1948 Arab-Israeli War 36197 225927786 2008-07-16T01:38:54Z 24.110.108.84 {{Refimprove|date=March 2008}} {{Warbox |conflict=1948 Arab-Israeli War |partof=the [[Arab-Israeli conflict]] |image=[[Image:Ink flag.jpg|250px|]] |caption=Raising the [[Ink Flag (Israel)|ink flag]] in [[Umm Rashrash]] (now [[Eilat]]) which marked the end of the war. |date=May 1948–March 1949 |place=[[Israel]] |reason=Safeguard the security and right to self-determination of inhabitants of Israel in an independent state <ref>[[Wikisource:Cablegram from the Secretary-General of the League of Arab States to the Secretary-General of the United Nations|UN Doc. S/745, reprinted in 3 UN SCOR, Supp. for May 1948, at 83-88]]</ref> |result=Decisive Israeli victory, [[Tactical]] and [[strategic]] Arab failure, [[1949 Armistice Agreements]] |territory=[[State of Israel]] established from captured territories, Jordanian occupation of [[West Bank]], Egyptian occupation of the [[Gaza Strip]] |combatant1={{flagcountry|Israel}} ([[Israel Defense Forces|IDF]]).<br />Before [[May 26]], [[1948]]: Jewish paramilitary organizations ([[Haganah]], [[Irgun]], [[Lehi (group)|Lehi]], [[Palmach]], [[Machal|Foreign Volunteers]]) |combatant2=[[Image:Flag of Egypt 1922.svg|22px]] [[Kingdom of Egypt|Egypt]], <br>[[Image:Syria-flag 1932-58 1961-63.svg|22px]] [[Syria]], <br>[[Image:Flag of Jordan.svg|22px]] [[Transjordan]], <br>{{flagcountry|Lebanon}}, <br>[[Image:Flag of Iraq 1924.svg|22px]] [[Kingdom of Iraq|Iraq]], <br>[[Image:Flag of Saudi Arabia.svg|22px]] [[Saudi Arabia]],<br>[[Image:Flag of the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen.svg|22px]] [[Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen|Yemen]],<ref>Arab states against israel, 1948 - [http://content.answers.com/main/content/wp/en/e/e1/NYTimes_1948_Jews_in_Arab.jpg A map from New York Times including Mutawakkilite Yemen]</ref><br> [[Image:Flag of Palestine.svg|22px]] [[Holy War Army]], <br> [[Image:Flag of the League of Arab States.svg|22px]] [[Arab Liberation Army]] |commander1={{flagicon|Israel}} [[Yaakov Dori]],<br/>{{flagicon|Israel}} [[Yigael Yadin]] |commander2={{flagicon|Jordan}} [[John Bagot Glubb]],<br/>[[Image:Flag of Palestine.svg|22px]] [[Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni]],<br/>[[Image:Flag of Palestine.svg|22px]] [[Hasan Salama]],<br/>[[Image:Flag of Palestine.svg|22px]] [[Fawzi Al-Qawuqji]], <br/>[[Image:Flag of Egypt 1922.svg|22px]] [[Ahmed Ali al-Mwawi]] |strength1={{flagcountry|Israel}}: 29,677 initially rising to 115,000 by March 1949 |strength2=[[Image:Flag of Egypt 1922.svg|22px]] [[Egypt]]: 10,000 initially rising to 20,000<br> [[Image:Flag of Iraq 1924.svg|22px]] [[Iraq]]: 5,000 initially rising to 15–18,000<br>[[Image:Syria-flag 1932-58 1961-63.svg|22px]] [[Syria]]: 2,500–5,000<br>[[Image:Flag of Jordan.svg|22px]] [[Transjordan]]: 6,000–12,000<br>{{flagcountry|Lebanon}}: 1,000 initially rising to 2,000<ref>Pollack, 2004; Sadeh, 1997</ref><br>{{flagcountry|Saudi Arabia}}: 800–1,200<br/> [[Image:Flag of the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen.svg|22px]] [[Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen|Yemen]]: unknown<br> [[Image:Flag of the League of Arab States.svg|22px]] [[Arab Liberation Army]]: 3,500-6,000 |casualties1=6,373 KIA (about 4,000 troops and 2,400 civilians) |casualties2=Unknown (between 10,000 and 15,000) |}} {{Campaignbox Arab-Israeli conflict}} The '''1948 Arab-Israeli War''', known by the [[Israelis]] predominantly as ''War of Independence'' (מלחמת העצמאות) and ''War of Liberation'' (מלחמת השחרור), and by [[Palestinians]] as ''the Catastrophe'' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: ''[[al Nakba]]'', النكبة ) was the first in a series of wars fought between the [[Declaration of Independence (Israel)|newly declared]] [[State of Israel]] and its Arab neighbors in the long-running [[Arab-Israeli conflict]]. The War commenced on the termination of the Mandate on [[15 May]] [[1948]] following Arab rejection of the 1947 [[United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine]] (UN General Assembly Resolution 181) that would have created an Arab state and a Jewish state. The War was fought mostly on the territory of the [[British Mandate of Palestine]], and for a short time also on the [[Sinai Peninsula]]. While the 1948 war was concluded with the [[1949 Armistice Agreements]] it has not marked the end of the Arab-Israeli conflict. ==Background== Following the defeat of the [[Ottoman Empire]] in [[World War I]], the Allied Supreme Council met at the Villa Dechavan in [[San Remo conference|San Remo]], Italy, April 18&ndash;26 to settle the final terms of the peace treaty with Turkey.<ref name=geddes>Geddes, 1991, pp. 79-81.</ref> The decisions of the conference mainly confirmed those of the First [[Conference of London (February 1920)]], and broadly reaffirmed the terms of the Anglo-French [[Sykes-Picot Agreement]] of [[16 May]] [[1916]] for the region's partition and the [[Balfour Declaration, 1917|Balfour Declaration]] of [[2 November]] [[1917]].<ref>Under the Balfour Declaration the British government had undertaken to favour the reconstitution of a Jewish national home in Palestine without prejudice to the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country.</ref><ref>Karsh & Karsh, 1999, pp. 254-258.</ref> The San Remo Agreement stated that 'the mandatories chosen by the Principal Allied Powers are: France for Syria and Great Britain for Mesopotamia and Palestine.' The high contracting parties agreed further that the territorial boundaries of these regions would be 'determined by the Principal Allied Powers'.<ref name=geddes/> In the case of Palestine the borders were agreed between the British and French in two separate conventions: the ''Franco-British Convention of 23rd&nbsp;December 1920 on Certain Points Connected with the Mandates for Syria and the Lebanon, Palestine and Mesopotamia'' and the ''Agreement Between the British and the French Governments Respecting the Boundary Line Between Syria and Palestine from the Mediterranean to El Hammé, 1923.''<ref name=geddes/> During meetings in Cairo and Jerusalem between [[Winston Churchill]] and [[Abdullah I of Jordan|Emir Abdullah]] in March 1921 it was agreed that Abdullah would administer the territory of Transjordan (initially for six months only) on behalf of the Palestine administration. In the summer of 1921 Transjordan was included within the Mandate, but excluded from the provisions for a [[Jewish National Home]].<ref>Gelber, 1997, pp. 6-15.</ref> On [[24 July]] [[1922]] the League of Nations approved the terms of the British Mandate over Palestine and Transjordan. On [[16 September]] the League formally approved a memorandum from [[Arthur Balfour|Lord Balfour]] confirming the exemption of Transjordan from the clauses of the mandate concerning the creation of a Jewish national home and from the mandate's responsibility to ''facilitate'' Jewish immigration and land settlement.<ref>Sicker, 1999, p. 164.</ref> In 1922 the population of Palestine consisted of approximately 589,200 [[Muslims]], 83,800 [[Jew]]s, 71,500 [[Christian]]s and 7,600 others (1922 census<ref>Bickerton and Hill, 2003, p. 43. Cited from census figures quoted in Janowsky, 1975.</ref>). However, this area gradually saw a large influx of Jewish immigrants (most of whom were fleeing the increasing persecution in [[Europe]]). This immigration and accompanying call for a [[Jewish state]] in Palestine drew violent opposition from local [[Arabs]], in part because of [[Zionism]]'s stated goal of a Jewish state, which many Arabs believed would require the subjugation or removal of the existing non-Jewish population. Under the leadership of [[Amin al-Husayni|Haj Amin al-Husayni]], the [[Grand Mufti]] of [[Jerusalem]], the local Arabs rebelled against the British, and attacked the growing Jewish population repeatedly. These sporadic attacks began with the [[riots in Palestine of 1920]] and [[Jaffa riots]] (or "Hurani Riots") of 1921. During the [[1929 Palestine riots]], 133 Jews were killed, 67 of them in [[Hebron]], and 355 wounded. By the time the British intervened 116 Arabs were also killed in the fighting. ===The Great Arab Revolt (1936–1939) and its aftermath=== :{{main|1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine}} In the late 1920s and early 1930s several factions of Arab society became impatient with the internecine divisions and ineffectiveness of the Arab elite and engaged in grass-roots anti-British and anti-Zionist activism organized by groups such as the [[Young Men's Muslim Association]]. There was also support for the growth in influence of the radical nationalist [[Independence Party (Palestine)|Independence Party]] (''Hizb al-Istiqlal''), March and the civil disobedience movement|Indian Congress Party]]. Most of these initiatives were contained and defeated by notables in the pay of the Mandatory Administration, particularly the ''mufti'' and his cousin [[Jamal al-Husayni]]. The death of the preacher [[Sheikh|Shaykh]] [[Izz ad-Din al-Qassam]] at the hands of the British police near [[Jenin]] in November 1935 generated widespread outrage and huge crowds accompanied Qassam's body to his grave in [[Haifa]]. A few months later a spontaneous Arab national [[general strike]] broke out. This lasted until October 1936. During the summer of that year thousands of Jewish-farmed acres and orchards were destroyed, Jews were attacked and killed and some Jewish communities, such as those in [[Beisan]] and [[Acre, Israel|Acre]], fled to safer areas.<ref>Gilbert, 1998, p. 80.</ref> In the wake of the strike and the [[Peel Commission]] recommendation of partition of the country into a small Jewish state and an Arab state to be attached to Jordan, an armed uprising spread through the country. Over the next 18 months the British lost control of Jerusalem, [[Nablus]], and Hebron. During this period from 1936–1939, known as the [[1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine|Great Arab Revolt]] or the "Great Uprising", British forces, supported by 6,000 armed Jewish auxiliary police,<ref>Gilbert, 1998, p. 85. The [[Jewish Settlement Police]] were set up and equipped with trucks and armored cars by the British working with the [[Jewish Agency for Israel|Jewish Agency]].</ref> suppressed the widespread riots with overwhelming force. This resulted in the deaths of 5,000 Palestinian Arabs and the wounding of 10,000. In total 10 percent of the adult male population was killed, wounded, imprisoned, or exiled (see Khalidi, 2001). The Jewish population had 400 killed; the British 200. In another significant development during this time the British officer [[Orde Charles Wingate|Charles Orde Wingate]] (who supported a Zionist revival for religious reasons<ref>van Creveld, 2004, p. 45.</ref>) organized [[Special Night Squads]] composed of British soldiers and [[Haganah]] mercenaries, which "scored significant successes against the Arab rebels in the lower Galilee and in the Jezreel valley"<ref>Black, 1992, p. 14.</ref> by conducting raids on Arab villages. The squads were rumored to have used excessive and indiscriminate force, which has been cited by Israeli academic [[Anita Shapira]].<ref>Shapira, 1992, pp. 247, 249, 350.</ref> The Haganah mobilized up to 20,000 policemen, field troops and night squads; the latter included [[Yigal Allon]] and [[Moshe Dayan]]. Significantly, from 1936 to 1945, whilst establishing collaborative security arrangements with the [[Jewish Agency for Israel|Jewish Agency]] (see below for details), the British confiscated 13,200 firearms from Arabs and 521 weapons from Jews.<ref>Khalidi, 1987, p. 845 (cited in Khalidi, 2001).</ref> In assessing the overall impact of the revolt on subsequent events Rashid Khalidi argues that its negative effects on Palestinian national leadership, social cohesion and military capabilities contributed to the outcome of 1948 because "when the Palestinians faced their most fateful challenge in 1947–49, they were still suffering from the British repression of 1936–39, and were in effect without a unified leadership. Indeed, it might be argued that they were virtually without any leadership at all".<ref>Khalidi, 2001, p. 29.</ref> The attacks on the Jewish population by Arabs had three lasting effects: First, they led to the further development of Jewish underground militias, primarily the [[Haganah]] ("The Defense"), which were to prove decisive in 1948. Secondly, the attacks solidified general sentiment that the two communities could not be reconciled, and the idea of partition was born. Thirdly, the British responded to Arab opposition with the [[White Paper of 1939]], which severely restricted Jewish immigration. However, with the advent of [[World War II]], even this reduced immigration quota was not reached. The White Paper policy also radicalized segments of the Jewish population, who after the war would no longer cooperate with the British. ===The British Mandate administration and training of local Arabs and Jews=== From 1936 onward the British government facilitated the training, arming, recruitment and funding of a range of security and intelligence forces in collaboration with the [[Jewish Agency]]. These included the ''Guards'' (''[[Notrim]]''), which were divided into the 6,000 to 14,000-strong [[Jewish Supernumerary Police]],<ref>Bowyer Bell, 1996 , p. 33.</ref> the élite and highly mobile 6,000–8,000 strong [[Jewish Settlement Police]]<ref name="katz3">Katz, 1988, pp. 3–4.</ref> and the [[Special Night Squads]],<ref>Kaniuk, 2001, p. 19.</ref> the forerunner of Britain's [[Special Air Service]] regiments.<ref>Brown and Louis, 1999, p. 193.</ref> There was also an élite strike force known as the [[FOSH]], or ''Field Companies'',<ref name="katz3" /> with around 1,500 members, which were replaced by the larger [[HISH]] or ''Field Force'' in 1939.<ref>Oring, 1981, p. 14.</ref><ref name="katz3" /> The [[SHAI]], the intelligence and [[counter-espionage]] arm of the [[Haganah]], was the forebear of [[Mossad]].<ref>Richelson, 1997, p. 238.</ref> The British had enlisted 6,000 Palestinian Arabs during the Second World War and 1,700 Palestinian Arabs were recruited into the [[Trans-Jordanian Frontier Force]] or T.J.F.F.<ref>Netanel Lorch, ''The Edge of the Sword: Israel's war of independence'', Jerusalem: 1961, p. 21</ref> . In addition the British supplied officers, such as [[John Bagot Glubb]] Pasha for the Jordan's [[Arab Legion]], and supplied the Egyptian army with trucks, rifles and airplanes. The British army therefore was intimately involved, ironically, in the training of both sides for the coming conflict. ====World War II==== On [[6 August]] [[1940]] [[Anthony Eden]], the British [[Secretary of State for War]], informed [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] that the [[Cabinet]] had decided to recruit Arab and Jewish units as battalions of the [[The Buffs (Royal East Kent Regiment)|Royal East Kent Regiment]] (the "Buffs").<ref>Israel Foreign Ministry et al, 2000, p. 51. Approximately 26,000 Palestinian Jews served in the British Army. The three companies of Jewish volunteers in the Buffs became the [[Palestine Regiment]]. In September 1944 the [[Jewish Brigade]] was formed. Its 5,000 volunteers saw service in Egypt, Northern Italy and North-West Europe. According to [[Moshe Sharett|Moshe Shertok]] by 1943 of the 500,000 Jews in Palestine 30,000 had joined the British Army; a further 20,000 worked for the army as civilians and another 20,000 worked on army contracts in factories.</ref> At a luncheon with [[Chaim Weizmann]] on [[3 September]] [[Winston Churchill]] approved the large-scale recruitment of Jewish forces in [[British Mandate of Palestine|Palestine]] and the training of their officers. A further 10,000 men (no more than 3,000 from Palestine) were to be recruited to Jewish units in the British Army for training in the [[United Kingdom]]. Faced with [[Erwin Rommel|Field Marshal Rommel]]'s advance in Egypt, the British government decided on [[15 April]] [[1941]] that the 10,000 Jews dispersed in the single defense companies of the Buffs should be prepared for war service at the battalion level and that another 10,000 should also be mobilized along with 6,000 [[Supernumerary Police]] and 40,000 to 50,000 home guard. The plans were approved by [[John Dill|Field Marshall John Dill]]. The [[Special Operations Executive]] (SOE) in [[Cairo]] approved a Haganah proposal for guerrilla activities in northern Palestine led by the [[Palmach]] arm of the Haganah, as part of which [[Yitzhak Sadeh]] devised [[Plan North]] for an armed enclave in the [[Carmel]] range from which the [[Yishuv]] could defend the region and from which they could attack [[Nazism|Nazi]] communications and supply lines, if necessary. British intelligence also trained a small radio network under [[Moshe Dayan]] to act as spy cells in the event of a German invasion.<ref>Israeli and Penkower, 2002, pp. 112–113.</ref> After much hesitation, on [[3 July]] [[1944]] the [[British government]] consented to the establishment of a [[Jewish Brigade]] with hand-picked Jewish and also non-Jewish senior officers. On [[20 September]] [[1944]] an official communiqué by the [[War Office]] announced the formation of the Jewish Brigade Group of the British Army. The Zionist flag was officially approved as its [[flag|standard]]. It included more than 5,000 Jewish volunteers from Palestine organized into three [[infantry]] battalions and several supporting units.<ref>Beckman, 1999, pp. 42–43.</ref> As soon as the war ended British policy reverted to that of the period immediately before the war. Arms were confiscated and some Haganah members were arrested and tried, one notable case being that of [[Eliahu Sacharoff]], who received a sentence of seven years' imprisonment for possession of two more cartridges than his firearms licence allowed.<ref>"The Palestine Problem II—New Factors In The Racial Balance Of Power, Growth Of Jewish Underground Groups", From a Special Correspondent Lately in Palestine. ''[[The Times]]'', Wednesday, [[26 September]] [[1945]]; pg. 5; Issue 50257; col F</ref> ===Twilight of colonial rule in the region=== Meanwhile, many of the surrounding Arab nations were also emerging from [[colonialism|colonial rule]]. Transjordan, under the [[Hashemite]] ruler [[Abdullah I of Jordan|Abdullah]], gained independence from Britain in 1946, but it remained under heavy British influence. The [[Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936]] included provisions by which Britain would maintain a garrison of troops on the [[Suez Canal]]. From 1945 on, Egypt attempted to renegotiate the terms of this treaty, which was viewed as a humiliating vestige of colonialism. Lebanon became an independent state in 1943, but [[France|French]] troops would not withdraw until 1946, the same year that Syria won its independence from France. In 1945, at British prompting, Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon, [[Saudi Arabia]], Syria, Transjordan, and [[Yemen]] formed the [[Arab League]] to coordinate policy between the Arab states. Iraq and Transjordan coordinated policies closely, signing a mutual defense treaty, while Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, and Saudi Arabia feared that Transjordan would annex part or all of Palestine, and use it as a basis to attack or undermine Syria, Lebanon, and the [[Hijaz]]. ===UN Partition Plan=== [[Image:UN Partition Plan For Palestine 1947.png|thumb|right|Proposed separation of Palestine.]] {{main|1947 UN Partition Plan}} On [[29 November]] [[1947]] the [[United Nations General Assembly]] approved a plan, [[1947 UN Partition Plan|UN General Assembly Resolution 181]], to resolve the [[Arab-Israeli conflict|Arab-Jewish conflict]] by partitioning Palestine into two states, one Jewish and one Arab. Each state would comprise three major sections, linked by extraterritorial crossroads; the Arab state would also have an enclave at [[Jaffa, Israel|Jaffa]]. With about 32% of the population, the Jews would get 56% of the territory, an area that then contained 499,000 Jews and 438,000 Palestinians, though this included the inhospitable Negev Desert in the south. The Palestinians would get 42% of the land, which then had a population of 818,000 Palestinians and 10,000 Jews. In consideration of its religious significance, the [[Jerusalem]] area, including [[Bethlehem]], with 100,000 Jews and an equal number of Palestinians, was to become a Corpus Separatum, to be administered by the UN.<ref>Pappe, 2006, p. 35</ref> Although some Jews criticized aspects of the plan, the resolution was welcomed by most of the Jewish population.{{Fact|date=September 2007}} The Zionist leadership accepted the partition plan as "the indispensable minimum,"<ref>El-Nawawy, 2002, p. 1-2</ref> glad as they were with the international recognition, but sorry that they didn't get more.<ref>Morris, 'Righteous Victims ...', 2001, p. 190</ref> Arguing that the partition plan was unfair to the Arabs with regard to the population balance at that time, the representatives of the Palestinian Arabs and the Arab League firmly opposed the UN action and even rejected its authority to involve itself in the entire matter.<ref>Gold, 2007, p. 134</ref> They upheld "that the rule of Palestine should revert to its inhabitants, in accordance with the provisions of [...] the Charter of the United Nations."<ref>[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/arab_invasion.html Arab League Declaration on the Invasion of Palestine May 15, 1948], Jewish Virtual Library.</ref> According to [http://www.un.org/aboutun/charter/chapt11.htm Article 73b] of the Charter, the UN should develop self-government of the peoples in a territory under its administration. ===1947–1948 Civil War in mandatory Palestine=== {{main|1947–1948 Civil War in mandatory Palestine}} In the immediate aftermath of the [[United Nations]]' approval of the Partition plan, the explosions of joy amongst the Jewish community were counterbalanced by the expression of discontent amongst the Arab community. Soon thereafter, violence broke out and became more and more prevalent. Murders, reprisals, and counter-reprisals came one after the other, killing dozens of victims on both sides in the process. Summarizing the military assessments of the British, Jewish Agency and the Arabs, historian [[Benny Morris]] writes, "all observers—Jewish, British, Palestinian Arab, and external Arab—agreed on the eve of the war that the Palestinians were incapable of beating the Zionists or of withstanding Zionist assault. The Palestinians were simply too weak."<ref>Morris, 2003, p. 33.</ref> During the period beginning in December 1947 and ending in January 1948, it was estimated that nearly 1,000 people were killed and 2,000 people were injured.<ref>[[#rapport special|Special UN commission (16 April 1948)]], § II.5</ref> By the end of March, the figure had risen to 2,000 dead and 4,000 wounded.<ref>[[#gelber|Yoav Gelber (2006)]], p.85</ref> These figures correspond to an average of more than 100 deaths and 200 casualties per week; in a population of 2,000,000. From January onwards operations became more militaristic, with the intervention into Palestine of a number of [[Arab Liberation Army]] regiments who divided up around the different coastal towns and reinforced [[Galilee]] and [[Samaria]].<ref>[[#gelber|Yoav Gelber (2006)]], pp.51-56</ref> [[Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni]] came from Egypt with several hundred men of the [[Army of Holy War]]. Having recruited a few thousand volunteers, al-Husayni organized the blockade of the 100,000 Jewish residents of Jerusalem.<ref>[[#lapierre collins|Dominique Lapierre et Larry Collins (1971)]], chap.7, pp.131-153</ref> To counter this, the Yishuv authorities tried to supply the city with convoys of up to 100 armoured vehicles, but the operation became more and more impractical and more and more died in this process. By March, Al-Hussayni's tactic had paid off. Almost the entirety of Haganah's armoured vehicles had been destroyed, the blockade was in full operation, and hundreds of the Haganah members who tried to bring supplies to the city were killed.<ref>[[Benny Morris|Morris]] (2003), p.163</ref> The situation for those who dwelt in the Jewish settlements in the highly-isolated [[Negev]] and northern Galilee was even more critical. Since the Jewish population was under strict orders obliging them to hold their dominions at all costs,<ref>[[#lapierre collins|Dominique Lapierre et Larry Collins (1971)]], p.163</ref> the situation of insecurity across the country affected the Arab population more visibly. Up to 100,000 Palestinians, chiefly those from the upper classes, left the country to seek refuge abroad or in [[Samaria]].<ref>[[Benny Morris|Morris]] (2003), p.67</ref> This situation caused the [[United States|U.S.]] to retract their support for the Partition plan, thus encouraging the [[Arab League]] to believe that the Palestinians, reinforced by the [[Arab Liberation Army]], could put an end to the partition plan. The British, on the other hand, decided on [[7 February]] [[1948]] to support the annexation of the Arab part of Palestine by [[Transjordan]].<ref>[[#laurens|Henry Laurens (2005)]], p.83</ref> Although a certain level of doubt took hold amongst [[Yishuv]] supporters, their apparent defeats were due more to their wait-and-see policy than to weakness. [[Ben-Gurion]] reorganized the [[Haganah]] and made conscription obligatory. Every Jewish man and woman in the country had to receive military training. Due to funds gathered by [[Golda Meir]] from sympathizers in the United States, and assisted by Stalin's support for the [[Zionism|Zionist]] cause at the time, the Jewish representatives of Palestine were able to sign very important armament contracts in the East. Other [[Haganah]] agents retrieved stockpiles from the Second World War, which helped equip the army further. [[Operation Balak]] allowed arms and other equipment to be transported for the first time by the end of March. Ben-Gurion assigned [[Yigael Yadin]] the responsibility to come up with a plan in preparation for the announced intervention of the Arab states. The result of his analysis was [[Plan Dalet]], which was put in place from the start of April onwards. The adoption of Plan Dalet marked the second stage of the war, in which Haganah passed from the defensive to the offensive. The first operation, named [[Operation Nachshon]], consisted of lifting the blockade on [[Jerusalem]]. Fifteen hundred men from the Haganah's [[Givati Brigade]] and the [[Palmach]]'s Harel brigade went about freeing the route to the city between [[5 April]] and [[20 April]]. The operation was successful, and enough foodstuffs to last two months were shipped to Jerusalem and distributed to the Jewish population.<ref>[[#lapierre collins|Dominique Lapierre et Larry Collins (1971)]], pp.369-381</ref> The success of the operation was added to by the death of [[Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni|al-Hussayni]] in combat. During this time, and beyond the command of Haganah or the framework of Plan Dalet, troops from [[Irgun]] and [[Lehi (group)|Lehi]] massacred more than 100 Arabs, mostly civilians, at [[Deir Yassin massacre|Deir Yassin]], a move that had an important impact on the Palestinian population, and one that was criticised and lamented by all the principal Jewish authorities of the day. At the same time, the first large-scale operation of the [[Arab Liberation Army]] ended in a debacle, having been roundly defeated at Mishmar Ha'emek<ref>[[Benny Morris|Morris]] (2003), pp.242-243</ref> and having lost their [[Druze]] allies through defection.<ref>[[Benny Morris|Morris]] (2003), p.242</ref> Within the framework for the expansion of Jewish territory foreseen by [[Plan Dalet]], the forces of [[Haganah]], [[Palmach]] and [[Irgun]] intended to conquer mixed zones. Whether ethnic cleansing was the intention, encouraged, or merely accepted, Palestinian society was shaken. [[Tiberias]], [[Haifa]], [[Safed]], [[Beisan]], [[Jaffa]] and [[Acre, Israel|Acre]] fell, resulting in the flight of more than 250,000 Palestinians.<ref>[[#laurens|Henry Laurens (2005)]], pp.85-86</ref> The British had, at that time, essentially withdrawn their troops. The situation pushed the leaders of the neighbouring Arab states to intervene, but their preparation was not finalized, and they could not assemble forces that would be able to turn the tide of the war. The majority of Palestinian hopes lay with the [[Arab Legion]] of Transjordan's monarch, King [[Abdullah I of Jordan|Abdullah I]], but he had no intention of creating a Palestinian-run state, instead hoping to annex as much of the territory of the [[British Mandate of Palestine]] as he could. He was playing a double-game, being just as much in contact with the Jewish authorities as with the Arab League. In preparation for the offensive, [[Haganah]] successfully launched Operations [[Operation Yiftah|Yiftah]]<ref>[[Benny Morris|Morris]] (2003), pp.248-252</ref> and [[Operation Ben Ami|Ben Ami]]<ref>[[Benny Morris|Morris]] (2003), pp.252-254</ref> to secure the Jewish settlements of [[Galilee]], and [[Operation Kilshon]], which created a united front around Jerusalem. [[Golda Meir]] and Abdullah I met on [[10 May]] to discuss the situation, but the meeting was inconclusive and their former agreements were not confirmed. On [[13 May]], the Arab Legion, backed by irregulars, attacked and took [[Kfar Etzion]], where 127 out of the 131 Jewish defenders were killed and the prisoners massacred. On [[14 May]], [[1948]], [[David Ben-Gurion]] declared the independence of the state of [[Israel]], and the [[1948 Palestine war]] entered its second phase, with the intervention of several Arab states' armies the following day. ==Political objectives== ===The Yishuv=== Benny Morris points out [[Yishuv]]'s aims evolved during the war.<ref name = "morris_1948_397>[[Benny Morris]], ''1948'', (2008), pp.397-398.</ref> Initially, the aim was "simple and modest": to survive to the assaults of the Palestinian Arabs and the Arab states. "The Zionist leaders deeply, genuinely, feared a Middle Eastern reenactment of the Holocaust, which had just ended; the Arabs' public rhetoric reinforced these fears". As the war progressed, the aim of expanding the Jewish state beyond the UN partition borders appeared: first to incorporate clusters of isolated Jewish settlements and later to add more territories to the state and give it defensible borders. A third and further aim that emerged among the political and military leaders after four or five months was to "reduce the size of Israel's prospective large and hostile Arab minority, seen as a potential powerful fifth column, by belligerency and expulsion."<ref name = "morris_1948_397/> ===King Abdullah I of Jordan=== {{main|Abdullah I of Jordan}} King [[Abdullah I of Jordan]] was the commander of the [[Arab Legion]], the strongest Arab army involved in the war. The Arab Legion had about 10,000 soldiers which were trained and commanded by British officers. In 1946-1947, Abdullah said that he had no intention to "resist or impede the partition of Palestine and creation of a [[Jewish state]]."<ref name="Sela">Sela, 2002, 14.</ref> It was said that Abdullah supported the partition with the intention that the areas of the British Mandate allocated for Palestine would be annexed to Jordan. It is said that Abdullah had secret meetings with the [[Jewish Agency]] (at which the future [[Israeli Prime Minister]] [[Golda Meir]] was among the delegates) that agreed to a partition plan independently of the United Nations, and that the plan had the approval of British authorities.<ref>Rogan, 2001, 109-110.</ref> However, by 1948, the neighboring [[Arab]] states pressured Abdullah into joining them in an "all-Arab military intervention" against the newly created [[State of Israel]], which he used to restore his prestige in the Arab world, which had grown suspicious of his relatively good relationship with Western and Jewish leaders.<ref name="Sela" /> Abdullah's role in this war became substantial. He saw himself as the "supreme commander of the Arab forces" and "persuaded the [[Arab League]] to appoint him" to this position.<ref>Tripp, 2001, 137.</ref> Through his leadership, the Arabs fought the 1948 war to meet Abdullah's political goals. ===The Arab Higher Committee of Amin al-Husayni=== {{main|Amin al-Husayni}} The Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, [[Amin al-Husayni]], the Chairman of the [[Arab Higher Committee]] collaborated with Nazi Germany during the Second World War. In 1940, he asked the Axis powers to acknowledge the Arab right, "to settle the question of Jewish elements in Palestine and other Arab countries in accordance with the national and racial interests of the Arabs and along the lines similar to those used to solve the Jewish question in Germany and Italy."{{Fact|date=March 2007}} He spent the second half of WWII in Germany making radio broadcasts exhorting Muslims to ally with the Nazis in war against their common enemies. In one of these broadcasts, he said, "Arabs, arise as one man and fight for your sacred rights. Kill Jews wherever you find them. This pleases God, history, and religion. This saves your honor. God is with you."<ref>''The Mufti of Jerusalem'' by Maurice Pearlman (1947).</ref><ref>''The Mufti and the Fuehrer'' by Joseph Schechtman (1965).</ref> In the immediate aftermath of the Holocaust, such statements by Arab leaders (along with the Mufti's violently anti-Semitic history) led to a widespread belief that the Israelis were facing a new “warrant for genocide.”{{Fact|date=March 2007}} At the beginning of 1948 al-Husayni was in exile in Egypt. The ''mufti'' was involved in some of the high level negotiations between Arab leaders, at a meeting held in [[Damascus]] in February 1948 to organize Palestinian Field Commands; however, the commanders of his [[Holy War Army]], [[Hasan Salama]] and [[Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni]], were allocated only the [[Lydda]] district and [[Jerusalem]]. This decision :"paved the way for an undermining of the Mufti's position among the Arab States. On [[9 February]], only four days after the Damascus meeting, a severe blow was suffered by the Mufti at the Arab League session in [[Cairo]] [where his demands for] the appointment of a Palestinian to the General Staff of the League, the formation of a Palestinian Provisional Government, the transfer of authority to local National Committees in areas evacuated by the British, a loan for administration in Palestine and appropriation of large sums to the Arab Higher Executive for Palestinians entitled to war damages [were all rejected]."<ref>Levenberg, 1993, p. 198.</ref> The Arab League blocked recruitment to the ''mufti's'' forces,<ref>Sayigh, 2000, p. 14.</ref> which collapsed following the death of his most charismatic commander, his cousin, [[Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni]], on [[8 April]]. Following rumors that [[Abdullah I of Jordan|King Abdullah]] was re-opening the bi-lateral negotiations with Israel that he had previously conducted in secret with the [[Jewish Agency]], the Arab League, led by Egypt, decided to set up the [[All-Palestine Government]] in [[Gaza]] on [[8 September]] under the nominal leadership of the ''mufti''. Avi Shlaim writes: :The decision to form the Government of All-Palestine in Gaza, and the feeble attempt to create armed forces under its control, furnished the members of the Arab League with the means of divesting themselves of direct responsibility for the prosecution of the war and of withdrawing their armies from Palestine with some protection against popular outcry. Whatever the long-term future of the Arab government of Palestine, its immediate purpose, as conceived by its Egyptian sponsors, was to provide a focal point of opposition to Abdullah and serve as an instrument for frustrating his ambition to federate the Arab regions with Transjordan.<ref>Shlaim, 2001, p. 97.</ref> Abdullah regarded the attempt to revive the ''mufti's'' Holy War Army as a challenge to his authority and on [[3 October]] his Minister of Defence ordered all armed bodies operating in the areas controlled by the [[Arab Legion]] to be disbanded. [[Glubb Pasha]] carried out the order ruthlessly and efficiently.<ref>Shlaim, 2001, p. 99.</ref> ==Initial line-up of forces== ===Military assessments=== [[Benny Morris|Morris]] has argued that although, by the end of 1947, the Palestinians "had a healthy and demoralising respect for the Yishuv's military power" they believed in decades or centuries "that the Jews, like the medieval crusader kingdoms, would ultimately be overcome by the Arab world".<ref>Morris, 2003, p. 32.</ref> On the eve of the war the number of Arab troops likely to be committed to the war was about 23,000 (10,000 Egyptians, 4,500 Transjordanians, 3,000 Iraqis, 3,000 Syrians, 2,000 ALA volunteers, 1,000 Lebanese and some Saudi Arabians), in addition to the irregular Palestinians already present. The Yishuv had 35,000 troops of the Haganah, 3,000 of Stern and Irgun and a few thousand armed settlers.<ref>D. Kurzman, 'Genesis 1948', 1970, p.282.</ref> On [[12 May]] David Ben-Gurion was told by his chief military advisers, 'who over-estimated the size of the Arab armies and the numbers and efficiency of the troops who would be committed', that Israel's chances of winning a war against the Arab states was only about even.<ref>Morris, 2003, p. 35.</ref> ===Yishuv forces=== In November 1947, the Haganah was an underground paramilitary force that had existed as a highly organised, national force since the riots of 1920–21, and throughout the [[Riots in Palestine of 1929|riots of 1929]], and Great Uprising of 1936–39<ref>Morris, 2003, p. 16.</ref> It had a mobile force, the [[HISH]], which had 2,000 full time fighters (men and women) and 10,000 reservists (all aged between 18 and 25) and an elite unit, the [[Palmach]] composed of 2,100 fighters and 1,000 reservists. The reservists trained 3–4 days a month and went back to civilian life the rest of the time. These mobile forces could rely on a garrison force, the HIM (''Heil Mishmar'', ''lit.'' Guard Corps), composed of people aged over 25. The Yishuv's total strength was around 35,000 with 15,000 to 18,000 fighters and a garrison force of roughly 20,000.<ref>Gelber, p. 73; Morris, 2003, p. 16; Karsh, p. 25.</ref> The two clandestine groups [[Irgun]] and [[Lehi (group)|Lehi]] had 2,000–4,000 and 500–800 members, respectively. There were also several thousand men and women who had served in the British Army in World War II who did not serve in any of the underground militias but would provide valuable military experience during the war.<ref>Karsh, p. 25.</ref> Walid Khalidi says the Yishuv had the additional forces of the Jewish Settlement Police, numbering some 12,000, the Gadna Youth Battalions, and the armed settlers.<ref name="Palestine1">W. Khalidi, 'Plan Dalet: Master Plan for the Conquest of Palestine', J. Palestine Studies 18(1), p. 4-33, 1988 (reprint of a 1961 article)</ref> Few of the units had been trained by December 1947.<ref>Morris, p.16.</ref> In 1946 Ben-Gurion decided that the Yishuv would probably have to defend itself against both the Palestinian Arabs and neighbouring Arab states and accordingly began a "massive, covert arms acquisition campaign in the West". By September 1947 the Haganah had "10,489 rifles, 702 light machine-guns, 2,666 submachine guns, 186 medium machine-guns, 672 two-inch mortars and 92 three-inch (76 mm) mortars" and acquired many more during the first few months of hostilities. The Yishuv also had "a relatively advanced arms producing capacity", that between October 1947 and July 1948 "produced 3 million 9 mm bullets, 150,000 [[Mills bomb|mills grenades]], 16,000 submachine guns ([[Sten]] Guns) and 210 three-inch (76 mm) mortars".<ref>Morris, 2003, p.16.</ref> Initially, the Haganah had no heavy machine guns, artillery, armoured vehicles, anti-tank or anti-aircraft weapons,<ref>Karsh, p.25.</ref> nor military aircraft or tanks.<ref>Morris, 'Birth ... revisited', p.16.</ref> Sources disagree about the amount of arms at the Yishuv's disposal at the end of the Mandate. According to Karsh before the arrival of arms shipments from [[Czechoslovakia]] as part of [[Operation Balak]], there was roughly one weapon for every three fighters and even the Palmach armed only two out of every three of its active members.<ref>is this also according to 'Karsh, p.25.'?</ref> According to Collins and LaPierre, by April 1948 the Haganah had managed to accumulate only about 20,000 rifles and Sten guns for the 35,000 soldiers who existed on paper.<ref>Collins and LaPierre, 1973 p.355</ref> According to Walid Khalidi "the arms at the disposal of these forces were plentiful".<ref name="Palestine1"/> ===Arab forces=== There was no national military organisation in the Arab Palestinian community. There were two paramilitary youth organizations, the pro-[[Amin al-Husayni|Husayni]] ''[[Futuwa]]'' and the anti-Husayni ''[[Najjada]]'' ("auxiliary corps"). According to Karsh, these groups had 11,000–12,000 members,<ref>Karsh, 2002, p. 26.</ref> but according to Morris, the Najjada, which was based in Jaffa and had 2,000–3,000 members, was destroyed in the run-up to the 1948 war, during Husayni's attempt to seize control of it, and the Futuwa never numbered more than a few hundred.<ref>Morris, 2003, p. 29.</ref> At the outbreak of the war, new local militia groups, the National Guard, mushroomed in towns and cities. Each was answerable to its local Arab National Committee.<ref>Levenberg, 1993, p. 181.</ref> In December, Abd al-Qadir Husseini arrived in Jerusalem with one hundred combatants who had trained in Syria and that would form the cadre of the Holy War Army. His forces were joined by a few hundred young villagers and veterans of the British army.<ref>Gelber, pp. 36-37.</ref> The equipment of the Palestinian forces was very poor. The British confiscated most of their arsenal during the 1936–39 rebellion and World War II<ref>Gelber, p. 13.</ref> A report of 1942 by the Haganah intelligence service assessed the number of firearms at the disposal of the Palestinian at 50,000 [but] this was probably an overestimate<ref name = "Karsh27">Karsh, p. 27.</ref> or even "highly exaggerated".<ref>Gelber, p. 39.</ref> {{main|Arab Liberation Army}} The Arab Liberation Army (''Jaysh al-Inqadh al-Arabi'') had been set up by the Arab League. It was an army of around 6,000 volunteers, largely from Arab countries, and was led by [[Fawzi al-Qawuqji]]. Its officially allotted area was Northern Palestine, including [[Samaria]]. Transjordan's [[Arab Legion]] was considered the most effective Arab force. Armed, trained and commanded by British officers, this 8,000–12,000 strong force was organised in four infantry/mechanised regiments supported by some 40 artillery pieces and 75 armoured cars. Until January 1948, it was reinforced by the 3,000-strong [[Transjordan Frontier Force]].<ref name = "Karsh27"/> The Arab Legion joined the war in May 1948. It fought only in the areas that king Abdullah wanted to secure for Transjordan: the West Bank and East Jerusalem. In 1948 Iraq had an army of 21,000 men in 12 brigades and the [[Iraqi Air Force]] had 100, mostly British, planes. Initially the Iraqis committed 3,000<ref>D. Kurzman, 'Genesis 1948', 1972, p. 382.</ref> to 5,000{{Fact|date=August 2007}} men to the war effort including four infantry brigades, one armoured battalion and support personnel. These forces were to operate under Jordanian guidance<ref>I. Pappe, 'The ethnic cleansing of Palestine', 2006, p. 129.</ref> During the first truce the Iraqis increased their force to about 10,000.<ref>D. Kurzman, 'Genesis 1948', 1972, p. 556.</ref> Ultimately, the Iraqi expeditionary force numbered around 15,000 to 18,000 men.<ref>Pollack, 2002, p. 150.</ref> The first Iraqi forces to be deployed reached Transjordan in April, 1948 under the command of Gen. [[Nur ad-Din Mahmud]]. On [[15 May]] Iraqi engineers built a [[pontoon bridge]] across the Jordan River and attacked the Israeli settlement of [[Gesher]] with little success. Following this defeat Iraqi forces moved into the [[Nablus]]-[[Jenin]]-[[Tulkarm]] strategic triangle, where they suffered heavy casualties in the Israeli attack on Jenin which began on [[3 June]], but managed to hold on to their positions. Active Iraqi involvement in the war effectively ended at this point.<ref>Pollack, 2002, pp. 149–155.</ref> In 1948 Egypt was able to put a maximum of around 40,000 men into the field, 80 percent of its military-age male population being unfit for military service and its embryonic logistics system being limited in its ability to support ground forces deployed beyond its borders. Initially, an expeditionary force of 10,000 men was sent to Palestine under the command of Maj. Gen. [[Ahmed Ali al-Mwawi]]. This force consisted of five infantry battalions, one armoured battalion equipped with British [[Mark I (tank)#Mark IV|Mark IV]] and [[Matilda tank|Matilda]] tanks, one battalion of sixteen [[QF 25 pounder|25-pounder guns]], a battalion of eight [[Ordinance QF 6 pounder|6-pounder guns]] and one medium-machine-gun battalion with supporting troops. The [[Egyptian Air Force#Israel.2FPalestine|Egyptian Air Force]] had over 30 [[Supermarine Spitfire|Spitfires]], 4 [[Hawker Hurricane]]s and 20 [[C-47 Skytrain|C47]]s modified into crude bombers. By the time of the second truce the Egyptians had 20,000 men in the field in thirteen battalions equipped with 135 tanks, (...) and 90 [[artillery]] pieces.<ref>Pollack, 2002, 15–27.</ref> Syria had 12,000 soldiers at the beginning of the 1948 War grouped into three infantry brigades and an armoured force of approximately battalion size. The [[Syrian Air Force]] had fifty planes, the 10 newest of which were World War II-generation models. On [[14 May]] Syria invaded Palestine with the 1st Infantry Brigade supported by a battalion of armoured cars, a company of French [[Renault R35|R 35]] and R 37 tanks, an artillery battalion and other units. On 15–16 May they attacked the Israeli village [[Tsemach]], which they captured, following a renewed offensive, on [[18 May]]. The village was abandoned following Syrian forces' defeat at the [[Degania]]s a few days later. Subsequently, the Syrians scored a victory at [[Mishmar HaYarden]] on [[10 June]] after which they reverted to a defensive posture, conducting only a few minor attacks on small, exposed Israeli settlements.<ref>Pollack, 2002, pp. 448–457.</ref> The Lebanese army was the smallest of the Arab armies, consisting of only 3,500 soldiers.<ref name = "Karsh27" /> According to Gelber in June 1947 Ben-Gurion "arrived at an agreement with the Maronite religious leadership in Lebanon that cost a few thousand pounds and kept Lebanon's army out of the War of Independence and the military Arab coalition."<ref>Yoav Gelber, 2006, "Sharon's Inheritance" [http://www.aisisraelstudies.org/2006papers/Gelber%20Yoav%202006.pdf]</ref> According to Rogan and Shlaim a token force of 1,000 was committed to the invasion. It crossed into the northern Galilee and was repulsed by Israeli forces who occupied South Lebanon until an armistice agreement was signed on [[23 March]] [[1949]].<ref>Rogan & Shlaim, 2001, p. 8.</ref> Saudi Arabia sent a contingent of 800<ref>Gelber, p.55</ref>–1,200<ref>Uthman Hasan Salih, ''DAWR AL-MAMLAKA AL-`ARABIYYA AL-SA`UDIYYA FI HARB FILASIN 1367H/1948'' (The role of Saudi Arabia in the Palestine war of 1948), Revue d'Histoire Maghrébine [Tunisia] 1986 13(43–44): 201-221. ISSN: 0330-8987.</ref> men to fight with Egyptian and Jordanian forces <ref>[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/invade48.html a map on jewishvirtuallibrary.org]</ref>. Yemen also committed a small expeditionary force to the war effort. ==Intervention by Arab League countries== Five of the seven countries of the [[Arab League]] at that time, namely [[Egypt]], [[Iraq]], [[Transjordan]], [[Lebanon]] and [[Syria]], backed with [[Saudi Arabia]]n and [[Yemenite]] contingents invaded<ref>[[Yoav Gelber]], ''Palestine 1948'', 2006 - Chap.8 is titled: "The Arab Regular Armies' Invasion of Palestine".</ref> the territory of the former [[British Mandate of Palestine]] on the night of 14&ndash;15 May 1948. The official motives for their intervention were set out in a [[statement]]<ref>[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/arab_invasion.html Arab League Declaration on the Invasion of Palestine<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> of [[15 May]] [[1948]] : :''the only solution of the [[Palestine]] problem is the establishment of a unitary Palestinian State, in accordance with democratic principles, whereby its inhabitants will enjoy complete equality before the law, [and whereby] minorities will be assured of all the guarantees recognised in democratic constitutional countries, ...''. The main objection the Arab League had to the division of Palestine in [[UN Resolution 181]] was that it did not respect the rights of its Arab inhabitants :''in accordance with the provisions of the [[Covenant of the League of Nations]] and the [[Charter of the United Nations]]''. :''(...)'' :''Security and order in Palestine have become disrupted. The Zionist aggression resulted in the exodus of more than a quarter of a million of its Arab inhabitants from their homes and in their taking refuge in the neighbouring Arab countries''. Nevertheless, some speeches were more aggressive. [[Abdul Rahman Hassan Azzam|Azzam Pasha]], the Arab League Secretary, declared on Cairo radio: 'This will be a war of extermination and a momentous massacre which will be spoken of like the Mongolian massacres and the Crusades.'<ref> Benny Morris, ''Righteous Victims'', p. 219; Sachar, 1979, p. 333</ref> According to [[Yoav Gelber]], the Arab countries were "drawn into the war by the collapse of the Palestinians and the [[Arab Liberation Army]] [and] the Arab governments' primary goal was preventing the Palestinians' total ruin and the flooding of their own countries by more refugees. According to their own perception, had the invasion not taken place, there was no Arab force in Palestine capable of checking the Haganah's offensive".<ref name="Gelber1">Yoav Gelber, 2006, p.137.</ref> "[Yishuv] perceived the peril of an Arab invasion as threatening its very existence. Having no real knowledge of the Arabs's true military capabilities, the Jews took Arab propaganda literally, preparing for the worst and reacting accordingly.<ref name="Gelber1"/> ===British forces in Palestine=== There were 100,000 British troops deployed in Palestine "in two ground forces divisions, two independent infantry brigades, two mechanised regiments, some artillery units and a number of [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] squadrons" (Karsh, p. 28). The peak deployment was in July 1947 when 70,200 British troops were stationed in Palestine, serviced by 1,277 civilian drivers and 28,155 civilian employees.<ref>Levenberg, 1993, p. 94.</ref> ==1948 Arab-Israeli War== ===First phase: 14 May 1948–11 June 1948=== The British mandate over Palestine was due to expire on [[15 May]], but Jewish Leadership led by future [[Prime Minister]], [[David Ben-Gurion]], declared independence on [[14 May]]. The [[State of Israel]] [[Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel|declared itself as an independent nation]], and was quickly recognized by the Soviet Union, the United States, and many other countries. [[Image:1948 arab israeli war - May15-June10.jpg|right|300px|]] Over the next few days, approximately 1,000 Lebanese, 5,000 Syrian, 5,000 Iraqi, and 10,000 Egyptian troops invaded the newly-established state. Four thousand Transjordanian troops invaded the [[Corpus separatum]] region encompassing Jerusalem and its environs, as well as areas designated as part of the Arab state by the UN partition plan. They were aided by corps of volunteers from Saudi Arabia, [[Libya]] and Yemen. In an official [[:s:Cablegram from the Secretary-General of the League of Arab States to the Secretary-General of the United Nations|cablegram from the Secretary-General of the League of Arab States]] to the UN Secretary-General on [[15 May]] [[1948]], the Arab states publicly proclaimed their aim of creating a "United State of Palestine" in place of the Jewish and Arab, two-state, UN Plan. They claimed the latter was invalid, as it was opposed by Palestine's Arab majority, and maintained that the absence of legal authority made it necessary to intervene to protect Arab lives and property.<ref>[http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/d442111e70e417e3802564740045a309?OpenDocument 'The Origins and Evolution of the Palestine Problem: 1917–1988. Part II, 1947–1977].</ref> Israel, the United States and the Soviets called the Arab states' entry into Palestine illegal aggression, while UN secretary general [[Trygve Lie]] characterized it as "the first armed aggression which the world had seen since the end of the [Second World] War." China, meanwhile, broadly backed the Arab claims. Both sides increased their manpower over the following months, but the Israeli advantage grew steadily as a result of the progressive mobilization of Israeli society and the influx of an average of 10,300 immigrants each month. {| class="wikitable" style="float" align="left" |+ '''Israeli Forces 1948'''<ref>[[Ahron Bregman|Bregman]], 2002, p. 24 citing Ben Gurion's diary of the war</ref> |- | Initial strength | 29,677 |- | [[4 June]] | 40,825 |- | [[17 July]] | 63,586 |- | [[7 October]] | 88,033 |- | [[28 October]] | 92,275 |- | [[2 December]] | 106,900 |- | [[23 December]] | 107,652 |- | [[30 December]] | 108,300 |} On [[26 May]] [[1948]], the [[Israel Defense Forces]] (IDF) was officially established and the Haganah, Palmach and Irgun were dissolved into the army of the new Jewish state. [[Image:1948-Jordanian artillery shelling Jerusalem.jpg|right|thumb|Jordanian parachute flares illuminate Jerusalem in 1948.]] As the war progressed, the IDF managed to field more troops than the Arab forces. By July 1948, the IDF was fielding 63,000 troops; by early spring 1949, 115,000. The Arab armies had an estimated 40,000 troops in July 1948, rising to 55,000 in October 1948, and slightly more by the spring of 1949. All Jewish aviation assets were placed under the control of the ''[[Sherut Avir]]'' (Air Service, known as the SA) in November 1947 and flying operations began in the following month from a small civil airport on the outskirts of Tel Aviv called [[Sde Dov Airport|Sde Dov]], with the first ground support operation (in an R.W.D. 13<ref>[http://www.luftfahrtmuseum.com/htmi/itf/rwd13.htm The Virtual Aviation Museum - RWD 13<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>) taking place on [[17 December]]. The Galilee Squadron was formed at [[Yavne'el]] in March 1948 and the Negev Squadron was formed at [[Nir-Am]] in April. By [[10 May]], when the SA suffered its first combat loss, there were three flying units, an air staff, maintenance facilities and logistics support. At the outbreak of the war on [[15 May]] the SA became the [[Israeli Air Force]], but, during the first few weeks of the war, with its fleet<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aeroflight.co.uk/waf/israel/iaftypes.htm |title= |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070222090625/http://www.aeroflight.co.uk/waf/israel/iaftypes.htm |archivedate=2007-02-22}}</ref> of light planes it was no match for Arab forces flying [[T-6 Texan|T-6s]], Spitfires, C-47s and [[Avro Anson]]s and indeed the main Arab losses were the result of RAF action in response to Egyptian raids on the British air base at Ramat David<ref>[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/israel/ramat_david.htm Ramat David - Israel Airfields<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> near Haifa on [[22 May]] during which 5 Egyptian Spitfires were shot down. It was also during this time that the balance of air power began to swing in favor of the Israeli Air Force following the purchase of 25 [[Avia S-199]]s from Czechoslovakia, the first of which arrived in Israel on [[20 May]]. This created the ironic situation of the young Jewish state using derivatives of the [[Bf-109]] designed in [[Nazi Germany]] to help counter the British-designed Spitfires flown by Egypt. The first raid on an Arab capital followed on the night of [[31 May]]/[[1 June]] when three Israeli planes bombed Amman.<ref>Aloni, 2001, pp. 7–11.</ref> By the fall of 1948, The IDF achieved [[air superiority]] and had superiority in firepower and knowledgeable personnel, many of whom had seen action in World War II.<ref>Morris, 2001, pp. 217–18.</ref> The first mission of the IDF was to hold on against the Arab armies and stop them from destroying major Jewish settlements, until reinforcements and weapons arrived. [[Image:John Glubb Pasha.jpg|right|frame|General [[Glubb Pasha|John Glubb]] commanded the Arab Legion (1939–1956)]] The heaviest fighting would occur in Jerusalem and on the Jerusalem-Tel Aviv road, between Transjordan's Arab Legion and the Israeli forces. Abdullah ordered Glubb Pasha, the commander of the Transjordanian Arab Legion, to enter Jerusalem on [[17 May]], and heavy house-to-house fighting occurred between [[19 May]] and [[28 May]], with the Arab Legion succeeding in expelling Israeli forces from the Arab quarters of Jerusalem as well as the [[Jewish Quarter]] of the Old City. All the Jewish inhabitants of the Old City were expelled by the Jordanians. Iraqi troops failed in attacks on Jewish settlements (the most notable battle was on [[Mishmar HaEmek]]), and instead took defensive positions around Jenin, Nablus, and [[Tulkarm]]. On [[May 24]], [[1948]] IDF forces at [[Latrun]]-consisting of the [[7th Armoured Brigade (Israel)]] and the [[Alexandroni Brigade]]-attacked the [[Arab Legion]] forces in Operation "Bin-Nun A" and on [[June 1]], [[1948]] the same IDF forces again attacked Latrun Arab Legion forces in Operation "Bin-Nun B". Both attacks failed and both Brigades suffered heavy casualties of a total of 139 killed. In the north, the Syrian army was blocked in the kibbutz [[Degania]], where the settlers managed to stop the Syrian armored forces with only light weapons. One tank that was disabled by a [[Molotov cocktail]] is still present at the kibbutz. Later, an artillery bombardment, made by cannons jury-rigged from 19th century museum pieces, led to the withdrawal of the Syrians from the kibbutz. During the following months, the Syrian army was repelled, and so were the Palestinian irregulars and the ALA. In the south, an Egyptian attack was able to penetrate the defenses of several Israeli kibbutzim, but with heavy cost. This attack was stopped near [[Ashdod]]. The Israeli military managed not only to maintain their military control of the Jewish territories, but to expand their holdings. ===First truce (11 June 1948–8 July 1948)=== [[Image:Folke-Bernadotte.jpg|thumb|200px|Official [[UN]] mediator, Count [[Folke Bernadotte]], assassinated in 1948]] The UN declared a truce on [[29 May]] which came into effect on [[11 June]] and would last 28 days. The cease-fire was overseen by the UN mediator [[Folke Bernadotte]]. An arms embargo was declared with the intention that neither side would make any gains from the truce. At the end of the truce, Folke Bernadotte presented a new partition plan that would give the [[Galilee]] to the Jews and the [[Negev]] to the Arabs. Both sides rejected the plan. On [[8 July]], before the expiration of the truce, Egyptian [[Muhammad Naguib|General Naguib]] renewed the war by attacking the [[Negba]] position.<ref name = Knopf330>Alfred A. Knopf. ''A History of Israel from the Rise of Zionism to Our Time''. New York. 1976. p. 330. ISBN 0-394-48564-5.</ref> ===Second phase (8 July 1948–18 July 1948)=== The ten days at the height of the summer between the two truces were dominated by large scale Israeli offensives and a defensive posture from the Arab side. [[Operation Dani]] was the most important Israeli offensive, aimed at securing and enlarging the corridor between Jerusalem and Tel Aviv by capturing the roadside cities [[Lydda]] (later renamed Lod) and [[Ramle]]. Following their capture, the residents of Lydda and Ramle, some 50,000 Palestinians, were forced to [[Lydda and Ramle|leave the city]] by the Israelis, in the largest single exodus of the war. In a second planned stage of the operation the fortified positions of [[Latrun]], overlooking the Tel Aviv-Jerusalem highway, and the city of [[Ramallah]], were also to be captured but this part of the operation failed. The second plan was [[Operation Dekel]] whose aim was to capture the lower Galilee including [[Nazareth]]. The third plan, to which fewer resources were allocated, [[Operation Kedem]] was to secure the Old City of Jerusalem.<ref>[http://www.allthatremains.com/Maps/IsraeliMiliteryDuringTheTruce07-08-48-To-07-18-48.jpg Map of the Attacks].</ref> ====Operation Dani==== Lydda ([[Lod]]) was mainly defended by the Transjordanian Army, but also local Palestinian militias and the Arab Liberation Army were present. The city was attacked from the north via [[Majdal al-Sadiq]] and [[al-Muzayri'a]] and from the east via [[Khulda]], [[al-Qubab]], [[Jimzu]] and [[Danyal]]. Bombers were also used for the first time in the conflict to bombard the city. On [[11 July]] [[1948]] the IDF captured the city. The next day, [[12 July]] [[1948]] Ramle also fell to the hands of Israel. [[15 July]]–[[16 July]] an attack on Latrun took place but did not manage to occupy the fort. A desperate second attempt occurred ([[18 July]]) by units from the [[Yiftach Brigade]] equipped with armored vehicles, including two [[Cromwell tank]]s, but that attack also failed. Despite the second truce, which began on [[18 July]], the Israeli efforts to conquer Latrun continued until [[20 July]]. ====Operation Dekel==== While [[Operation Dani]] proceeded in the centre, Operation Dekel was carried out in the north. Nazareth was captured on [[16 July]] and when the second truce took effect at 19:00 [[18 July]], the whole lower Galilee from Haifa bay to the [[Sea of Galilee]] was captured by Israel. ====Operation Kedem==== Originally the operation was to be executed on [[8 July]], immediately after the first truce, by Irgun and Lehi. However, it was delayed by [[David Shaltiel]], possibly because he did not trust their ability after their failure to capture [[Deir Yassin]] without Haganah assistance. The Irgun forces that were commanded by [[Yehuda Lapidot]] (Nimrod) were to break through at [[The New Gate]], Lehi was to break through the wall stretching from the New Gate to the [[Jaffa Gate]] and the [[Beit Hiron Battalion]] was to strike from [[Mount Zion]]. The battle was planned to begin on the [[Shabbat|Sabbath]], at 20:00 Friday [[16 July]] a day before the [[Second Cease-fire of the Arab-Israeli war]]. The plan went wrong from the beginning and was postponed first to 23:00 and then to midnight. It was not until 02:30 that the battle actually began. The Irgunists managed to break through at the New Gate but the other forces failed in their missions. At 05:45 in the morning Shaltiel ordered a retreat and to cease the hostilities. ===Second truce: 18 July 1948–15 October 1948=== 19:00 [[18 July]], the second truce of the conflict went into effect after intense diplomatic efforts by the UN. On [[16 September]], [[Folke Bernadotte]] proposed a new partition for [[Palestine]] in which Transjordan would annex Arab areas including the Negev, al-Ramla, and Lydda. There would be a Jewish state in the whole of Galilee, internationalization of Jerusalem, and return or compensation for refugees. The plan was once again rejected by both sides. On the next day, [[17 September]], Bernadotte was assassinated by the Lehi and his deputy, American [[Ralph Bunche]], replaced him. ===Third phase (15 October 1948–20 July 1949)=== ====Israeli operations==== Between [[15 October]] and [[20 July]] Israel launched a series of military operations in order to drive out the Arab armies and secure the borders of Israel. [[Image:1948 arab israeli war - Oct.jpg|right|thumb|October battles]] On [[24 October]], the IDF launched [[Operation Hiram]] and captured the entire Upper Galilee, driving the ALA and Lebanese army back to Lebanon. It was a complete success and at the end of the month, Israel had not only managed to capture the whole Galilee but had also advanced {{convert|5|mi|km}} into Lebanon to the Litani River. On [[15 October]] the IDF launched [[Operation Yoav]] in the northern Negev. Its goal was to drive a wedge between the Egyptian forces along the coast and the [[Beersheba]]-[[Hebron]]-Jerusalem road and ultimately to conquer the whole Negev. Operation Yoav was headed by the Southern Front commander [[Yigal Allon]]. The operation was a huge success as it shattered the Egyptian army ranks and forced the Egyptian forces to retreat from the northern Negev, Beersheba and [[Ashdod]]. On [[22 October]] the [[Israeli Navy]] [[commando]]es sunk the Egyptian flagship ''[[Amir Faruk]]''. On [[22 December]] the IDF drove the remaining Egyptian forces out of Israel, by launching [[Operation Horev]] (also called Operation Ayin). The goal of the operation was to secure the entire Negev from Egyptian presence, destroying the Egyptian threat on Israel's southern communities and forcing the Egyptians into a cease-fire. The operation was a decisive Israeli victory, and Israeli raids into the [[Nitzana]] and the [[Sinai peninsula]] forced the Egyptian army, which was encircled in the [[Gaza Strip]], to withdraw and accept cease-fire. On [[7 January]] a truce was achieved. Israeli forces withdrew from Sinai and Gaza under international pressure. On [[5 March]] [[Operation Uvda]] was launched. On [[10 March]] the Israelis reached [[Umm Rashrash]] (where [[Eilat]] was built later) and conquered it without a battle. The [[Negev Brigade]] and [[Golani Brigade]] took part in the operation. They raised an ink-made flag ("[[The Ink Flag]]") and claimed [[Umm Rashrash]] for Israel. ====UN Resolution 194<!-- 194 is correct. Do not change to 1948 (or any other number). -->==== In December 1948, the [[UN General Assembly]] passed [[Resolution 194]] which declared (amongst other things) that in the context of a general peace agreement "refugees wishing to return to their homes and live in peace with their neighbors should be permitted to do so" and that "compensation should be paid for the property of those choosing not to return." The resolution also mandated the creation of the [[United Nations Conciliation Commission]]. However, parts of the resolution were never implemented, resulting in the [[Palestinian refugee]] crisis. ====British aeroplanes==== Just before noon on [[7 January]] [[1949]], four Spitfire FR. 18s from [[No. 208 Squadron RAF]] on routine reconnaissance in the [[Deir al-Balah]] area inadvertently flew over an Israeli convoy that had just been attacked by the Royal Egyptian Air Force. IDF soldiers in the convoy shot down one of the British planes. The remaining three planes were then shot down by patrolling Israeli Air Force Spitfires flown by [[Slick Goodlin]] and John McElroy, volunteers from the United States and [[Canada]] respectively. Later that day four RAF Spitfires from the same squadron escorted by seven [[No. 213 Squadron]] [[Hawker Tempest|Tempests]] and another eight Tempests from [[No. 6 Squadron]], searching for the lost planes from No. 208 Squadron were attacked by four Israeli Air Force Spitfires and one of the Tempests was shot down, killing its pilot [[David Tattersfield]].<ref>Aloni, 2001, p. 22.</ref> Another Tempest was damaged by an IAF plane flown by [[Ezer Weizman]]. There was only one other clash between the IAF and the RAF during the war when a [[No. 13 Squadron]] [[De Havilland Mosquito|Mosquito]] PR. 34 on a photo-reconnaissance mission over Israel was shot down on [[20 November]] [[1948]] by an Israeli [[P-51]] flown by [[Waine Peake]].<ref>Aloni, 2001, p. 18.</ref> ===Weapons=== Largely leftover World War II-era weapons were used by both sides. Egypt had some British equipment, the Syrian army had some French. German and British equipment was used by Israel.<ref> http://www.balagan.org.uk/war/ai/weapons.htm Weapons of the Arab-Israeli Wars</ref> {| class="wikitable" ! Type ! Arab armies ! IDF |- ! Tanks | [[Matilda tank]], [[Mark IV tank]], [[R-39]], [[FT-17]], [[Renault R35|R35]], [[Panzer IV]](dug in and used stationarily by Egypt) || [[Cromwell tank|Cromwell]] tanks,[[Hotchkiss H35| H39]], [[Valentine tank|Valentines]]. |- ! [[armored personnel carrier|APCs]]/[[infantry fighting vehicle|IFVs]] | British WW2 Era Trucks, [[Humber Armoured Car| Humber Mk III & IV]], Automitrailleuses Dodge of the Bich type, Improvised Armoured Car/Truck, [[Marmon-Herrington Armoured Car]], [[Universal Carrier]], [[Carden Loyd tankette| Lloyd Towing Carriers]] || British WW2 Era Trucks, Improvised Armoured Car/Truck, [[White M3A1 Scout Car]], [[Daimler Armoured Car]], [[IHC M14 half-track]], [[M5 half-track]], [[M3 Half-track]] |- ! Artillery | [[Mortar (weapon)|Mortars]], [[Panzer_II#15_cm_sIG_33_auf_Fahrgestell_Panzerkampfwagen_II | 15 cm sIG33 auf Pz II]], [[Universal Carrier| 25&nbsp;mm anti-tank guns on Bren carriers]], [[Improvised self-propelled guns used by Syrians in 1948-49]], 65&nbsp;mm mountain gun on Chenillette Lorraine 38L 2-pounder anti-tank gun, 6-pounder anti-tank gun, || Mortars, converted 19th century museum pieces, 2 inch British mortars 65&nbsp;mm French Howitzers "Napoleonchiks", [[120 mm French mortars]], [[Davidka| Davidka artillery pieces]] |- ! Aircraft | [[Supermarine Spitfire| Spitfires]], [[T-6 Texan]], [[C-47 Dakotas]], [[Hawker Hurricane]] and [[Avro Anson]]s || [[Supermarine Spitfire| Spitfires]], [[Avia S-199]], [[B-17 Flying Fortress]]es |- ! Small Arms | [[Lee Enfield rifle]]s || [[sten| Sten guns]], [[Mills bomb| mills Grenades]], [[Karabiner 98k]] (Czech copies) |} ==Aftermath== ===1949 Armistice Agreements=== {{main|1949 Armistice Agreements}} In 1949, Israel signed [[1949 Armistice Agreements|separate armistices]] with Egypt on [[24 February]], Lebanon on [[23 March]], Transjordan on [[3 April]], and Syria on [[20 July]]. The new borders of [[Israel]], as set by the agreements, encompassed about 78% of [[British mandate of Palestine|mandatory Palestine]] as it stood after the independence of [[Jordan]] in 1946. Considering the original British mandate (including Jordan, which was included within the Mandate in the summer of 1921, but excluded from the provisions for a [[Jewish National Home]]), however, Israel was created only on 18% of the total area of Palestine and Transjordan. This was about 50 percent more than the UN partition proposal allotted it. These cease-fire lines were known afterwards as the "[[Green Line (Israel)|Green Line]]". The Gaza Strip and the [[West Bank]] were occupied by Egypt and Transjordan respectively. The [[United Nations Truce Supervision Organization]] and [[Mixed Armistice Commissions]] were set up to monitor ceasefires, supervise the armistice agreements; to prevent isolated incidents from escalating and assist other UN peacekeeping operations in the region. ===Casualties=== Israel lost about 1% of its population in the war: 6,373 of its people. About 4,000 were soldiers and the rest were civilians. The exact number of Arab losses is unknown but are estimated at between 10,000 and 15,000 people.<ref>[http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat4.htm Mid-Range Wars and Atrocities of the Twentieth Century].</ref> See also the [[List of massacres committed during the 1948 Arab-Israeli war]]. === Demographic Outcome === {{main|1948 Palestinian exodus|Causes of the 1948 Palestinian exodus}} During the [[1947-1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine]] and the 1948 Arab-Israeli War that followed around 750,000 Palestinians fled or were expelled from their homes. In 1951 the UN Conciliation Commission for Palestine estimated that the number of Palestinian refugees displaced out of Israel was 711,000.<ref>[http://domino.un.org/unispal.nsf/9a798adbf322aff38525617b006d88d7/93037e3b939746de8525610200567883!OpenDocument General Progress Report and Supplementary Report of the United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine, Covering the Period from 11 December 1949 to 23 October 1950], published by the [[United Nations Concilation Commission]], [[October 23]], [[1950]]. (U.N. General Assembly Official Records, 5th Session, Supplement No. 18, Document A/1367/Rev. 1)</ref> This number did not include displaced Palestinians inside Israeli-held territory. The [[List of villages depopulated during the Arab-Israeli conflict]] includes more than 400 Arab villages depopulated during the war. It also includes about ten Jewish villages and neighborhoods. The [[Causes of the 1948 Palestinian exodus]] are a controversed topic among historians who debate on the degree of responsibility of Arab leaders and if the events were planned by Yishuv leaders or were a "result of the war".<ref>See eg, Eugene Rogan and Avi Shlaim, ''The War for Palestine: Rewriting the History of 1948''</ref><ref>The different analysis and theories concerning the events are described in the [[causes of the 1948 Palestinian exodus]].</ref> The Palestinian refugee problem and the debate around the [[Palestinian right of return|right of their return]] are also a major issue of the [[Arab-Israeli conflict]]. Arab Palestinians have staged annual demonstrations and protests on [[May 15]] of each year. The popularity and number of participants in these annual ''al Nakba'' demonstrations has varied over time, though the increasing anti-Israeli sentiment in the [[Middle East]] has tended to increase the attendance in recent years. During the [[al-Aqsa Intifada]] after the failure of the [[Camp David 2000 Summit]], the attendance at the demonstrations against Israel increased. {{main|Jewish exodus from Arab lands}} During the 1948 War, around 10,000 Jews were forced to leave their homes in Palestine<ref name = "Mideast Web: Jewish Refugees of the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict">{{cite web | title = Jewish Refugees of the Israeli Palestinian Conflict | url = http://www.mideastweb.org/refugees4.htm | publisher = Mideast Web | accessdate = 2008-07-13}}</ref> but in the three years following the war, 700,000 Jews settled in Israel, mainly along the borders and in former Arab lands.<ref>Benny Morris, ''Righteous Victims'', chap.VI.</ref> Around 136,000 came from the 250,000 displaced Jews of the [[Second World War]].<ref>[http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10005462 Displaced Persons] retrieved on 29 October 2007 from the US Holocaust Museum.</ref> Most others were part of the 758,000 to 900,000 Jews who [[Jewish exodus from Arab lands|left Arab countries]] between 1948 and the [[Six-Day War]] following widespread anti-Jewish attacks.<ref>[[#stearns|Stearns, 2001, p. 966.]]</ref> ==IDF Forces in 1948== *[[Israeli Defense Forces]] formerly [[Haganah]]: **[[Ramatkal]] {IDF General Staff} **Aman later [[Military Intelligence Directorate (Israel)]] **SHAI, the intelligence and counter-espionage arm of the Haganah *[[Combat Engineering Corps (Israel)]] *[[Home Guard]] *IDF [[Artillery Corps (Israel)]] *IDF Infantry/Armored Brigades {formed from both [[Jewish Brigade]] and 1939 [[HISH]] which in turn was formed from the 1937-1939 [[FOSH]]/[[Special Night Squads]] units}: **1st Brigade aka [[Golani Brigade]] {Made from combined [[Levanoni Brigade]] with the [[Carmeli Brigade]] [[1 February]] [[1948]]} **2nd Brigade aka "Carmeli Brigade" aka 18th Brigade aka 188th [[Barak Armored Brigade]] **3rd Brigade aka [[Alexandroni Brigade]] {32nd Battalion in [[Latrun]] Battle} **4th Brigade aka [[Kiryati Brigade]] **5th Brigade aka [[Givati Brigade]]-postwar divided into 17th Brigade {reserve} and "Givati Brigade". **6th Brigade aka [[Etzioni Brigade]] **[[7th Armoured Brigade (Israel)|7th Armoured Brigade]] aka Sheva Brigade {72nd Battalion in [[Latrun]] Battle} **[[8th Armored Brigade (Israel)|8th Armored Brigade]] aka Shmone Brigade **9th Brigade aka [[Oded Brigade]] **10th Armored Brigade aka "Harel Brigade" {[[Palmach]]} **11th Brigade aka [[Yiftach Brigade]] {[[Palmach]]}{Consisted of 3 Palmach Battalions and 54th Reconnaissance Battalion ([[Samson's Foxes]])}. **12th Brigade aka [[Negev Brigade]] {[[Palmach]]}{Consisited of 4 Palmach Battalions} **16th Brigade aka "Jerusalem Brigade" **17th Brigade-see "Givati Brigade" above **18th Brigade-see "Carmeli Brigade" above. *IDF Air Force: **[[69 Squadron IAF]] **[[101 Squadron IAF]] **[[106 Squadron IAF]] *IDF Navy: **Naval Brigade aka [[Shayetet 13]] {formerly Naval Brigade of Haganah} *IDF Navy vessels: **"Eliat"/A-16 {aka "Matzpen" changed from "The Jewish State"} formerly [http://www.uscg.mil/history/webcutters/Northland_1927.html USCGC ICebreaker "Northland"] **"Wedgwood"/K-18 formerly [http://mikan3.archives.ca/pam/public_mikan/index.php?fuseaction=genitem.displayItem&lang=eng&rec_nbr=3201377&rec_nbr_list=3201377&tmplt_nbr=201&item_index=1&total_items=1&size=full& RCN Flower Corvette "Norysd"] **"Haganah"/K-20 formerly [http://www.cbrnp.com/RNP/Flower/PROFILE/Profiles-02.htm RCN Flower Corvette "Beauharnois"] **"Maoz"/K-24 formerly USCC patrol boat "[http://www.navsource.org/archives/12/1331.htm Cytheria" {PY-31}] **"Noga"/K-26 formerly [http://www.navsource.org/archives/12/011265.htm USN PC.1265] *[[Logistics Corps (Israel)]] *[[Mahal (Israel)]] *[[Medical Corps (Israel)]] *[[Military Rabbinate]] *[[Nachal]] *[[Notrim]]: **[[Jewish Supernumerary Police]] **[[Jewish Settlement Police]] *[[Ordnance Corps (Israel)]] *[[T'zanhamin Company]] {IDF Paratrooper unit}-later merged in 1953 with [[Unit 101]]; became 101 Battalion and 869 Battalion. (Unit 101 basis of [[Paratroopers Brigade (IDF)]] founded 1955}. *[[Israeli Women's Corps]] *Non-Haganah/Palmach Units: **[[Circassian]] units **[[Druze]] units **[[Irgun]] {disbanded and absorbed into IDF} **[[Lehi (group)]] {disbanded and absorbed into IDF} ==See also== * [[Israeli-Arab conflict]] - [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]] * [[1948 Palestine War]] - [[1947-1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine]] * [[1948 Palestinian exodus]] - [[Jewish exodus from Arab lands]] * [[List of Israeli military operations in the 1948 Arab-Israeli war]] * [[List of massacres committed during the 1948 Arab-Israeli war]] * [[List of villages depopulated during the Arab-Israeli conflict]] ==Footnotes== {{reflist|2}} ==References== {{Refbegin|2}} * Aloni, Shlomo (2001). ''Arab-Israeli Air Wars 1947-82''. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1841762946 * Beckman, Morris (1999). ''The Jewish Brigade: An Army With Two Masters, 1944-45''. Sarpedon Publishers. ISBN 188511956 * Ben-Ami, Shlomo (2006). ''Scars of War, Wounds of Peace: The Israeli-Arab Tragedy''. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195181581 * Benvenisti, Meron (2002). ''Sacred Landscape''. University of California Press. ISBN 0520234227 * Bickerton, Ian and Hill, Maria (2003). ''Contested Spaces: The Arab-Israeli Conflict''. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0074712179 * Black, Ian (1992). ''Israel's Secret Wars: A History of Israel's Intelligence Services''. Grove Press. ISBN 0802132863 * [[J. Bowyer Bell|Bowyer Bell, John]] (1996). ''Terror Out of Zion: The Fight For Israeli Independence''. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 1560008709 * Bregman, Ahron (2002). ''Israel's Wars: A History Since 1947''. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415287162 * Brown, Judith and Louis, Roger (1999). ''The Oxford History of the British Empire''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198205643 * Creveld, [[Martin van Creveld]] (2004). ''[[Moshe Dayan]]''. Weidenfeld & Nicholson. ISBN 0297846698 * Collins, Larry and Lapierre, Dominique (1973) ''O Jerusalem!', Pan Books. ISBN 0330235141 * El-Nawawy, Mohammed (2002), ''The Israeli-Egyptian Peace Process in the Reporting of Western Journalists'', Ablex/Greenwood, ISBN 1567505449 * Flapan, Simha (1987), 'The Birth of Israel: Myths and Realities', Pantheon Books, New York, * Geddes, Charles L. (1991). ''A Documentary History of the Arab-Israeli Conflict''. Praeger. ISBN 0-275-93858-1 * Gelber, Yoav (1997). ''Jewish-Transjordanian Relations 1921-48: Alliance of Bars Sinister''. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-7146-4675-X * Gelber, Yoav (2006). ''Palestine 1948. WAr, Escape and the Emergnece of the Palestinian Refugee Problem''. Sussex Academic Press. ISBN 1845190750 * Gilbert, Martin (1976). ''The Arab-Israeli Conflict'' Weidenfeld & Nicholson. ISBN 0297772414 * Gilbert, Martin (1998). ''Israel: A History''. Black Swan. ISBN 0552995452 * Gold, [[Dore Gold]] (2007), ''The Fight for Jerusalem: Radical Islam, the West, and the Future of the Holy City'', Regnery Publishing, ISBN 159698029X * Israel Foreign Ministry, Foreign Ministry of the Russian Federation, Israel State Archives, Russian Federal Archives, Cummings Center for Russian Studies Tel Aviv University, Oriental Institute (2000). ''Documents on Israeli Soviet Relations, 1941-53''. London: Routledge. ISBN 0714648434 *Israeli, Raphael and Penkower, Monty Noam (2002). ''Decision on Palestine Deferred: America, Britain and Wartime Diplomacy, 1939-1945''. London: Routledge. ISBN 0714652687 *Kaniuk, Yoram (2001). ''Commander of the Exodus''. Grove Press. ISBN 080213808X *Karsh, Efraim (2002). ''The Arab-Israeli Conflict. The Palestine War 1948''. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1841763721 *Karsh, Inari & Karsh, Efraim (1999). ''Empires of the Sand: The Struggle for Mastery in the Middle East, 1789-1923''. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674005414 *Katz, Sam (1988). ''Israeli Units Since 1948''. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 0850458374 * Khalidi, Rashid (2001). The Palestinians and 1948: the underlying causes of failure. In Eugene Rogan and Avi Shlaim (eds.). ''The War for Palestine'' (pp. 12-36). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521794765 * Khalidi, Walid (1987). ''From Haven to Conquest: Readings in Zionism and the Palestine Problem Until 1948''. Institute for Palestine Studies. ISBN 0887281559 * Kurzman, Dan (1970), ''Genesis 1948 - the first Arab-Israeli war'', New York American Library, New York, Library of Congress CCN: 77-96925 *[[Joshua Landis|Landis, Joshua]]. "Syria and the Palestine War: fighting King 'Abdullah's 'Greater Syria plan.'" Rogan and Shlaim. ''The War for Palestine''. 178-205. * Levenberg, Haim (1993). ''Military Preparations of the Arab Community in Palestine: 1945-1948''. London: Routledge. ISBN 0714634395 * Masalha, Nur (1992). ''Expulsion of the Palestinians: The Concept of "Transfer" in Zionist Political Thought, 1882-1948'', Institute for Palestine Studies, ISBN 0-88728-235-0 * Morris, Benny (1988), ''The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, 1947 – 1949'', Cambridge Middle East Library, * Morris, Benny (1994), ''[[1948 and after; Israel and the Palestinians]]'', * Morris, Benny (2001). ''Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict, 1881-2001''. Vintage. ISBN 0679744754 * Morris, Benny (2004), ''The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited'', Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK, ISBN 0-521-81120-1 *Oring, Elliott (1981). ''Israeli Humor-The Content: The Content and Structure of the Chizbat of the Palmah''. SUNY Press. ISBN 0873955129 * Pappe, Ilan (2006), ''The Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine'', Oneworld Publications Limited, Oxford, England, ISBN 1-85168-467-0 * Pollack, Kenneth (2004).'' Arabs at War: Military Effectiveness, 1948-1991''. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0803287836 *Richelson, Jeffery T. (1997). ''A Century of Spies: Intelligence in the Twentieth Century''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 019511390X *Rogan, Eugene L., ed., and [[Avi Shlaim]], ed. ''The War for Palestine: Rewriting the History of 1948''. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2001. *Rogan, Eugene L. "Jordan and 1948: the persistence of an official history." Rogan and Shlaim. ''The War for Palestine''. 104-124. * Sadeh, Eligar (1997). ''Militarization and State Power in the Arab-Israeli Conflict: Case Study of Israel, 1948-1982''. Universal Publishers. ISBN 0965856461 * Sachar, Howard M. (1979). ''A History of Israel,'' New York: Knopf. ISBN 0679765638 * Sayigh, Yezid (2000). ''Armed Struggle and the Search for State: The Palestinian National Movement, 1949-1993''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198296436 *[[Avraham Sela|Sela, Avraham]]. "Abdallah Ibn Hussein." ''The Continuum Political Encyclopedia of the Middle East''. Ed. Avraham Sela. New York: Continuum, 2002. pp. 13-14. * Shapira, Anita (1992). ''Land and Power: Zionist Resort to Force, 1881-1948''. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195061047 * Shlaim, Avi (2001). Israel and the Arab Coalition. In Eugene Rogan and Avi Shlaim (eds.). ''The War for Palestine'' (pp. 79-103). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521794765 * Sheleg, Yair (2001). [http://www.haaretzdaily.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=101419 A Short History of Terror] ''[[Haaretz]]''. *Sicker, Martin (1999). ''Reshaping Palestine: From Muhammad Ali to the British Mandate, 1831-1922''. Praeger/Greenwood. ISBN 0-275-96639-9 * Stearns, Peter N. [http://www.bartleby.com/67/3770.html Citation] from The Encyclopedia of World History Sixth Edition, Peter N. Stearns (general editor), © 2001 The Houghton Mifflin Company, at Bartleby.com. *[[Charles tripp|Tripp, Charles]]. "Iraq and the 1948 War: mirror of Iraq's disorder." Rogan and Shlaim. ''The War for Palestine''. 125-150. *Zertal, Idith (2005). ''Israel's Holocaust and the Politics of Nationhood''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521850967 {{Refend}} ===The War in Fiction=== *''[[The Hope]]'' by [[Herman Wouk]], a historical novel that includes a fictionalized version of Israel's War of Independence. ==External links== *[http://www.dinur.org/resources/resourceCategoryDisplay.aspx?categoryid=784&rsid=478 Resources > Modern Period > 20th Cent. > History of Israel > State of Israel > The Wars > War of Independence] The Jewish History Resource Center, Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem *[http://www.knesset.gov.il/holidays/eng/independence_day_war.htm About the War of Independence] *[http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/ United Nations: System on the Question of Palestine] *[http://www.zionism-israel.com/dic/War_of_Independence.htm Israel War of Independence (First Arab-Israeli War)] *[http://www.zionism-israel.com/his/Israel_war_independence_1948_timeline.htm Timeline: Israel War of Independence (First Arab-Israeli War)] *[http://www.mideastweb.org/briefhistory.htm History of Palestine, Israel and the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict] *[http://www.zmag.org/shalom-meqa.htm Palestinian viewpoint concerning the context of the 1948 war] *[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/middle_east/israel_and_the_palestinians/key_documents/1681322.stm The BBC on the UN Partition Plan] * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/spl/hi/middle_east/03/v3_ip_timeline/html/1948.stm The BBC on the Formation of Israel] *[http://users.ox.ac.uk/~ssfc0005/Israel%20and%20the%20Arab%20Coalition%20in%2019481.html Israel and the Arab Coalition in 1948] '''Maps''' * [http://www.jafi.org.il/education/100/maps/images/invade.jpg Arab invasion [[May 15]] [[1948]]] * [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/images/maps/1948war2.jpg Operation AYIN [[December 22]] [[1948]] - [[January 7]] [[1949]]] {{Arab-Israeli Conflict}} [[Category:1948 Arab-Israeli War| ]] [[Category:1948 in Israel]] [[Category:1948 in Syria|Arab Israeli War]] {{Link FA|fr}} {{Link FA|he}} [[ar:حرب 1948]] [[bg:Арабско-израелска война (1948)]] [[cs:První arabsko-izraelská válka]] [[da:Israels uafhængighedskrig]] [[de:Arabisch-Israelischer Krieg von 1948]] [[es:Guerra árabe-israelí de 1948]] [[eu:Lehen gerra arabiar-israeldar]] [[fa:جنگ اعراب و اسرائیل در ۱۹۴۸ (میلادی)]] [[fr:Guerre israélo-arabe de 1948-1949]] [[ko:제1차 중동 전쟁]] [[hr:Arapsko-izraelski rat 1948.]] [[id:Perang Arab-Israel 1948]] [[it:Guerra arabo-israeliana del 1948]] [[he:מלחמת העצמאות]] [[ms:Perang Arab-Israel 1948]] [[nl:Arabisch-Israëlische Oorlog van 1948]] [[ja:第一次中東戦争]] [[no:Israels uavhengighetskrig]] [[pl:Pierwsza wojna izraelsko-arabska 1948-1949]] [[pt:Guerra árabe-israelense]] [[ru:Арабо-израильская война 1948—1949 годов]] [[sk:Prvá arabsko-izraelská vojna]] [[sr:Арапско-израелски рат 1948.]] [[fi:Israelin itsenäisyyssota]] [[sv:1948 års arab-israeliska krig]] [[tl:Digmaang Pangkalayaang Israeli]] [[tr:1948 Arap-İsrail Savaşı]] [[vi:Chiến tranh Ả Rập-Israel 1948]] [[yi:מלחמת השחרור]] [[zh:第一次中东战争]]