions over the prize's century-long history. Forms, which amount to a personal and exclusive invitation, are sent to about three thousand selected individuals to invite them to submit nominations. For the peace prize, inquiries are sent to such people as governments of states, members of [[international court]]s, professors and rectors at university level, former Peace Prize laureates, current or former members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee, among others. The Norwegian Nobel Committee then bases its assessment on nominations sent in before [[3 February]].<ref>{{cite web | author=The Nobel Foundation | title=Nomination and Selection Process | url=http://nobelpeaceprize.org/eng_com_nom.html | work=nobelprize.org | accessmonthday=November 13 | accessyear=2006}}.</ref> The submission deadline for nominations for Physics, Chemistry, Medicine, Literature and Economics is [[January 31]].<ref>{{cite web | author=Nobel Foundation | title=Nomination and Selection Process | url=http://nobelprize.org/nomination/chemistry/process.html | work=nobelprize.org | accessmonthday=July 30 | accessyear=2006}}.</ref> Self-nominations and nominations of deceased people are disqualified. The names of the nominees are never publicly announced, and neither are they told that they have been considered for the Prize. Nomination records are sealed for fifty years. In practice some nominees do become known. It is also common for publicists to make such a claim, founded or not. After the deadline has passed, the nominations are screened by committee, and a list is produced of approximately two hundred preliminary candidates. This list is forwarded to selected experts in the relevant field. They remove all but approximately fifteen names. The committee submits a report with recommendations to the appropriate institution. The Assembly for the Medicine Prize, for example, has fifty members. The institution members then select prize winners by vote. The selection process varies slightly between the different disciplines. The Literature Prize is rarely awarded to more than one person per year, whereas other Prizes now often involve collaborators of two or three. While posthumous nominations are not permitted, awards can occur if the individual died in the months between the nomination and the decision of the prize committee. The scenario has occurred twice: the 1931 Literature Prize of [[Erik Axel Karlfeldt]], and the 1961 Peace Prize to [[UN Secretary General]] [[Dag Hammarskjöld]]. As of 1974, laureates must be alive at the time of the October announcement. There has been one laureate—[[William Vickrey]] (1996, Economics)—who died after the prize was announced but before it could be presented. ===Recognition time lag=== The interval between the accomplishment of the achievement being recognized and the awarding of the Nobel Prize for it varies from discipline to discipline. Prizes in Literature are typically awarded to recognize a cumulative lifetime body of work rather than a single achievement. In this case the notion of "lag" does not directly apply. Prizes in Peace, on the other hand, are often awarded within a few years of the events they recognize. For instance, [[Kofi Annan]] was awarded the 2001 Peace Prize just four years after becoming the Secretary-General of the UN. Awards in the scientific disciplines of physics and chemistry require that the significance of achievements being recognized is "tested by time." In practice it means that the lag between the discovery and the award is typically on the order of 20 years and can be much longer. For example, [[Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar]] shared the 1983 [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] for his work on stellar structure and evolution from the 1930s. Unfortunately, not all scientists live long enough for their work to be recognized. Some important scientific discoveries are never considered for a Prize if the discoverers have died by the time the impact of their work is realized. ==Award ceremonies== The committees and institutions serving as the selection boards for the Nobel Prizes typically announce the names of the laureates in October, with the Prizes awarded at formal ceremonies held annually on [[December 10]], the anniversary of [[Alfred Nobel]]'s death.<ref name=ceremony/> In 2005 and 2006, these Prize ceremonies were held at the [[Stockholm Concert Hall]], with the Nobel Banquet following immediately in the Blue Hall of [[Stockholm City Hall]]. Previously, the Nobel Prizes ceremony was held in a ballroom in Stockholm's Grand Hotel.<ref name=ceremony/> The Nobel Peace Prize ceremony has been held at the [[Norwegian Nobel Institute]] (1905-1946); at the [[Aula]] of the [[University of Oslo]] (1947-1990); and most recently at the [[Oslo City Hall]].<ref name=ceremony/> A maximum of three laureates and two different works may be selected per award. Each award can be given to a maximum of three recipients per year. Each "Nobel Prize Award" consists of a gold medal, a diploma, and a monetary grant: {{quote|The highlight of the Nobel Prize Award Ceremony in Stockholm occurs when each Nobel Laureate steps forward to receive the prize from the hands of His Majesty the King of Sweden. In Oslo, the Chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee presents the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] in the presence of the King of Norway. Under the eyes of a watching world, the Nobel Laureate receives three things: a diploma, a medal and a document confirming the prize amount.<ref name=What>[http://nobelprize.org/award_ceremonies/prize.html "What the Nobel Laureates Receive"], ''nobelprize.org'', Copyright © The Nobel Foundation 2007, accessed [[November 9]], [[2007]].</ref>}} The grant is currently 10&nbsp;million&nbsp;[[Swedish krona|SEK]], slightly more than [[United States dollar|US$]]1.5&nbsp;million.<ref name=Amounts>[http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/amounts.html "The Nobel Prize Amounts"], ''nobelprize.org'', Copyright © The Nobel Foundation 2007, accessed [[November 9]], [[2007]].</ref> If there are two winners in a particular category, the award grant is divided equally between the recipients. If there are three, the awarding committee has the option of dividing the grant equally, or awarding one-half to one recipient and one-quarter to each of the others. It is not uncommon for recipients to donate prize money to benefit scientific, cultural or humanitarian causes. Since 1902, the [[Monarch of Sweden|King of Sweden]] has, with the exception of the Peace Prize, presented all the prizes in [[Stockholm]]. At first [[Oscar II of Sweden|King Oscar II]] did not approve of awarding grand prizes to foreigners, but is said to have changed his mind once his attention had been drawn to the publicity value of the prizes for Sweden. Until the [[Norwegian Nobel Committee]] was established in 1904, the President of Norwegian Parliament made the formal presentation of the Nobel Peace Prize. The Committee's five members are entrusted with researching and adjudicating the Prize as well as awarding it. Although appointed by the [[Storting|Norwegian Parliament]] (''Stortinget''), they are independent and answer to no legislative authority. Members of the Norwegian government are not permitted to sit on the Committee. ==Nobel Prize medals== [[Image:Nobel medal dsc06171.jpg|right|110px|Front side of the Nobel Prize® Medal for Physics presented to [[Edward Victor Appleton]] in 1947; Appleton Tower, [[University of Edinburgh]], 2005.]] [[Image:DSCN0732.JPG|right|110px|Front side of the Nobel Peace Prize® Medal presented to [[Norman Angell|Sir Ralph Norman Angell]] in 1933; the [[Imperial War Museum]], [[London]], [[August 26]], [[2005]].]]The Nobel Prize medals, which have been minted by [[Myntverket]]<ref>{{cite web | title = Medalj - ett traditionellt hantverk | publisher = Myntverket | url = http://www.myntverket.se/products.asp?lang=sv&page=3 | language = Swedish | accessdate = 2007-12-15 }}</ref> in Sweden and the [[Mint of Norway]] since 1902, are registered trademarks of the [[Nobel Foundation]]. Their engraved designs are internationally-recognized symbols of the prestige of the Nobel Prize. All of these medal designs feature an image of [[Alfred Nobel]] in left profile on their front sides (the "face" of the medal). Four of the five Nobel Prize medals ([[Nobel Prize in Physics|Physics]], [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Chemistry]], [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Physiology or Medicine]], and [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Literature]]) feature the same design on their faces (front sides). The reverse sides of the Nobel Prize medals for Chemistry and Physics share a design.<ref name=Lemmel>Birgitta Lemmel, [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medals/ "The Nobel Prize Medals and the Medal for the Prize in Economics"], ''nobelprize.org'', Copyright © The [[Nobel Foundation]] 2006, accessed [[November 9]], [[2007]]. Original designs ®© The Nobel Foundation. Copyright © Nobel Web AB 2007.<!--See talk page archive 1 and current talk page.--></ref><ref name=What/><ref name=Paulingmedal>[http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/bond/pictures/nobel-chemistry-medal.html "Nobel Prize for Chemistry. Front and back images of the medal. 1954"], "Source: Photo by Eric Arnold. Ava Helen and [[Linus Pauling]] Papers. Honors and Awards, 1954h2.1", "All Documents and Media: Pictures and Illustrations", ''Linus Pauling and The Nature of the Chemical Bond: A Documentary History'', the [[Valley Library]], [[Oregon State University]], accessed [[December 7]], [[2007]].</ref> Both sides of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] Medal<ref name=PaulingPeacePrize>[http://digitalcollections.library.oregonstate.edu/cdm4/item_viewer.php?CISOROOT=/pawardsmedals&CISOPTR=47 "The Nobel Prize for Peace"], "Linus Pauling: Awards, Honors, and Medals", ''Linus Pauling and The Nature of the Chemical Bond: A Documentary History'', the [[Valley Library]], [[Oregon State University]], accessed [[December 7]], [[2007]].</ref> and the Medal for [[The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel]] are unique designs.<ref name=Lemmel/><!--See talk page archive 1 and current talk page.--><ref name=What/> {{quote|The Nobel Prize medals in Physics, Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine and Literature are identical on the face: it shows the image of Alfred Nobel and the years of his birth and death (1833-1896). Nobel's portrait also appears on the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] Medal and the Medal for [[The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel|the Prize in Economics]], but with a slightly different design. The image on the reverse varies according to the institution awarding the prize. All medals made before 1980 were struck in 23 carat gold. Today, they are made from 18 carat green gold plated with 24 carat gold.<ref name=Lemmel/><ref name=What/>}} ==Controversies and criticisms== {{main|Nobel Prize controversies}} {{main|Nobel Prize in Literature#Non-laureates_and_controversies}} Alfred Nobel became increasingly uneasy with the military use of the explosives which he had created in the course of his jobs; his discomfort increased apparently after he read his own [[List of premature obituaries|premature obituary]], published in error in [[1888]] by a French newspaper on the occasion of the death of Nobel's brother Ludvig, which condemned Alfred as a "merchant of death."<ref name=Nobel>Frederic Golden, [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,998209,00.html "The Worst and the Brightest"], ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' & [[CNN|CNN.com]], [[October 16]], [[2000]], accessed [[November 5]], [[2007]].</ref> Since the first Nobel Prize was awarded in 1901, the proceedings, nominations, awards and exclusions have generated criticism and engendered much controversy. ===Overlooked achievements=== [[Mahatma Gandhi]] was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize five times between 1937 and 1948 but never received the prize, being assassinated on [[30 January]] [[1948]] two days before the closing date for the 1948 Peace Prize nominations. The Norwegian Nobel Committee had very likely planned to give him the Peace Prize in 1948 as they considered a posthumous award, but ultimately decided against it and instead chose not to award the prize that year.<ref>{{cite web | author=Nobel Foundation | title=Mahatma Gandhi, the Missing Laureate | url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/articles/gandhi/index.html | work=nobelprize.org | accessmonthday=October 7 | accessyear=2006}}.</ref> The strict rules against a prize being awarded to more than three people at once is also a cause for controversy. Where a prize is awarded to recognise an achievement by a team of more than three collaborators, inevitably one or more will miss out. For example, in 2002, a Prize was awarded to [[Koichi Tanaka]] and [[John B. Fenn|John Fenn]] for the development of [[mass spectrometry]] in [[Protein|protein chemistry]], an award that failed to recognise the achievements of Franz Hillenkamp and Michael Karas of the ''Institute for Physical and Theoretical Chemistry'' at the [[Johann Wolfgang Goethe University of Frankfurt am Main|University of Frankfurt]].<ref>Laura Spinney, [http://www.the-scientist.com/article/display/20931/ "News Analysis: Nobel Prize Controversy"], ''[[The Scientist]]'' 3.1 (11 December 2002): 20021211-03, accessed [[October 28]], [[2006]].</ref> Similarly, the prohibition of posthumous awards fails to recognise achievements by a collaborator who happens to die before the prize is awarded. [[Rosalind Franklin]], who was key in the discovery of the structure of [[DNA]] in 1953, died of [[ovarian cancer]] in 1958, four years before [[Francis Crick]], [[James D. Watson]] and [[Maurice Wilkins]] (one of Franklin's collaborators) were awarded the Prize for Medicine or Physiology in 1962.<ref>{{cite web | author=Nobel Foundation | title=The Discovery of the Molecular Structure of DNA - The Double Helix | url=http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/medicine/dna_double_helix/readmore.html | accessmonthday=July 30 | accessyear=2006}}</ref> Franklin's significant and relevant contribution was only briefly mentioned in Crick and Watson's Nobel Prize-winning paper: "We have also been stimulated by a knowledge of the general nature of the unpublished experimental results and ideas of Dr. M.H.F. Wilkins, Dr. R.E. Franklin, and co-workers...."<ref>J.D. Watson and F.H.C. Crick, {{PDFlink|[http://www.nature.com/nature/dna50/watsoncrick.pdf "Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids"]|359&nbsp;[[Kibibyte|KiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 367876 bytes -->}}, ''[[Nature (magazine)|Nature]]'' 171.4356 (1953): 737-38.</ref> In some cases, awards have arguably omitted similar discoveries made earlier. For example, the 2000 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for "the discovery and development of conductive [[organic polymers]]" (1977) ignored the much earlier discovery of highly-conductive [[charge transfer complex]] polymers: the 1963 series of papers by Weiss, ''et al.'' reported even higher conductivity in similarly iodine-doped oxidized polypyrrole.<ref>{{cite web | author=Peter H. Proctor | url=http://www.organicsemiconductors.com/weiss.htm | title=Electronic Conduction in Polymers--Historic Papers | work=organicsemiconductors.com | accessdate=2007-02-12}}.</ref><ref>J. McGinness and P. Proctor, [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=4359339&query_hl=1&itool=pubmed_docsum "Amorphous semiconductor switching in melanins"], ''[[Science (magazine)|Science]]'' 183.127 (1974): 853-55. Links PMID: 4359339 (PubMed - indexed for ''[[MEDLINE]]''), accessed [[October 28]], [[2006]]</ref> ===Lack of a Nobel Prize in Mathematics=== <!--See talk page for previous part of section, which requires revision and better sourcing/documentation.--> Although there is no Nobel Prize in [[Mathematics]], leading to considerable speculation about why [[Alfred Nobel]] omitted it,<ref name=Lars>Lars Gårding and Lars Hörmander, "Why Is There No Nobel Prize in Mathematics?", ''Mathematical Intelligencer'' 7 (1985): 73-74. [They suggest that, primarily, Nobel did not consider Mathematics as "practical" as the other disciplines in which he established Prizes.]</ref><ref name=Morrill>John E. Morrill, "Nobel Prize in Mathematics", ''American Mathematical Monthly'' 102.10 (December 1995): 888-92. ''[[JSTOR]]'' doi:10.2307/2975266. (5 pages.) (Restricted access.) [Summary of various speculations about reasons for Nobel's omitting a Prize in Mathematics, including possibly-apocryphal ones.]</ref> some recipients of the Nobel Prize in other fields also have notable achievements in and/or have made outstanding contributions to mathematics; for example, [[Bertrand Russell]] was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]] (1950) and [[Max Born]] and [[Walther Bothe]] shared the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] (1954). Some others with advanced credentials in mathematics and/or who are known primarily as mathematicians have been awarded the [[Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences|Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel]]: [[Kenneth Arrow]] (1972), [[Leonid Kantorovich]] (1975), [[John Forbes Nash]] (1994), [[Clive W. J. Granger]] (2003), [[Robert J. Aumann]] (who shared the 2005 Prize with [[Thomas C. Schelling]]), and [[Roger Myerson]] and [[Eric Maskin]] (2007). Several prizes in mathematics have some similarities to the Nobel Prize. The [[Fields Medal]] is often described as the "Nobel Prize of mathematics", but it differs in being awarded only once every four years to people younger than forty years old. Other prestigious prizes in mathematics are the [[Crafoord Prize]], awarded by the [[Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences]] since 1982; the [[Abel Prize]], awarded by the Norwegian government beginning in 2001; the [[Shaw Prize]] in [[mathematical science]]s awarded since 2004; and the [[Gauss Prize]], granted jointly by the [[International Mathematical Union]] and the [[Deutsche Mathematiker-Vereinigung|German Mathematical Society]] for "outstanding mathematical contributions that have found significant applications outside of mathematics," and introduced at the [[International Congress of Mathematicians]] in 2006. The [[Clay Institute|Clay Mathematics Institute]] has devised seven "[[Millennium Prize Problems|Millennium Problems]]," whose solution results in a significant cash award:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.claymath.org/millennium/|title=Clay Millennium Problems|publisher=[[Clay Institute]]|date=[[2000-03-02]]}}.</ref> since it has a clear, predetermined objective for its award and since it can be awarded whenever a problem is solved, this prize also differs from the Nobel Prizes. == Specially distinguished laureates == ===Multiple laureates=== Since the establishment of the Nobel Prize, four people have received two Nobel Prizes:<ref name="nobelfacts">[http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/nobelprize_facts.html Nobel Prize Facts], ''nobelprize.org'', accessed [[October 18]], [[2007]].</ref> * [[Marie Curie|Maria Skłodowska-Curie]]: in Physics 1903, for the discovery of [[radioactivity]]; and in Chemistry 1911, for the isolation of [[radium|pure radium]] * [[Linus Pauling]]: in Chemistry 1954, for the [[Orbital hybridisation|hybridized orbital theory]]; and Peace 1962, for nuclear test-ban treaty activism; he "remains the only person to have won two unshared Nobel Prizes."<ref name=PaulingOSU>See "[http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/bond/narrative/page1.html Preface"], [http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/peace/narrative/page45.html "The Peace Prize..."] and [http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/awards/index.html "Linus Pauling: Awards, Honors, and Medals"], ''Linus Pauling and The Nature of the Chemical Bond: A Documentary History'' and ''Linus Pauling and the International Peace Movement'', ''Ava Helen and Linus Pauling Papers'', ''Special Collections'', the [[Valley Library]], [[Oregon State University]], accessed [[December 13]], [[2007]].</ref> * [[John Bardeen]]: in Physics 1956, for the invention of the [[transistor]]; and Physics 1972, for the theory of [[superconductivity]]; and * [[Frederick Sanger]]: in Chemistry 1958, for structure of the [[insulin]] molecule; and in Chemistry 1980, for [[virus]] nucleotide sequencing. Although [[Otto Heinrich Warburg]] was nominated for a second Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1944, he was not selected that time.<ref name=LiljestrandBernhard>Göran Liljestrand and Gustaf Bernhard, "The Prize in Physiology or Medicine" 210.</ref> As a group, the [[International Committee of the Red Cross]] (ICRC) has received the Nobel Peace Prize three times: in 1917, 1944, and 1963. The first two prizes were specifically in recognition of the group's work during the world wars. The [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees]] (UNHCR) has won the Peace Prize twice: in 1954 and 1981. ===Family laureates=== A number of families have included multiple laureates.<ref name="nobelfacts"/> The Curie family claim the most Nobel Prizes, with five: *[[Maria Skłodowska-Curie]], Physics 1903 and Chemistry 1911 *Her husband [[Pierre Curie]], Physics 1903 *Their daughter [[Irène Joliot-Curie]], Chemistry 1935 *Their son-in-law [[Frederic Joliot-Curie]], Chemistry 1935 In addition, [[Henry Labouisse]], the husband of the Curies' second daughter [[Ève Curie|Ève]], was the director of [[UNICEF]] when it won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1965. *[[C.V. Raman]] won the Nobel prize in Physics in 1930; he was the uncle of [[Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar]] who won the Nobel prize in Physics in 1983. *[[Manne Siegbahn]] won the Nobel prize in Physics in 1924; he was the father of [[Kai Siegbahn]] who shared the Nobel prize in Physics in 1981. *[[William Henry Bragg]] shared the Nobel prize in Physics in 1915 with his son, [[William Lawrence Bragg]]. *[[Niels Bohr]] won the Nobel prize in Physics in 1922, and his son [[Aage Bohr]] won the Nobel prize in Physics in 1975. *[[Arthur Kornberg]] shared with [[Severo Ochoa]] the 1959 Nobel prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discovery of the mechanisms in the biological synthesis of ribonucleic acid and deoxyribonucleic acid.<ref>[http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1959/index.html# Physiology or Medicine prize 1959], ''nobelprize.org'', accessed [[January 14]], [[2008]]</ref> Kornberg's son [[Roger Kornberg|Roger]] won the 2006 Nobel prize in Chemistry for his studies of the molecular basis of eukaryotic transcription.<ref>[http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/2006/index.html# Chemistry prize 2006], ''nobelprize.org'', accessed [[January 14]], [[2008]]</ref> *[[J. J. Thomson]], awarded the Nobel prize for Physics in 1906, was the father of [[George Paget Thomson]] who was awarded the Nobel prize for Physics in 1937. *[[Jan Tinbergen]], who was awarded the Nobel Prize for Economics in 1969, was the brother of [[Nikolaas Tinbergen]] who shared the 1973 Nobel Prize in Physioogy or Medicine with [[Konrad Lorenz]] and [[Karl von Frisch]]. ===Age extremes=== [[William Lawrence Bragg]], who was only 25 when he shared the 1915 Nobel Prize in Physics with his father [[William Henry Bragg]], is the youngest person ever to win a Nobel Prize.<ref>[http://nobelprize.org/contact/faq/index.html#young List of the youngest Nobel Laureates at the time of the award], "Frequently Asked Questions", ''nobelprize.org'', accessed [[October 18]], [[2007]].</ref> [[Leonid Hurwicz]], 90, is the oldest Nobel Laureate at the time of the award in the 2007 [[Prize in Economics]].<ref>[http://nobelprize.org/contact/faq/index.html#old List of the oldest Nobel Laureates at the time of the award], "Frequently Asked Questions", ''nobelprize.org'', accessed [[October 18]], [[2007]].</ref> ==See also== *[[Alternative Nobel Prize]] *[[Female Nobel Prize laureates]] *[[List of prizes, medals, and awards]] *[[List of Nobel laureates]] *[[Nobel laureates by country]] *[[Nobel laureates by university affiliation]] *[[Nobel Library]] *[[Nobel Museum]] *[[Nobel Peace Center]] ==Notes== {{Reflist|2}} ==References== *[http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2001/nobel.100/stories/nobel.wrap.html "Annan, U.N. Cited for Peace Work, Win Nobel"]. In ''Nobel Centennial''. ''[[CNN|CNN.com]]''. Copyright © 2003 Cable News Network LP, LLLP 2003. Accessed [[November 5]], [[2007]]. (Concerns the 2001 Nobel Peace Prize awarded to [[Kofi Annan]] and the [[United Nations]].) *[http://www.thelocal.se/guides/nobel/the+Nobel+Prizes/ "The Definitive Guide to The Nobel Prizes"]. ''The Local'' ("Sweden's News in English"), [[November 6]], [[2007]]. Copyright © The Local Europe AB 2007. Accessed [[November 5]], [[2007]]. *''[http://www.britannica.com/nobel/ Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to the Nobel Prizes]''. ''britannica.com''. Copyright © 2007 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Accessed [[November 5]], [[2007]]. *Lemmel, Birgitta. [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medals/ "The Nobel Prize Medals and the Medal for the Prize in Economics"]. ''nobelprize.org''. Copyright © The [[Nobel Foundation]] 2006. Accessed [[November 9]], [[2007]]. *Liljestrand, Göran, and Carl Gustaf Bernhard. "The Prize in Physiology or Medicine". 139-278 of ''Nobel: The Man and His Prizes''. 1950. Ed. Nobel Foundation and Wilhelm Odelberg (Coordinating Ed.). 3rd ed. New York: American [[Elsevier]] Publishing Company, Inc., 1972. ISBN 0444001174. *[http://nobelprize.org/award_ceremonies/ "The Nobel Prize Award Ceremonies"]. ''nobelprize.org''. Copyright © Nobel Web AB 2007. Accessed [[November 9]], [[2007]]. *Odelberg, Wilhelm. "Foreword: Alfred Nobel: The Man and His Prizes". ''The Who's Who of Nobel Prize Winners: 1901-2000''. Ed. Louise S. Sherby. 4th ed. Westport, CT: Oryx Press, 2002. ISBN 1573564141 (10). ISBN 9781573564144 (13). *Schück, Henrik, Ragnar Sohlman, Anders Österling, Carl Gustaf Bernhard, the Nobel Foundation, and Wilhelm Odelberg, eds. ''Nobel: The Man and His Prizes''. 1950. 3rd ed. Coordinating Ed., Wilhelm Odelberg. New York: American [[Elsevier]] Publishing Company, Inc., 1972. ISBN 0444001174 (10). ISBN 9780444001177 (13). (Originally published in [[Swedish language|Swedish]] as ''Nobelprisen 50 år: forskare, diktare, fredskämpar''.) *[http://nobelprize.org/award_ceremonies/prize.html "What the Nobel Laureates Receive"]. ''nobelprize.org''. Copyright © Nobel Web AB 2007. Accessed [[November 9]], [[2007]]. ==External links== *[http://www.kva.se/KVA_Root/swe/awards/nobel/index.asp "The Nobel Committees] of the [[Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences]]". ([[English language|English]] version; also accessible in [[Swedish language|Swedish]].) *''[http://www.nobelprize.org/index.html The Nobel Foundation]'' – Official website of the [[Nobel Foundation]]. ([[English language|English]] index page; hyperlink to [[Swedish language|Swedish]] site.) *''[http://www.nobel.no/ The Norwegian Nobel Committee]'' – [[Nobel Peace Prize]] official website. ([[English language|English]] version; also accessible in [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]].) *[http://ki.se/ki/jsp/polopoly.jsp?a=2197&d=1269&l=en "Prizes and Awards at Karolinska Institutet: The Nobel Prize"] – Official webpage of the [[Karolinska Institute]]; ([[English language|English]] version; also accessible in [[Swedish language|Swedish]].) *''[http://www.svenskaakademien.se/Templates/StartPage2.aspx?PageID=ca2da03d-4623-48a1-9b01-7f450c1b59c7 The Swedish Academy]'' – Official website. ([[English language|English]] version; also accessible in [[Swedish language|Swedish]].) {{Nobel Prizes}} <!--As featured article--> [[Category:Nobel Prize| ]] [[Category:Awards]] [[Category:Science and engineering awards]] [[Category:Organizations based in Sweden]] {{Link FA|pt}} [[af:Nobelprys]] [[als:Nobelpreis]] [[ar:جائزة نوبل]] [[ast:Premiu Nobel]] [[az:Nobel mükafatı]] [[bn:নোবেল পুরস্কার]] [[zh-min-nan:Nobel Chióng]] [[be-x-old:Нобэлеўская прэмія]] [[bs:Nobelova nagrada]] [[br:Priz Nobel]] [[bg:Нобелова награда]] [[ca:Premi Nobel]] [[cs:Nobelova cena]] [[cy:Gwobr Nobel]] [[da:Nobelprisen]] [[de:Nobelpreis]] [[et:Nobeli auhind]] [[el:Βραβείο Νόμπελ]] [[es:Premio Nobel]] [[eo:Nobel-premio]] [[eu:Nobel Sariak]] [[fa:جایزه نوبل]] [[fr:Prix Nobel]] [[fy:Nobelpriis]] [[fur:Premi Nobel]] [[ga:Duais Nobel]] [[gan:諾貝爾獎]] [[gd:Duais Nobel]] [[gl:Premios Nobel]] [[ko:노벨상]] [[hi:नोबेल पुरस्कार]] [[hr:Nobelova nagrada]] [[io:Nobel-premio]] [[ilo:Premio Nobel]] [[id:Penghargaan Nobel]] [[ia:Premio Nobel]] [[is:Nóbelsverðlaunin]] [[it:Premio Nobel]] [[he:פרס נובל]] [[kn:ನೊಬೆಲ್ ಪ್ರಶಸ್ತಿ]] [[ka:ნობელის პრემია]] [[sw:Tuzo ya Nobeli]] [[la:Praemium Nobelianum]] [[lv:Nobela prēmija]] [[lb:Nobelpräis]] [[lt:Nobelio premija]] [[hu:Nobel-díj]] [[mk:Нобелова награда]] [[ml:നോബല്‍ സമ്മാനം]] [[mr:नोबेल पुरस्कार]] [[ms:Hadiah Nobel]] [[nl:Nobelprijs]] [[new:नोबेल सिरपा]] [[ja:ノーベル賞]] [[nap:Premmio Nobel]] [[no:Nobelprisen]] [[nn:Nobelprisen]] [[nrm:Pris Nobel]] [[nov:Nobel Premie]] [[uz:Nobel mukofoti]] [[km:រង្វាន់ណូបែល]] [[nds:Nobelpries]] [[pl:Nagroda Nobla]] [[pt:Prémio Nobel]] [[ro:Premiul Nobel]] [[qu:Nobel Suñay]] [[ru:Нобелевская премия]] [[sq:Çmimi Nobel]] [[scn:Premiu Nobel]] [[simple:Nobel Prize]] [[sk:Nobelova cena]] [[sl:Nobelova nagrada]] [[sr:Нобелова награда]] [[sh:Nobelova nagrada]] [[fi:Nobel-palkinto]] [[sv:Nobelpriset]] [[ta:நோபல் பரிசு]] [[tt:Nobel büläge]] [[te:నోబెల్ బహుమతి]] [[th:รางวัลโนเบล]] [[vi:Giải thưởng Nobel]] [[tg:Ҷоизаи Нобел]] [[tr:Nobel Ödülü]] [[uk:Нобелівська премія]] [[ur:نوبل انعام]] [[vec:Premio Nobel]] [[wuu:诺贝尔奖]] [[yi:נאבעל־פריז]] [[yo:Ẹ̀bùn Nobel]] [[zh-yue:諾貝爾獎]] [[bat-smg:Nuobele premėjė]] [[zh:诺贝尔奖]]